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Knowledge

Chapter · May 2023

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-29685-7_2

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This is a preprint of the following work: D.N.P. Murthy and N.W. Page, Education and Research
for the Future: Engineering as an illustrative case, 2023, Springer, reproduced with permission
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The final authenticated version is available online at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-29685-7

Chapter 2: Knowledge

“Our knowledge is much broader as a community but much more limited as an individual.
The illusion of knowledge is more dangerous than ignorance.” [Pico Iyer]

2.1 Introduction
This chapter looks at human knowledge in general. Getting to know something is one of the
many processes of the human brain and knowledge is its result. These have been the subjects
of human inquiry for millennia, a process that has been formalised in scholarly studies called
epistemology.
There are many definitions of knowledge, none of which is entirely satisfactory. We take a
more pragmatic approach and focus on various topics relating to knowledge after a brief
discussion of the concept and definitions of knowledge.
The outline of the chapter is as follows. Section 2.2 looks at the concept and definitions. In
Section 2.3 we discuss the classification of knowledge. Section 2.4 deals with the connection
between data, information and knowledge. Knowledge and truth are the focus of Section 2.5.
Knowledge has been growing at an exponential rate and section 2.6 highlights this with some
historical evidence. Sections 2.7 and 2.8 deal with knowledge communication and acquisition
and with knowledge transfer. In both private and public sector organisations knowledge
management is a topic of great interest and this is discussed in Section 2.9. We conclude with
a brief discussion of the knowledge economy in Section 2.10.

2.2 Concepts and Definitions

For ancient Greeks there were two types of knowledge:
1. Doxa: common belief based on subjective observation and opinion.
2. Episteme: scientific or proven knowledge obtained from objective analysis and study.
These differentiations have merged into the one English term with different shades of meaning.
Human knowledge is an abstract and very powerful concept studied by philosophers for over
two thousand years. The classical definition specifies that a statement must meet three criteria
in order to be considered knowledge - it must be justified, true, and believed. In other words -

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knowledge is a justified true belief. There are many theories used to support this and they can
be broadly collected into two groups– rationalism versus empiricism. Rationalism argues that
knowledge is a result of a reasoning process and that our sensory experience plays no role. In
contrast, empiricism postulates that ideas and forms cannot be separated from physical objects
and sensory information.
Common usage takes a broader approach, one in which knowledge is simply what is learned.
This usage is captured in dictionary definitions.
Typical Dictionary Definitions
1. Facts, information, and skills obtained by experience or education; the understanding
of a subject.
2. Philosophy: True, justified belief; certain understanding, as opposed to opinion.
3. Awareness or familiarity of a topic found from experience.
In the context of science and engineering, knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical
understanding of the facts and behaviour pertaining to an object or phenomena. It can be tested
and validated as true, perhaps within certain constraints pending the discovery of new
knowledge. This truth in knowledge importantly distinguishes it from opinion, belief or faith.

2.3 Types and Classification of Knowledge

2.3.1 Types of Knowledge
(a) Conscious versus unconscious knowledge
Biologists differentiate conscious knowledge from unconscious knowledge. Examples of the
latter include – (i) the immune systems of all living animals and (ii) the DNA of the genetic
code. This type of knowledge is not causal but must be usefully available to the system through
the system may not be conscious of it.
(b) Tacit versus explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge is that which is difficult to articulate, in contrast to explicit knowledge which
can be recorded and discussed in a formal way. Examples of tacit knowledge are how to ride a
bicycle, drive a car or play a musical instrument.
(c) Knowing that versus knowing how
“Knowing that” refers to a fact or concept, required for logical and rational analysis whereas
“knowing how” refers to how to do a procedure, more related to skills.
2.3.2 Classification of Knowledge
There are many different ways of classifying knowledge. We discuss two that are important to
later sections of this book.
Classification - 1

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This division is based on three interconnected levels –individual, community and human race.
The knowledge possessed by
· an individual, which is a sub-set of,
· a community, which is a sub-set of
· the human race,
All are different and linked together as shown in Figure 2.1.

Total knowledge
possessed
by the human race

Knowledge possessed
by a community

Knowledge possessed
by an individual

Figure 2.1 Three-level classification of knowledge

All three are dynamic in the sense they are expanding with time.
At an individual (or a community) level familiar knowledge is knowledge that the individual
(or community) knows. The rest of knowledge known to the community (or the human race)
is unfamiliar knowledge. Unfamiliar knowledge becomes familiar knowledge through the
process of learning.
Classification 2
We can group explicit knowledge into four categories as indicated below along with the
academic disciplines involved.1
1. Society

1
Academic disciplines are discussed in Chapter 8.

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Knowledge needed for the smooth functioning of society such as legal, political, health,
education, banking, market and financial systems to name a few.
Academic disciplines involved: Law, Economics, Sociology, Medicine, Education, etc.
2. Culture
Includes language, writing, traditions, religion, food, drama, music, art, etc.
Academic disciplines involved: Languages, Anthropology, Comparative religions, Arts, etc.
3. Nature
Understanding of natural phenomena and objects (ranging from sub-atomic particles to
universe and everything in between) such as plants, animals, planetary systems, etc.
Academic disciplines involved: Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Botany, Zoology, etc.
4. Technology
Technology includes products, processes, services, etc. devised by humans of benefit to the
human race
Academic disciplines involved: Engineering, Medicine, Veterinary, Agriculture, etc.

2.4 Data, Information and Knowledge

Data and information are linked to knowledge. There are two perspectives. The first, often
referred to as the Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom (DIKW) hierarchy, is widely
used in knowledge management. In the second, data and information are both treated as
knowledge at different levels.2
2.4.1 DIKW Hierarchy (after Ackoff)
In the DIKW hierarchy there are four levels, Data at Level 1; Information at Level 2,
Knowledge at Level 3 and Wisdom at Level 4 as shown in Table 2.1.

Level 4 Wisdom
Level 3 Knowledge
Level 2 Information
Level 1 Data
Table 2.1 DIKW hierarchy
Data
· Data represents facts or statements relating to an event in isolation from other things.
· Within this hierarchy, data are the raw facts that have yet to be organized and
interpreted.
Information

2
The first approach was proposed by Ackoff (1989) and the second by Meherez et al. (1988).

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 · Information includes an understanding of relevant relationships including possible
cause and effect.
· Information includes data that are understood.
· Data becomes part of the information once there is an understanding of the
relationships.
Knowledge
· Knowledge represents an understanding of something and some degree of
predictability about how it behaves.
· Information leads to knowledge through an understanding of the patterns of
behaviour.
Wisdom
· Wisdom (sapience, or sagacity) is the ability to think and act using knowledge,
experience, understanding, common sense and insight.
· Wisdom combines knowledge, experience, understanding and an acceptance that not
all things in life can be controlled or predicted.
· Wisdom is a human quality built on broad knowledge and experience, an ability to
consider different points of view and an understanding of the history and context of
matters of importance to humankind.
2.4.2 Five Levels of Knowledge (after Meherez et al.)
A five-level characterisation of knowledge is as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Levels of Knowledge

Comparing these two approaches, Level 1 corresponds to Data, Levels 2 and 3 to Information,
and Levels 4 and 5 to Knowledge in the DIKW hierarchy.

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2.5 Knowledge and Truth
The classical definition of knowledge requires that knowledge must be true. What is truth? The
words true (adjective) and truth (n) are both commonly used with different shades of meaning
in the English language. We might speak of someone being a true friend, or a portrait being a
true likeness to the subject. Here we use the terms as meaning in accord with fact or reality –
the verificationist meaning3. In science, truth is often qualified – this is an integral part of
science. For example, the rules of force and momentum governing the interaction of objects
(Classical mechanics) are true at speeds small compared with the speed of light only. Also,
continuum-based rules for the behaviour of materials are true at macroscopic length scales, but
not at atomic length scales. As our knowledge grows new truths become recognised.

2.6 Knowledge Growth

In recent human history knowledge has been growing at an exponential rate. One measure of
this is the increasing number of written records produced on intellectual activity. Some of these
publications might be categorised as scientific, others religious, cultural, historical or fiction,
or fall within some other grouping. Nevertheless, the increasing rate of publication over time
does provide an indication of how quickly knowledge has grown and is still growing.
No standardised way exists for determining how many book titles were published in all
countries for any period. However, data on the growth in journal publications is available and
gives an insight into the growth of knowledge over time.
Academic Journals
Since the publication of the first academic journal in 1665, the number of academic journal
titles has grown steadily. The pattern of growth in the number of refereed academic journals
worldwide between 1900 and 1996 shows three distinct periods with different growth rates4:
Period 1: From 1900 to 1944 with an annual growth rate of 3.30%.
Period 2: From 1944 to 1978 with an annual growth rate of 4.68%.
Period 3: From 1978 to 1996 with an annual growth rate of 3.31%.
Period 2 starts with the end of WW-II and a higher rate due to increased research effort and is
referred to as the Big Science Period.
Academic journals grew at an average rate of 4.7 % from 1986 to 2013, which is very similar
to the growth rate during the Big Science period.
Science and Engineering

3
Other variations on the meaning are summarised at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_theories_of_truth
(accessed 3 Nov 2021)
4
Mabe M & Amin M (2001)

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Several indicators are available reflecting growth of knowledge in science and engineering
over time5. One measure is the increasing rate of published research over time. Publications
of all types are shown in Figure 2.3 for the years 1980-2012.

Figure 2.3 Exponential Growth of Science Publications of all Types (After Bornmann &
Mutz, 2015)
Another indication of the rate of growth of knowledge in the area of science and engineering
is provided by the annual number of cited references. Those citations recorded for the year
2012 from 1650 to 2012 and their year of publication are shown in Figure 2.4

5
Bornmann L & Mutz R (2015)

7
Figure 2.4 Raw Data and Regression Lines for Growth of Cited References from 1650-2012
and citing publications from 2012 (After Bornmann & Mutz, 2015)

2.7 Knowledge Communication and Acquisition

2.7.1 Knowledge Communication
The medium of communication has changed significantly over time due to technological
advancement. In the pre-history period communication was achieved using mimic, pictorial
and oral means. After settlements took place, writing evolved differently in different
civilisations – Cuneiform (in Mesopotamia), Hieroglyphs (in Egypt), pictorial (in China). The
use of alphabets occurred much later; an advance introduced by the Phoenicians. This is
discussed further in the next chapter.
Printing evolved in China and later in Europe and is less than a thousand years old. Over the
last two hundred years, new methods involving audio, photographic and video recording have
become more important tools in communication.
Scholarly communication has traditionally encompassed activities including conference
presentations, informal seminar discussions, face-to-face or telephone conversations, formal
journal and book publications, and published technical reports. Over time these forms have
been progressively supplemented by new forms of communication, such as email exchanges,

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email listservs, preprints and, increasingly, social media as well as digital objects. There has
been a steady shift from analogue to digital means of communication.
Journals
Journals have traditionally been seen to embody four functions6:
· Registration: third-party establishment by date-stamping of the author’s precedence and
ownership of an idea.
· Dissemination: communicating the findings to its intended audience usually via the
brand identity of the journal.
· Certification: ensuring quality control through peer review and rewarding authors. If
the reviewers felt that it did not meet the required criteria then the paper gets rejected.
· Archival record: preserving a fixed version of the paper for future reference and
citation.
There were about 33,100 scholarly peer-reviewed English-language journals in 2018,
collectively publishing some 3 million articles a year.7
Books
Books pre-date journals as a medium in which to record knowledge. Books have also been used
as a vehicle for entertainment, share opinions or propaganda and many other purposes, so it is
hard to gauge how many of the books published are related to the recording and communication
of knowledge. Even to attempt to quantify the scale of publication is difficult. Questions arise
about what is a book, how to accommodate revised editions and many other issues relating to
the uniqueness of a title and author combination. In an attempt to quantify the cumulative total
number of books that have been published, Google Books8 used the definition of a book as a
tome (“idealised bound volume”) which includes everything from a popular novel with a large
print run to a single thesis copy. Based on this definition in 2010 they estimated the total
number of books ever produced was over 129 million. Since then, the question has been more
complicated by the increasing phenomena of self-publishing and the publication of e-books
and audiobooks as separate or parallel publications to traditional hard-copy versions.
2.7.2 Knowledge Acquisition
For an individual, knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes - perception,
communication, and reasoning. It is closely related to learning which is discussed further in
Chapter 11. It can also be viewed as learning unfamiliar knowledge (to the individual but
familiar knowledge to the community) resulting in an increase in the familiar knowledge to the

6
As defined in Zuckerman and Merton (1971) and Mabe (2012).
7
As reported in Johnson et al (2018)
8
http://booksearch.blogspot.com/2010/08/books-of-world-stand-up-and-be-counted.html Accessed 7 Nov 2021

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individual as shown in Figure 2.5. This is different to creating new knowledge which is
discussed in Part C of the Book.

Knowledge Present

Known knowledge
at the present

Past

Future

Familiar knowledge

Learning unfamiliar Creating new knowledge

known knowledge through research

Figure 2.5 Possible learning experiences for an individual of familiar, unfamiliar and new
knowledge

2.8 Knowledge Transfer

In the absence of traumatic events (war, conflict, pandemics for example) knowledge transfer
commonly occurs in many forms -between individuals, between organizations (private and/or
public) and between generations.
The interaction of research, education and knowledge transfer from one generation to the next
is illustrated in Figure 2.6. The terms used are:
Generation: ...., i-1, i, i+1, …
KNOW(i): Knowledge possessed by Generation i
EDU(i): Education of Generation i
RES(i): Research carried out by generation i
In any generation, the research performed and the subsequent growth in knowledge is propelled
by the knowledge held by that generation. Knowledge of the subsequent generation is built on
the knowledge and research outcomes of the previous.

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 Generation

i-1 i i+1

KNOW (i-1) EDU (i)

Knowledge
transfer

RES (i-1) KNOW (i) EDU (i+1)

RES (i) KNOW (i+1)

New knowledge

Figure 2.6 Generational Knowledge Transfer

2.9 Knowledge Process and Management

In recent years management theory has focused on a process-based view of the firm, especially
when thinking about what it is that actually gets managed in organisations. In this context
knowledge processes and knowledge management are two topics receiving a lot of attention.
2.9.1 Knowledge Processes
In the management context, it has been helpful to identify different knowledge-based activities
that frequently occur in an organisation. From the process perspective, there are seven major
categories of knowledge-focused activities:
1. Generated new knowledge.
2. Valuable knowledge accessed from outside sources.
3. Accessible knowledge used in decision making.
4. Knowledge embedded in processes, products, and/or services.
5. Knowledge represented in documents, databases, and software.
6. Knowledge grown through culture and incentives.
7. Existing knowledge transferred into other parts of the organization.
This framework can be used to guide corporate knowledge management.
2.9.2 Knowledge Management
Knowledge management is a term used to describe everything from organizational learning
efforts to database management tools. It is about leveraging corporate knowledge and
experience to add value.

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The eleven deadliest sins of knowledge management are listed below.9
Error 1: Not developing a working definition of knowledge.
Error 2: Emphasising knowledge stock to the detriment of knowledge flow.
Error 3: Viewing knowledge as existing predominantly outside the heads of
individuals.
Error 4: Not understanding that a fundamental intermediate purpose of managing
knowledge is to create shared context.
Error 5: Paying little heed to the role and importance of tacit knowledge.
Error 6: Disentangling knowledge from its uses.
Error 7: Downplaying thinking and reasoning.
Error 8: Focusing on the past and the present and not the future.
Error 9: Failing to recognize the importance of experimentation.
Error 10: Substituting technological contact for human interface.
Error 11: Seeking to develop direct measures of knowledge.

2.10 Knowledge Economy

The knowledge economy is the use of knowledge to generate tangible and intangible values for
an organisation.10 The knowledge can be used by decision support systems to generate
economic value.
Knowledge and education are the foundation of what is known as Knowledge-Based Capital
(KBC). It can be viewed as:
· An educational or intellectual product or service that can be marketed for a high return, or
· a productive asset to be added to the organization’s asset base.
There is a growing awareness that KBC is contributing significantly to global economic
growth. KBC includes many intangible assets such as research results, data, software and
design skills. The creation and application of knowledge is critical for businesses (private or
public sector) to survive and grow in a competitive global economy and to create high-wage
employment.
In the knowledge economy, the specialized labour force is characterised as computer literate
and well-trained in handling data, developing algorithms and simulation models, to assist
innovation applied to products, processes and systems.

9
See Fahey. and Prusak (1998) for more details.
10
The term was popularized by Peter Drucker as the title of a chapter in (Drucker, 1969) that Drucker attributed
to economist Fritz Machlup.

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 References
Ackoff, R. L. (1989), From data to wisdom. J Applied System Analysis, 16, 3-9.
Bornmann, L. & Mutz, R. (2015), Growth Rates of Modern Science: A Bibliometric Analysis
Based on the Number of Publications and Cited References, J Assoc for Information Science
and Technology, 88 (11) 2215-2222.
Drucker, P. (1969), The Age of Discontinuity; Guidelines to Our changing Society, Harper
and Row, New York
Fahey, L. and Prusak, L. (1998), The Eleven Deadliest Sins of Knowledge Management;
California Management Review, 40 (3) Spring, 265 – 276
Mabe, M. (2012). Does journal publishing have a future? In R. Campbell, E. Pentz, & I.
Borthwick (Eds.), Academic and Professional Publishing. Oxford: Chandos.
Mabe, M. & Amin, M. (2001), Growth Dynamics of Scholarly and Scientific Journals
Scientometrics 51 (1) 147-162
Meherez et al (1988), A conceptual scheme for knowledge system for MS/OR, Omega, 16 (5),
421-8
Zuckerman, H and Merton, R. K. (1971) Patterns of Evaluation in Science. Minerva 9, no. 1,
66-100

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