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Engineering Mechanics

The document outlines the course structure for Engineering Mechanics at Kyambogo University, focusing on the principles of mechanics in engineering, including statics and dynamics. It details course objectives, outcomes, and content, covering topics such as force systems, equilibrium, and kinematics. Assessment methods include assignments, tests, practicals, and a final examination, with specified contributions to the final grade.

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Engineering Mechanics

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KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
Department of Civil & Building Engineering

Bachelor of Engineering in Civil & Building Engineering

Year I, Semester I

Lecture Notes

Prepared by:
Morris OLENG

+256 703 688 747

[email protected]

©August, 2018

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747)

Preamble
Course Description:
This course introduces to a student the principles of mechanics in engineering, methodology to
calculating forces acting in the solid objects and the variation of the forces. It examines the statics
and dynamics of particles and rigid bodies.
Course Objectives:
The course aims to provide the students with the knowledge to:

 Describe the basic concepts of engineering statics and dynamics;

 Analyse equilibrium of statically determinate systems;

 Explain concepts of bending moments, shear forces and construct bending moment and shear force
diagrams;

 Analyse forces of particles and bodies in motion;

 Apply equations of motion to solve problems of bodies in linear, rotational and oscillatory
motions.

 Evaluate the behaviour of materials subjected to axial, shear twisting and bearing loads and
moments.
Course Outcomes:
On completion of the course the students should be able to:

 Explain basic concepts of engineering statics and dynamics;

 Analyse equilibrium of statically determinate systems;

 Explain concepts of bending moments, shear forces and construct bending moment and shear
force diagrams;

 Analyse forces of particles and bodies in motion;

 Apply equations of motion to solve problems of bodies in linear, rotational and oscillatory
motions.

 Evaluate the behaviour of materials subjected to axial, shear twisting and bearing loads and
moments.

Detailed course descriptions

Basic concepts and laws, dimensions and units. (2 hours)
Force systems: forces, moment, couple, resultants, rigid body, centre of mass and centre of gravity,
moment of inertia. (3 hours)
Equilibrium, equilibrium conditions, constraints. (3 hours)

-1-
Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747)
Preamble
Structures: beams, plane trusses, cables, statically determinacy of structures, shear forces and bending
moments, shear force and bending moment diagrams. (6 hours)
Friction and its effects on motion. (3 hours)
The principle of virtual work. (2 hours)
Particle kinematics: rectilinear motion, curvilinear motion, relative motion. (5 hours)
Kinetics of particles: force, mass and acceleration of particles. (2 hours)
Work, kinetic energy, impulse and momentum of particles. (2 hours)
Plane kinematics of rigid bodies: rotation, absolute motion, relative motion. (5 hours)
Plane kinetics of rigid bodies: force, mass, acceleration, work, impulse and momentum.(6 hours)
Simple harmonic motion, simple and compound pendulum, vibrations and time response. Other
oscillating bodies. (6 hours)

Mode of delivery
The course will be taught by using lectures, tutorials, consultations and practicals.

Assessment
The course will be assessed through assignments, tests, practical reports and course examination.
Their relative contribution to the final grade is shown below:

Requirements Contribution
Assignments 05%
Tests 15%
Practical 25%
Final examination 60%
Total 100%

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Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747)
Introduction to Statics

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO STATICS

1.1 Mechanics is the physical science which deals with the effects of forces on objects.
The subject of mechanics is logically divided into two parts: statics, which concerns the equilibrium
of bodies under the action of forces, and dynamics, which concerns the motion of bodies.

1.2 Basic concepts

The following concepts and definitions are basic to the study of mechanics and they should be
understood at the outset.
Space is the geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions are described by linear and angular
measurements relative to a coordinate system. For three-dimensional problems, three independent
coordinates are needed. For two- dimensional problems, only two coordinates are required.
Time is the measure of the succession of events and is a basic quantity in dynamics. Time is not
directly involved in the analysis of statics problems.
Mass is a measure of the inertia of a body, which is its resistance to a change of velocity. Mass can
also be thought of as the quantity of matter in a body. The mass of a body affects the gravitational
attraction force between it and other bodies. This force appears in many applications in statics.
Force is the action of one body on another. A force tends to move a body in the direction of its action.
The action of a force is characterized by its magnitude, by the direction of its action, and by its point
of application. Thus force is a vector quantity, and its properties are discussed in detail in chapter2.
A particle is a body of negligible dimensions. In the mathematical sense, a particle is a body whose
dimensions are considered to be near zero so that we may analyze it as a mass concentrated at a point.
We often choose a particle as a differential element of a body. We may treat a body as a particle when
its dimensions are irrelevant to the description of its position or the action of forces applied to it.
Rigid body. A body is considered rigid when the change in distance between any two of its points is
negligible for the purpose at hand. For instance, the calculation of the tension in the cable which
supports the boom of a mobile crane under load is essentially unaffected by the small internal
deformations in the structural members of the boom. For the purpose, then, of determining the
external forces which acts on the boom, we may treat it as a rigid body. Statics deals primarily with
the calculation of external forces which act on rigid bodies in equilibrium. Determinations of
deformable bodies, which normally follows statics in the curriculum.

1.3 Scalars and Vectors

We use two kinds of quantities in mechanics- scalars and vectors.
Scalar quantities possess only magnitude, e.g., time, volume, energy, mass, density, work. Scalars are
added by ordinary algebraic methods, e.g., 2 s + 7 s = 9 s: 14 kg - 5 kg = 9 kg.

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Introduction to Statics

Vector quantities possess both magnitude and direction, e.g., force, displacement, velocity,
acceleration, moment, momentum, and impulse. A vector is represented by an arrow at the given
inclination. The head of the arrow indicates the sense, and the length represents the magnitude of the
vector. The symbol for a vector is shown in print in boldface type. such as V. The magnitude is
represented by V or V. Speed is a scalar. It is the magnitude of velocity, which is a vector. Thus

velocity is specified by a direction as well as a speed.

Vectors representing physical quantities can be classified as free, sliding, or fixed.

A free vector may be moved anywhere in space provided it maintains the same direction and
magnitude.
A sliding vector may be applied at any point along its line of action. By the principle of
transmissibility, the external effects of a sliding vector remain the same.
A bound or fixed vector must remain at the same point of application.
A unit vector is a vector one unit in length.
The negative of a vector P is the vector -P that has the same magnitude and inclination but is of the
opposite sense.
The resultant of a system of vectors is the least number of vectors that will replace the given system.

Working with Vectors

The direction of the vector V may be measured by an angle  from some known reference direction
as shown in Fig. 1.1 The negative of V is a vector -V having the same magnitude as V but directed
in the sense opposite to V, as shown in Fig. 1.1.

-v

Fig.1.1
Vectors must obey the parallelogram law of combination This law states that two vectors V1 and V2
, treated as free vectors, Fig. 1.2a, may be replaced by their equivalent vector V, which is the diagonal
of the parallelogram formed by V1 and V2 as its two sides, as shown in Fig. 1.2b. This combination
is called the vector sum, and is represented by the vector equation
V  V1  V2

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Introduction to Statics

v2 v
v2 v
v2
v1 v1 v1
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1.2
where the plus sign, when used with the vector quantities (in boldface type), means vector and not
scalar addition. The scalar sum of the magnitudes of the two vectors is written in the usual way as
V1  V2 . The geometry of the parallelogram shows that V  V1  V2 .
The two vectors V1 and V2 , again treated as free vectors, may also be added head-to-tail by the
triangle law, as shown in Fig. 1/2c, to obtain the identical vector sum V. We see from the diagram
that the order of addition of the vectors does not affect their sum, so that V1  V2  V2  V1 .
The difference V1  V2 between the two vectors is easily obtained by adding  V2 to V1 as shown in
Fig. 1/3, where either the triangle or parallelogram procedure may be used. The difference V' between
the two vectors is expressed by the vector equation
V  V1  V2
where the minus sign denotes vector subtraction.

1 1
-v2
v' -v2
v'
Fig.1.3

Any two or more vectors whose sum equals a certain vector V are said to be the components of that
vector. Thus, the vectors V1 and V2 in Fig. 1/4a are the components of V in the directions 1 and 2,
respectively. It is usually most convenient to deal with vector components which are mutually
perpendicular; these are called rectangular components.
The vectors Vx and Vy in Fig. 1/4b are the x- and y-components, respectively, of V. Likewise, in Fig.

1/4c, Vx and Vy are the x'- and y'-components of V. When expressed in rectangular components,

the direction of the vector with respect to, say, the x-axis is clearly specified by the angle  , where
Vy
  tan 1
Vx

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Introduction to Statics

y'
y
2
v v v
v2 vy vy '

1 x
v1 vx vx
'
x'
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1.4
A vector V may be expressed mathematically by multiplying its magnitude V by a vector n whose
magnitude is one and whose direction coincides with that of V. The vector n is called a unit vector.
Thus, V  Vn
In this way both the magnitude and direction of the vector are conveniently contained in one
mathematical expression. In many problems, particularly three-dimensional ones, it is convenient to
express the rectangular components of V, Fig. 1/5, in terms of unit vectors i, j, and k, which are
vectors in the x-, y-, and z-direction, respectively, with unit magnitudes. Because the vector V is the
vector sum of the components in the x-, y-, and z-directions, we can express V as follows:
V  Vx i  Vy j  Vz k

v
Vz k
y
j y
z

Vy j
x

Vx i
i x
Fig.1.5
We now make use of the direction cosines l , m, and n of V, which are defined by

l  cos x m  cos y n  cos z

Thus, we may writs the magnitudes of the components of V as

Vx  lV Vy  mV Vz  nV

where, from the Pythagorean theorem,

V 2  Vx2  Vy2  Vz2

Note that this relation implies that l 2  m 2  n 2  1 .

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 6

Introduction to Statics

1.4 Newton’s Laws

Law I. A particle remains at rest or continues to move with uniform velocity (in a straight line with a
constant speed) if there is no unbalanced force acting on it.
Law II. The acceleration of a particle is proportional to the vector sum of forces acting on it, and is
in the direction of this vector sum.
Law III. The forces of action and reaction between interacting bodies are equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction, and collinear (they lie on the same line).

The correctness of these laws has been verified by innumerable accurate physical measurements.
Newton's second law forms the basis for most of the analysis in dynamics. As applied to a particle of
mass m, it may be stated as
F  ma (1.1)
where F is the vector sum of forces acting on the particle and a is the resulting acceleration. This
equation is a vector equation because the direction of F must agree with the direction of a, and the
magnitudes of F and ma must be equal.

Newton's first law contains the principle of the equilibrium of forces, which is the main topic of
concern in statics. This law is actually a consequence of the second law, since there is no acceleration
when the force is zero, and the particle either is at rest or is moving with a uniform velocity. The first
law adds nothing new to the description of motion but is included here because it was part of Newton's
classical statements.

The third law is basic to our understanding of force. It states that forces always occur in pairs of equal
and opposite forces. Thus, the downward force exerted on the desk by the pencil is accompanied by
an upward force of equal magnitude exerted on the pencil by the desk. This principle holds for all
forces, variable or constant, regardless of their source, and holds at every instant of time during which
the forces are applied.

In the analysis of bodies under the action of forces, it is absolutely necessary to be clear about which
force of each action-reaction pair is being considered. It is necessary first of all to isolate the body
under consideration and then to consider only the one force of the pair which acts on the body in
question.

1.5 Units
In mechanics we use four fundamental quantities called dimensions. These are length, mass, force,
and time. The units used to measure these quantities cannot all be chosen independently because they
must be consistent with Newton’s second law, Eq.1.1. Although there are a number of different

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 7

Introduction to Statics

systems of units, only the two systems most commonly used in science and technology will be used
in this text. The four fundamental dimensions and their units and symbols in the two systems are
summarized in the following table.
Dimensional SI Units U.S. Customary Units
Quantity
Symbol Unit Symbol Unit Symbol
Mass M kg -
ki log ram slug
  foot
Length L Base units meter m  ft
sec ond Base units 
 sec ond
Time T s sec
 pound
Force F newton N Ib

SI Units
The International System of Units, abbreviated is accepted in the United States and throughout the
world, and is a modern version of the metric system. By international agreement, SI units will in time
replace other system. As shown in the table, in SI, the unit kilogram (kg) for mass, meter (m) for
length, and second (s) for time are selected as the base units, and the newton (N) for force is derived
from the preceding three by Eq. 1.1.
Thus, force (N) = mass (kg)  acceleration (m/s 2 ) or
N  kg  m / s 2

Thus, 1 newton is the force required to give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s 2 .

Consider a body of mass m which is allowed to fall freely near the surface of the earth. With only the
force of gravitation acting on the body, it falls with an acceleration g toward the center of the earth.
This gravitational force is the weight W of the body, and is found from Eq.1.1:
W ( N )  m(kg )  g (m / s 2 )

U.S. Customary Units

The U.S. customary, or British system of units, also called the foot-pound-second (FPS) system, has
been the common system in business and industry in English-speaking countries. Although this
system will in time be replaced by SI units, for many more years, engineers must be able to work with
both SI units and FPS units, and both systems are used freely in Engineering Mechanics.
As shown in the table, in the U.S. or FPS system, the units of feet(ft) for length, seconds (sec) for
time, and pounds (Ib) for force are selected as base units, and the slug for mass is derived from Eq.
1.1. Thus,
force (Ib) = mass (slugs)  acceleration (ft/sec 2 ), or

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Introduction to Statics

Ib  sec2
slug =
ft
Therefore, 1 slug is the mass which is given an acceleration of 1 ft/sec 2 when acted on by a force of
1 Ib. If W is the gravitational force or weight and g is the acceleration due to gravity, Eq. 1.1 gives
W(Ib)
m( slugs) 
g (ft / sec2 )
Note that seconds is abbreviated as s in SI units, and as sec in FPS units.

1.6 Law of Gravitation

In statics as well as dynamics we often need to compute the weight of a body, which is the
gravitational force acting on it. This computation depends on the law of gravitation, which was also
formulated by Newton, The law of gravitation is expressed by the equation
m1m2
F G (1.2)
r2
where F  the mutual force of attraction between two particles
G  a universal constant known as the constant of gravitation
m1 ,m2  the masses of the particles
r  the distance between the centers of the particles
The mutual forces F obey the law of action and reaction, since they are equal and opposite and are
directed along the line joining the centers of the particles, as shown in Fig. 1/7. By experiment the
gravitational constant is found to be G  6.673(1011 )m 3 /(kg  s 2 ) .

The Free-Body Diagram

In applying the principles of mechanics to analyze forces acting on a body, it is essential that we
isolate the body in question from all other bodies so that a complete and accurate account of all forces
acting on this body can be taken. This isolation should exist mentally and should be represented on
paper. The diagram of such an isolated body with the representation of all external forces acting on it
is called a free-body diagram.

(A free body is a body isolated from other members (bodies) which are connected to it. Therefore in
a complete structure, there are a number of free bodies.
Free body diagram is a sketch of the free body showing all the external forces acting on it and
reactions exerted on it by the removed element.)

Example 1.1

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Introduction to Statics

Determine the weight in Newtons of a car whose mass is 1400 kg. Convert the mass of the car to
slugs and then determine its weight in pounds.

Solution. From the relation, we have

W  mg  1400(9.81)  13730N Ans.
From the table of conversion factors inside the front cover of the textbook, we see that 1 slug is equal
to 14.594 kg. Thus, the mass of the car in slugs is
 1slug 
m  1400kg    95.9 slugs Ans.
14.594kg 
Finally, its weight in pounds is
W  mg  (95.9)(32.2)  3090 Ib Ans.
As another route to the last result, we can convert from kg to Ibm. Again using the table inside the
front cover, we have
 1 Ibm 
m  1400kg    3090 Ibm
 0.45359kg 
The weight in pounds associated with the mass of 3090 Ibm is 3090 Ib, as calculated above. We recall
that 1 Ibm is the amount of mass which under standard conditions has a weight of 1 Ib of force. We
rarely refer to the U.S. mass unit Ibm in this textbook series, but rather use the slug for mass. The
sole use of slug, rather than the unnecessary use of two units for mass, will prove to be powerful and
simple-especially in dynamics.

Example 1.2
Use Newton’s law of universal gravitation to calculate the weight of a 70-kg person standing on the
surface of the earth. Then repeat the calculation by using W  mg and compare your two results. Use
Table D/2 as needed.
Solution. The two results are
Gme m (6.673 10(5.976 1024 )(70)11 )
W   688N Ans.
R2 (6371 103 ) 2
W  mg  70(9.81)  687N Ans.

Example 1.3
For the vectors V1 and V2 shown in the figure,

(a) determine the magnitude S of their vector sum S  V1  V2

(b) determine the angle  between S and the positive x-axis

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Introduction to Statics

(c) write S as a vector in terms of the unit vectors i and j and then write a unit vector n along the
vector sum S
(d) determine the vector difference D  V1  V2

y y D
v 1 = 4 units v 1 = 4 units
y v1
60 -v 2

°
45

°
45
S

°
45
°

j
i x
x x

°
30
°

°
105

v 2 = 3 units v 2 = 3 units v2
(a) (b)

Solution
(a) We construct to scale the parallelogram shown in Fig. a for adding V1 and V2 . Using the law of
cosines, we have
S 2  3 2  4 2  2(3)(4) cos105
S  5.59 units Ans.

(b) Using the law of sines for the lower triangle, we have
sin105 sin(  30)

5.59 4
sin(  30)  0.692
(  30)  43.8   13.76 Ans .

(c) With knowledge of both S and  , we can write the vector S as

S  S[i cos  j sin  ]
 S[i cos13.76  j sin13.76]  5.43i  1.328j units Ans.
S 5.43i  1.328j
Then n   0.971i  0.238j Ans .
S 5.59

(d) The vector difference D is

D  V1  V2  4(i cos 45  j sin 45)  3(i cos30  j sin 30)
 0.230i  4.33j units Ans.

The vector D is shown in Fig. b as D  V1  (V2 ).

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Force Systems

CHAPTER II. FORCE SYSTEMS

SECTION I. OPERATIONS WITH FORCES

2.1.1 THE MOMENT OF A FORCE

The moment M of a force F with respect to a point O is the cross product M  r  F , where r is the
position vector relative to point O of any point P on the action line of force F. Physically. M represents
the tendency of the force F to rotate the body (on which it acts) about an axis that passes through O
and is perpendicular to the plane containing the force F and the position rector r.

y
F
Fy j

P Fx i
M
r Fz k

Mx i yj
My j xi x
O
zk
Mz k

z
Fig.2-1

If a set of x, y, and z axes is drawn through O as shown in Fig. 2-1,

r  xi  yj  zk F  Fx i  Fy j  Fz k M  M xi  M y j  M zk

And, by definition,
i j k
M  rF  x y z
Fx Fy Fz

Expanding the determinant,

M  i( Fz y  Fy z)  j( Fx z  Fz x)  k ( Fy x  Fx y)

Comparing this expression for M with the one listed above, it can be seen that
M x  Fz y  Fy z M y  Fx z  Fz x M z  Fy x  Fx y

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Force Systems

The scalar quantities M x , M y , and M z are the magnitudes of the respective moments of the force F

about the x,y, and z axes through O. See Examples 2.1 and 2.2
Note that M x can be obtained by the dot product of the moment M and the unit vector i along the x
axis. Thus,
M  i  (M x i  M y j  M z k)  i  M x (1)  M y (0)  M z (0)  M x

Similarly, the magnitude of the moment of F about any axis L through O is the scalar component of
M on L. It can be obtained by the dot product of M and unit vector e L along the line L. Thus,

M L  M  eL

Example 2.1.
A 100-N force is directed along the line drawn from the point whose x, y, z coordinates are (2,0,4) m
to the point whose coordinates are (5,1,1) m. What are the moments of this force about the x, y and z
axes?
Solution

(5,1,1)
x
O
Fz
0N
10
Fy

(2,0,4) Fx
z

Fig.2.2

In Fig. 2.2, assume the scale is such that the 100-N force is measured by the diagonal of the
parallelepiped whose sides are parallel to the axes. The sides represent to the same scale the
components of the force.
The x side is 5 - 2 = 3 m long; the y side is 1-0=lm long, and the z side is 1- 4= -3m long. This means
that the component Fz is directed toward the back or negative direction of the z axis.
length of x side 3 3
Fx   100 N   100   100  68.7 N
length of diagonal 3 1  3
2 2 2
19
1 3
Similarly, Fy   100  22.9 N Fzy   100  68.7 N
19 19

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Force Systems

To find the moment of the 100-N force about the x axis, determine the moments of its components
about the x axis. By inspection the only component that has such a moment is Fy . Therefore M x for

the 100-N force is the moment of Fy about the x axis and equals  22.9  4  91.6 N.m . The minus

sign indicates that the rotation of Fy is clockwise about the x axis when viewed from the positive end

of the x axis.
In finding the moment about the y axis, note that Fy is parallel to the y axis and has no moment about

it. Now, however, both Fz and Fx must be considered. It is better to determine the sign of the moment
by inspection rather than by writing signs for the component and its arm. Accordingly,
M y  (68.7  2)  (68.7  4)  412 N.m.

By similar reasoning using Fy only (since Fz is parallel to the z axis and Fz intersects it),

M z  (22.9  2)  45.8 N.m.

Be sure to affix signs for moments and to understand the significance thereof.

Example 2.2.
Repeat Example 2.1 using the cross-product definition of moment.
Solution
From Example 2.1, F = 68.7i + 22.9j - 68.7k.
The vector r is the position vector of any point on the action line of F with respect to the origin. If we
use point (2,0,4), r - 2i + 0j + 4k. Then
i j k
M  rF  2 0 4
68.7 22.9  68.7
 i[0  4(22.9)]  j[2(68.7)  4(68.7)]  k[2(22.9)  0]
 91.6i  412j  45.8k N.m
Next, using point (5,l,1) on the action line of F, r = 5i + j + k. Then
i j k
M  rF  5 1 1
68.7 22.9  68.7
 i[1(68.7)  22.9(1)]  j[5(68.7)  1(68.7)]  k[5(22.9)  68.7(1)]
 91.6i  412j  45.8k N.m
The scalar moments about the x, y, and z axes are the coefficients of the unit vectors, i, j, and k.

2.1.2 A COUPLE
A couple consists of two forces equal in magnitude and parallel, but oppositely directed.

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Force Systems

2.1.3 THE MOMENT OF A COUPLE

The moment C of a couple with respect to any point O is the sum of the moments with respect to O
of the two forces that constitute the couple.
The moment C of the couple shown in Fig. 2-3 is C   M O  r1  F  r2  ( F)  (r1  r2 )F  a  F

F d
a -F
r1
r2
x
O

Fig.2-3
Thus C is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the two forces (a is in the same plane). By
definition of the cross product, the magnitude of C is a  F  aF sin . Since d, the perpendicular
distance between the two forces of the couple is equal to a sin , the magnitude of C is C  Fd .
Couples obey the laws of vectors. Any couple C can be written C  Cx i  C y j  Cz k , where Cx , C y ,

and C z are the magnitudes of the components.

N.B: point O is any point: hence, the moment of a couple is independent of the choice of point O.

2.1.4 REPLACING A SINGLE FORCE

A single force F acting at point P may be replaced by (a) an equal and similarly directed force acting
through any point O and (b) a couple C  r  F , where r is the vector from O to P. See Example 2.3
and 2.4.

Example 2.3.
As shown in Fig. 2.4, a couple C1 of 20 N.m acts in the x-y plane, a couple C2 of 40 N.m acts in the

y-z plane, and a couple C 3 of -55 N.m acts in the x-z plane. Determine the resultant couple.

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 15

Force Systems

C2 = 40N.m
x

m
N.
20
1=
C
z
C3 = -55N.m

Fig. 2.4
SOLUTION
The couple C1 is positive and acting in the xy plane. When viewed from the positive end of the z
axis, it rends to turn in a counterclockwise direction about the z axis. By the right-hand rule, it is
represented by a vector along the z axis drawn toward the positive end. Using this type of reasoning,
all three couples are drawn in the figure. Adding vectorially,

C  C12  C22  C32  (20) 2  (40) 2  (55) 2  70.9 N .m

C2 C3 C1
cos x   0.564 cos y   0.777 cos z   0.282
C C C
These are the direction cosines of the couple C. The couple acts in a plane perpendicular to this vector.
The couple C may be written in vector notation,
C  40i  55j  20k N.m
from which the value of C is derived as above.

Example 2.4.
A 2-in-diameter pipe is subjected to a force of 25 Ib applied vertically downward to the horizontal
rod at an arm of 14 in. Replace the 25-Ib force with (1) a force at the end of the pipe which causes
bending and (2) a couple that twists the shaft, placing it in torsion. What are the moments of the force
and the couple? See Fig. 2-5(a).

y y

20" 20" 25 Ib
O 14 "
x O x
25 Ib
25 Ib 25 Ib
"
14

z z
(a) (b)

Fig.2-5

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Force Systems

Solution
Place two vertical 25-Ib forces oppositely directed through the center of the pipe as shown in Fig. 2-
5(b). The three forces are still equivalent to the original force.
The upward force combines with the original to form a couple C  2514  350Ib-in. This couple
tends to twist the pipe counterclockwise when viewed from the right.
The other 25-Ib force down on the pipe causes a bending moment M  25 20  500 Ib-in about
the z axis.

2.1.5 COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS

Coplanar force systems occur in many problems of mechanics. The following scalar treatment is
useful in dealing with these two-dimensional problems.
1. The moment M O of a force about a point O in a plane containing the force is the scalar moment
of the force about an axis through the point and perpendicular to the plane. As such, the moment is
the product of (a) the force and (b) the perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of
the force. It is customary to assign a positive sign to the moment if the force tends to turn in a
counterclockwise direction about the point. See Example 2.5.
2. Varignon’s theorem states that the moment of a form about any point is equal to the algebraic sum
of the moments of the components of the force about that point. See Example 2.6.
3. The moment of a couple will not be changed if (a) the couple is rotated or translated in its plane,
(b) the couple is transferred to a parallel plane, or (c) the size of its forces is changed., provided the
moment arm is also altered to keep the magnitude of the moment the same.
4. A couple and a single force in the same plane or parallel planes may be combined into one force
of the same magnitude and sense as the given form and parallel to it. See Example 2.7.
5. Conversely, a single force as indicated above may be replaced by (a) an equal and similarly directed
force acting through any point and (b) a couple lying in the same plane as the single force and the
chosen point. See Example 2.3.

2.1.6 NOTES
In some of the solved problems vector equations are used, but in other problems the equivalent scalar
equations are used. In figures, vectors are identified by their magnitudes when the directions are
obvious. Also note that in the U.S. Customary System the units for moments are pound-feet (lb-ft).
In SI the units for moments are newton-meters (N.m).

Example 2.5. Determine the moment of the 20-Ib force about the point O. See Fig. 2-6.
SOLUTION

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Force Systems

Drop the perpendicular OD from O to the action line of the 20-Ib force. Its length to scale is 4.33ft.
The moment of the force about O (actually about an axis through O perpendicular to the x-y plane)
is therefore  (20  4.33)  86.6 Ib-ft.

20 sin60°=17.32 Ib
y y
20 Ib
60° 5' 60°
20 Ib
O x
°
B
5' 20 cos60°=10 Ib

8.66 '
O x 20 Ib

D 17.32 Ib
90°
A
10 Ib

Fig.2-6 Fig.2-7
The minus sign is used because the direction of rotation viewed from the positive end of the z axis
(not shown) is clockwise.

Example 2.6. Solve Example 2.5 using Varignon’s theorem. See Fig. 2-7.

SOLUTION
In using this theorem, the 20-Ib force is replaced with its rectangular components parallel to the x and
y axes and acting at any convenient point along the line of action.
If the point B is chosen on the x axis, then it should be apparent that the x component has no moment
about O. The moment of the 20-Ib force about O is then only the moment of the y component about
O, or  (17.32  5)  86.6 Ib-ft.
If the point A on the y axis is chosen, then the y component has no moment about O. The moment of
the 20-Ib force about O is then only the moment of the x component about O. or  (10  8.66)  86.6
Ib-ft.

Example 2.7. Replace a couple of moment 100N.m and a vertical force of 50 N, acting at the
origin, by a single force. Where does the single force act?

SOLUTION
In Fig. 2-8 the couple is represented by two equal and opposite forces of 50 N at a perpendicular
distance of 2m. One force of the couple is aligned with the given 50 N force at the origin. These two
forces cancel leaving the single, upward force of 50 N acting 2 m to the left of the origin.

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 18

Force Systems
y

50 N 50 N
2m x

50 N

Fig.2-8

SECTION II. RESULTANTS OF COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS

2.2.1 COPLANAR FORCES
Coplanar forces lie in one plane. A concurrent system consists of forces that intersect at a point called
the concurrence. A parallel system consists of forces that intersect at infinity. A non-concurrent,
nonparallel system consists of forces that are not all concurrent and not all parallel.
Vector equations may be applied to the above systems to determine resultants, but the following
derived scalar equations will be more useful for a given system.

2.2.2 CONCURRENT SYSTEM

The resultant R may be (a) a single force through the concurrence or (b) zero. Algebraically.

R  F    F 
2 2
and tan  x 
F y

F
x y
x

where F ,F x y  algebraic sums of the x and y components respectively, of the forces of the

system,  x  angle that the resultant R makes with the x axis.

2.2.3 PARALLEL SYSTEM

The resultant may be (a) a single force R parallel to the system. (b) a couple in the plane of the system
or in a parallel plane. or (c) zero. Algebraically.
R   F and Ra   M o

where  F  algebraic sum of the forces of the system

O  any moment center in the plane
a  perpendicular distance from the moment center O to the resultant R
Ra  moment of R with respect to O

 M  algebraic sum of the moments of the forces of the system with respect to O
o

If  F is not zero, apply the equation Ra   M to determine a and hence the action line of R.
o

If  F  0 , the resultant couple, if there is one, has a magnitude  M o .

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Force Systems

2.2.4 NONCONCURRENT, NONPARALLIEL SYSTEM

The resultant may be (a) a single force R, (b) a couple in the plane of the system or in a parallel plane,
or (c) zero. Algebraically,

R  F    F 2 2
and tan  x 
F y

F
x y
x

where F ,F
x y  algebraic sums of the x and y components respectively, of the forces of the

system
 x  angle that the resultant R makes with the x axis.
To determine the action line of the resultant force, employ the equation
Ra   M o

where O  any moment center in the plane

a  perpendicular distance from the moment center O to the resultant R
Ra  moment of R with respect to O

M o  algebraic sum of the moments of the forces of the system with respect to O

Note that even if R  0 . a couple may exist with magnitude equal to M o .

2.2.5 RESULTANTS OF DISTRIBUTED FORCE SYSTEMS

A distributed force system is one in which forces cannot be represented by individual force vectors
acting at specific points in space; they must be represented by an infinite number of vectors, each of
which is a function of the point at which it acts. Consider the coplanar (parallel) distributed force
system shown in Fig. 3-1. In the U.S. Customary System the units for f (x ) would be, for example.
Ib/ft. In the International System, the units might be N/m. The resultant R of the force system and its
location can be found by integration. Thus
B B
R   f ( x)dx and Rd   xf ( x)dx
A A

Examples 2.12 through 2.14 are specific examples.

f(x)
f(x)

R
O A B x
dx
x
d
l

Fig.3-1

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Force Systems

Example 2.8. Determine the resultant of the concurrent force system shown in Fig. 3-2.
y

200 Ib 150 Ib
30° 30° x
60° 45°

80 Ib
180 Ib

Fig.3-2
SOLUTION
Find the x and y components of each of the four given forces. Add the x components algebraically to
determine F x . Find F y for the y components. A tabular form map present the information

more clearly.

Force cos x sin  x Fx Fy

150 +0.866 +0.500 +129.9 +75.0

200 -0.866 +0.500 -173.2 +100.0
80 -0.500 -0.866 -40.0 -69.2
180 +0.707 -0.707 +127.3 -127.3

F x  44.0,  Fy  21.5, and R   F    F 

x
2
y
2
 44.02   21.52  49.0 Ib

tan  x 
F y

 21.5
 0.489
F x  44.0

from which  x  360  26  334

Example 2.9. Determine the resultant of the force system shown in Fig. 3.3. Note that the slope of
the action line of each force is indicated in the figure.
y

50 N
1
1
1
x
2
3
1
30 N
100 N

Fig.3-3

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Force Systems

SOLUTION
Force Fx Fy

50 1 1
 50   50
1 12 2
2
3 1
 100   100
100 12  3 2 10
1 2
 30   30
12  2 2 5
30

F x  46.1,  Fy  23.0, and R   46.12   23.02  51.6 N , with  x  207

Example 2.10. Determine the resultant of the parallel system of Fig. 3-4.
SOLUTION
30 N
5N
6m 8m 5m

O
20 N
40 N

Fig.3-4
In Fig. 3-4 the action lines of the forces are vertical as shown.
R  20  30  5  40  25N (i.e., down)
To determine the action line of this 25-N force, choose any moment center O. Since the moment of a
force about a point on its own action line is zero, it is advisable but not necessary to choose O on one
of the given forces. Let O be on the 30-N force.

M o  (20  6)  (30  0)  (5  8)  (40  13)  360 N .m

Then the moment of R must equal -360N m. This means that R, which is down (-), must be placed to
the right of O because only then will its moment be clockwise (-1).
Apply Ra   M o to obtain

360N .m
a  1.44m to the right of O
25N
Note the determination of a without regard to the signs of R or M o but by using reasoning.

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Force Systems

Example 2.11. Determine the resultant of the non-concurrent, nonparallel system shown in Fig. 3-
5(a). Assume that the coordinates are in meters.

y y y
120N By
80N
B
30° Ay R=194N
(8,5) (8,5)
A Bx
(0,3) (0,3)
Cy
100N
C
45° 4.70m
86°
(1,1) (1,1) Cx 90°
O x O x O x
20°
(8,-1) (8,-1) Dx 4.69m
D 50N
(a) Dy
(b)

Fig.3-5
SOLUTION
For convenience the forces are lettered A, B, C, D. The simplest method of attack is to use a tabular
form listing x and y components for each force and also the moment of each component about some
moment center-for this example O. The forces are now replaced with their components at the same
points in the action lines as indicated in Fig. 3-5(b). It may be convenient at times to use components
at a different point in the action line than chat which is given. e-g., force C acting at 45 has an action
line that passes through the origin O. The moment about O is easily seen to be zero in this case.
However, the components used in this example will be shown acting horizontally and vertically
through the given points of application.
The following table is useful in compiling the necessary information. Be sure to place the proper sign
before each component and to determine the moment signs by inspection.

Moment of Fx Moment of Fy
Force cos x sin  x Fx Fy Mo
about O about O
A 0 +1 0 +80.0 0 0 0
B -0.866 +0.500 -103.9 +60.0 +519.5 +480.0 +999.5
C +0.707 +0.707 +70.7 +70.7 -70.7 +70.7 0
D +0.940 -0.342 +47.0 -17.1 +47.0 -136.8 -89.8

F x  13.8 N  F  193.6 N  M  910N .m

y O

 193.6
R  F   F   (13.8)  (193.6)  194N 
2 2 2 2
 tan  86
 13.8
x y A

To find the moment arm of the resultant, divide 910 by 194 to obtain 4.69 m.

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Force Systems

Since R acts upward and slightly to the right. it must be placed as shown because M O is positive:

i.e., R must have a counterclockwise moment.

Another method to locate the action line of the resultant is to determine its intercept with, say. the x
axis. If the components of the resultant are drawn through the intercept on the x axis, the x component
would have no moment about O. The moment would be determined solely by the y component and
would be equal to the product of the y component and the x distance to the intercept (x coordinate of
the intercept).

x
M O

910
 4.70m
F y 193.6

Draw the resultant as shown with the intercept +4.70 m to the right because F y is positive and

M O is positive.

Example 2.12. In Fig. 3-6, the load of 20 Ib/ft is uniformly distributed over the beam of length 6ft.
Determine R and d.
SOLUTION
6 6 360
R   20 dx  120 Ib Rd   x(20) dx  360 Ib. ft d  3 ft
0 0 120
f(x)
R f(x)=20 Ib/ft

O x
dx
x
d
6 ft

Fig.3-6

Example 2.13. In Fig. 3-7, the load is triangular in shape. The height of the diagram at distance x
from the point O is by proportion equal to (x/9)30 N/m. Determine R and d.

SOLUTION
9 x 9 x  810
R (30)dx  135 N Rd  x  (30) dx  810 N  m d  6m
0 9 0
9  135

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Force Systems

f(x) f(x)
1/2
f(x)= 3x
f(x)=(x/ 9)30N/m

R 30N R

O x O x
dx dx
x x
d d
9m l

Fig.3-7 Fig.3-8

Example 2.14. In Fig. 3-8. the load varies as a parabola. Determine R and d.
SOLUTION


6 5/ 2
l l l
R   3x dx  2 x 1/ 2 3/ 2 l
0  2l 3/ 2
Rd   x(3x 1/ 2
)dx  l
6 5/ 2
5
d 5
3/ 2
 0.6l
0 0 2l

SECTION III. RESULTANTS OF NONCOPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS

2.3.1 NONCOPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS

Non-coplanar force systems are categorized as follows. A concurrent system consists of forces that
intersect at a point called the concurrence. A parallel system consists of forces that intersect at infinity.
The most general system is called non concurrent, non-parallel (or skew), and, as the name implies
the forces are not all concurrent and not all parallel.

2.3.2 RESULTANTS OF A NONCOFLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

The resultant of a non-coplanar force system is a force R and a couple C, where R   F , the vector

sum of all forces of the system, and C   M , the vector sum of the moments (relative to a selected

base point) of all the forces of the system. The value of R is independent of the choice of the base
point, but the value of C depends on the base point. For any force system it is possible to select a
unique base point so that the vector C representing the couple is parallel to R. This special
combination is called a wrench or screw.

The vector equations in the preceding paragraph may be applied directly to- non-coplanar systems
to determine the resultant or the following derived scalar equations may be used.

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Force Systems

2.3.3 CONCURRENT SYSTEM

The resultant R may be (a) a single force through the concurrence or (b) zero. Algebraically,

R  F    F    F 
x
2
y
2
z
2

with direction cosines

cos x 
F x
cos y 
F y
cos z 
F z

R R R
where  F , F , F
x y z  algebraic sums of the x, y, and z components respectively, of the forces

of the system
 x , y , z  angles that the resultant R makes with the x, y, and z axes, respectively.

2.3.4 PARALLEL SYSTEM

The resultant may be (a) a single force R parallel to the system, (b) a couple. or (c) zero.
Assume the y axis is parallel to the system. Then. Algebraically,
R   F Rx   M z Rz   M x

where  F  algebraic sum of the forces of the system

x  perpendicular distance from the yz plane to the resultant
z  perpendicular distance from the xy plane to the resultant

M ,M x z  algebraic sums of the moments of the forces of the system about the x and z

axes, respectively.
If  F 0 , the resultant couple C, if there is one, will be determined by the following equation:
C  M    M  2 2
with tan  
M z
x z
M x

where   angle that the vector representing the resultant couple makes with the x axis.

2.3.5 NONCONCURRENT, NONAARALLEL SYSTEM

As already indicated. the resultant is a force and a couple where the couple varies with the choice of
a base point. In the following discussion a set of x, y. and z axes is placed with their origin at the base
point.
Replace each force of the given system by the following setup; (1) an equal parallel force but acting
through any chosen origin and (2) a couple acting in the plane containing the given force and the
origin.
The magnitude of the resultant R of the concurrent system at the origin is given by the equation

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Force Systems

R  F    F    F 
x
2
y
2
z
2

with direction cosines

cos x 
F x
cos y 
F y
cos z 
F z

R R R
where the above quantities have the same meaning as listed in Section CONCURRENT SYSTEM.
The magnitude of the resultant couple C is given by

C  M    M    M 
x
2
y
2
z
2

with direction cosines

cos x 
M x
cos y 
M y
cos z 
M z

C C C
where M ,M ,M
x y z  algebraic sums of the moments of the forces of the system about the

x, y, and z axes respectively

 x . y , z  angles which the vector representing the couple C makes with the x,
y, and z axes respectively.

Example 2.15. Forces of 20, 15, 30, and 50 Ib are concurrent at the origin and are directed through
the points whose coordinates are (2,1,6), (4, -2, 5), (-3, -2, 1), and (5,1,-2), respectively. Determine
the resultant of the system.

SOLUTION
F Coordinate cos x cos y cos z Fx Fy Fz

20 (2,1,6) 2 1 6 +6.26 +3.12 +18.8

 0.313  0.156  0.938
41 41 41
15 (4,-2,5) 4 2 5 +8.96 -4.47 +11.2
 0.597  0.298  0.745
45 45 45
3 2 1
 0.803  0.535  0.268
30 (-3,-2,1) 14 14 14 -24.1 -16.1 +8.04
5 1 2
 0.912  0.183  0.365
30 30 30
50 (5,1,-2) +45.6 +9.15 -18.3

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Force Systems

The denominator in each case is determined by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of x,

y, and z intervals of differences. For the 30-Ib force this is (3) 2  (2) 2  (1) 2  14 .

Fx is the product of F and cos x .Watch signs. It is advisable to write signs before inserting any
values.

F x  6.26  8.96  24.1  45.6  36.7 . Similarly, F y  8.30 and F z  19.7 . Then

R  F    F    F 
x
2
y
2
z
2
 42.5 Ib

cos x 
F x

 36.7
 0.864  x  30.2
R 42.5

cos y 
F y

 8.30
 0.192  y  79.0
R 42.5

cos z 
F z

 19.7
 0.463  z  62.4
R 42.5
The negative value of cos y signifies that the resultant bas a negative component in the y direction.

This is illustrated in Fig. 4-1.

y
Fx R 30 N
x
Fy
x O x
20 N 20 N
z
Fz y
(4,2)
(2,3)
R=42.5 Ib z
z
(5.25,4) (7,4)

Fig.4-1 Fig.4-2

Example 2.16. Three forces of +20 N, -10 N, and +30 N are shown in Fig. 4-2. The y axis is chosen
parallel to the action lines of the forces. These lines pierce the xz plane at the points whose x and z
coordinates in meters are respectively (2,3), (4,2), and (7,4). Locate the resultant.
SOLUTION
R   F  20  10  30  40N

To determine the x coordinate of the resultant (i.e., of the point where the action line of the resultant
pierces the xz plane), use the projected system in the xy plane as shown in Fig. 4-3. Apply the
equation Rx   M z : M z   M O  (20  2)  (10  4)  (30  7)  210N .m

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 28

Force Systems

y y
30 N 30 N

20 N 20 N
10 N 10 N
2m 2m 3m
1m 1m 2m
O x z O

Fig. 4-3 Fig. 4-4

The x coordinate must be such that a force of +40N (acting up) will have a positive or
counterclockwise moment. Therefore, R must be to the right of O.
210
x  5.25m
40
Be sure to determine the sign by inspection as indicated in the previous paragraph, and not by
combining the signs of the moment and the force.
Figure 4-4 shows the projection of the system into the yz plane.

M x   M O  (30  4)  (20  3)  (10  2)  160N .m

The z coordinate must be such that a force of 40 N (acting up) will have a negative or clockwise
moment of 160 Nm. Therefore, R must be to the left of O. In this case the z coordinate is positive
when it is to the left of O (refer to the space diagram).
 160
z   4.00m
40
The problem may now be summarized by saying that the resultant is a 40-N force acting up. Its action
line is parallel to the y axis and pierces the xz plane at the point whose x, z coordinates are (+5.25,
+4.00) m. This is shown in Fig. 4-2.

Example 2.17. Find the resultant of the system of forces shown in Fig. 4-5. The coordinates are in
meters.
SOLUTION
R   F  100  50  150  0

This indicates that the resultant is not a single force. It may, however, be a couple.
Next find M x , and M z as in the preceding problem.

M x  (100 2)  (50  2)  (150 3)  350N .m

M z  (100 2)  (50  4)  (150 8)  800N .m

Since  F  0,  M x and M z represent couples in the yz and xy planes respectively. These

are shown in Fig. 4-6.

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 29

Force Systems

N.m
800
y 50 N

z =-
T m
N.
z

M
(4,-2) 4
87
=
C
O x x
100 N 150 N M x = +350N.m
x = 23.6°
(2,2)

(8,3) T
z z
Fig.4-5 Fig.4-6

The two vectors representing the couples are shown combined into a resultant couple C with
magnitude

C  M    M 
x
2
z
2
 874N .m

The vector C in the .xz plane makes an angle  z with the z axis as shown in figure, where  z   x .
According to the convention about couples, the resultant couple acts in a plane perpendicular to the
vector C representing it. In the figure this could be in a plane containing the y axis with trace TT in
the xz plane.
This trace makes an angle with the x axis of

 x  tan 1
M x
 tan 1
350
 23.6
M z 800

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 30

Equilibrium

CHAPTER III. EQUILIBRIUM

SECTION I. EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS
3.1.1 EQUILIBRIUM OF A COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM
Equilibrium of a coplanar force system occurs if the resultant is neither a force R nor a couple C. The
necessary and sufficient conditions that R and C be zero vectors are
R   F  0 and C   M  0

where  F  0 vector sum of a11 the forces of the system

 M  vector sum of the moments (relative to any point) of all the forces of the system.
The two vector equations above may be applied directly, or the following derived scalar equations
may be used for the three types of coplanar systems.

3.1.2 TWO-FQRCE MEMBERS

A two-force member is in equilibrium under the effect of two resultant forces. one at each end, which
are equal in magnitude but opposite in sense. Each resultant force acts along the member. Thus the
force effect of a two-force member that is in contact with any other body must act in the direction of
the two-force member. Any member on which the resultant force at each end does not act in the
direction of (along) the number is called a three-force member.

3.1.3 CONCURRENT SYSTEM

Any of the following sets of equations ensures equilibrium of a concurrent system: i.e., the resultant
is zero. Assume concurrency at origin.
Equations of
Set Remarks
Equilibrium
(1) F x 0 F x  algebraic sum of the x components of the forces of the system.
A
(2) F y 0 F y  algebraic sum of the y components of the forces of the system.

(1) F x 0 M A  algebraic sum of the moments of the forces of the system about
B
(2) M A 0 A, which may be chosen any place in the plane except on the y axis

(1) M A 0 M A and M B  algebraic sums of the moment of the forces of the

C system about A and B, which may be chosen any place in the plane
(2) M B 0
provided A, B, and the origin do not lie on the same straight line

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 31

Equilibrium

It only three nonparallel forces act in a plane on a body in equilibrium, these three forces must be
concurrent.

3.1.4 PARALLEL SYSTEM

Any of the following sets of equations ensures equilibrium of a parallel system: i.e., the resultant is
neither a force nor a couple.
Equations of
Set Remarks
Equilibrium
A (1) F  0  F  algebraic sum of the forces of the system parallel to the action
lines of the forces.
(2) M A 0 M A  algebraic sum of the moments of the forces of the system about

any point A in the place

B
(1) M A 0 M A and M B  algebraic sums of the moment of the forces of the

(2) M B 0 system about A and B, which may be chosen any place in the plane
provided the line joining A and B is not parallel to the forces of the
system

3.1.5 NONCONCURRENT, NONPARALLEL SYSTEM

Any of the following sets of equations ensures equilibrium of a non-concurrent, nonparallel system;
i.e., the resultant is neither a force nor a couple.
Equations of
Set Remarks
Equilibrium
(1) F x 0 F x  algebraic sum of x components of the forces
A
(2) F y 0 F y  algebraic sum of y components of the forces

(3) M A 0 M A  algebraic sum of the moments of the forces of the system about

any point A in the place

F x  algebraic sum of x components of the forces

(1) F x 0
M A and M B  algebraic sums of the moment of the forces of the
M
B
(2) A 0 system about any two points A and B in the plane provided that the line
(3) M B 0 joining A and B is not perpendicular to the x-axis

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 32

Equilibrium

(1) M A 0 M ,  M
A B and M C  algebraic sums of the moment of the forces

(2) M B 0 of the system about any three point A,B and C in the plane provided that
C
A, B, and C do not lie on the same straight line
(3) M C 0

3.1.6 REMARKS: FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS

In the solution of the problems, the following comments may be of assistance.

1. Draw free-body diagrams. The force system being analyzed will he holding a body or system
of bodies in equilibrium. A free-body diagram is a sketch of the body (bodies) showing all
external forces acting on the body (bodies). These include (a) all active forces, such as applied
loads and gravity forces. and (b) all reactive forces. The latter forces are supplied by the ground,
walls, pins, rollers, cables, or other means. A roller or knife-edge support means that the
reaction there is shown perpendicular to the member. A pin connection means the reaction can
be at any angle--it is represented by a force at an unknown angle or by using components of the
pin reaction, e.g., Ax and Ay in a plane.

2. Note further that if the angle the reaction makes is known, the sense is then assumed along the
reaction line. A positive sign in the result indicates that proper sense was assumed. A negative
sign indicates the reactive force has the opposite sense to that assumed.
3. It may not be necessary to use all three equations of a set to obtain a solution. The proper choice
of a moment center. for example, may yield an equation containing only one unknown.
4. The x and y axes in the above equations need not necessarily be chosen horizontally and
vertically, respectively. Actually, if a system is in equilibrium. the algebraic sum of the scalar
components of the system along any axis must be zero.
5. In the diagrams, a force is identified by its magnitude if the direction and sense are readily
apparent.
6. The Force in a spring is equal to the product of its spring constant k and its deformation from
the unstressed position. In U.S. Customary units. k is in Ib/in; thus F = [k(Ib/in)][x(in)] = kx(Ib).
In SI Units. k is in N/m or N/mm: thus F = [k(N/m)][x[m)] = kx(N).

Example 3-1. Figure 5-1(a) shows a 25-Ib lamp supported by two cables AB and AC. Find the tension
in each cable.

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 33

Equilibrium

4' 6'
4' 6'
B B C
C
2' 2'
T AB TAC
A A
25 Ib
(a) (b)

Fig.5-1
SOLUTION
A free-body diagram of the knot at A is shown in Fig 5-l(b) with the 25-Ib force (weight of lamp)
acting vertically down and the tensions in AC and AB.
Using Set A of the equations for a concurrent system, we have
6 4
F x  0  TAC
40
 TAB
20
(1)

2 2
F y  0  TAC
40
 TAB
20
 25 (2)

There are two equations in two unknowns. The problem is therefore statically determinate: i.e., it
can be solved.
From equation (1 ), TAC  2
3
2 TAB  0.942TAB , Substituting into (2),

2 2
0.942 TAB  TAB  25  0
40 20
from which TAB  33.16 Ib and TAC  0.942TAB  31.7 Ib .
The solution could be obtained by using Sets B or C for a concurrent system. By choosing a moment
center on one of the unknown forces, an equation is obtained that yields one unknown. Suppose, for
example, point B is chosen as a moment center. Then
2 6
M B  0  25  4  TAC 
40
 4  TAC 
40
2 or TAC  31.7 Ib

The moment of the force T AC is equal to the moment of its components taken about point B. Another

moment center, say at C, will yield equation involving only the unknown TAB .

Example 3-2. Determine the horizontal force P necessary to push the 100-Ib roller in Fig. 5-2(a) over
the 2-in obstruction. The roller is smooth.

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 34

Equilibrium

100 Ib
16''

P P
2'' 16''
14''

(a) (b) N

Fig.5-2
SOLUTION
The free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 5-2(b). At the instant the roller starts to pass aver the
obstruction the reaction at the floor goes to zero. The reaction moves to N at the corner of the
obstruction, and is normal to the surface of the roller. The angle   sin 1 (14 / 16)  61 . The
equations of equilibrium are

F r  N sin  N sin 61  100  0 N  114.3 Ib

F h  P  N cos 61  0 P  55.4 Ib

Example 3-3. A and B, weighing 40 Ib and 30 Ib, respectively rest on smooth planes as shown in
Fig. 5-3. They are connected by a weightless cord passing over a frictionless pulley. Determine the
angle  and the tension in the cord for equilibrium.

C T
T
A B
A B N
Nn n
30°
30°

40 Ib 30 Ib

(a) (b)

Fig.5-3 Fig.5-4
SOLUTION
Draw free-body diagrams of Fig. 5-4(a) and (b).
There are three unknowns in Fig. 5-4(b): T , N n , and  . Since only two equations are available, the
system seems statically indeterminate as it stands. However, Fig. 5-4(a) contains only two unknowns
including T which also occurs in Fig. 5-4(b), thereby making the system determinate when T has
been found.

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 35

Equilibrium

Summing forces parallel to the 30 plane, the equation of equilibrium obtained is

 F  0  T  40sin 30 or T  20 Ib

Returning to Fig. 5-4(b) and summing forces parallel to the plane, we have
T 2
 F  0  T  30sin sin  
30 3
  41.8

Example 3-4. A beam considered weightless is loaded with concentrated loads as shown in Fig. 5-
5(a). Determine the reactions at A and B.

125 N 200 N 340 N 180 N 125 N 200 N 340 N 180 N

7m 7m 5m
A B

A B 4m 3m
4m 17 m 10 m
15 m
17 m
RA RB
(a) (b)

Fig.5-5
SOLUTION
To find beam reactions RA and RB shown in Fig. 5-5(b), it is advisable to take moments about A and
then about B. In this way each equation yields only one unknown. Each reaction is thus found
independently of the other. Then the summation of the forces should equal zero, providing an
excellent check. Many readers may prefer to determine one reaction by a moment equation and then
determine the other by the sum of the forces. This is, of course, a correct procedure. But the authors
prefer the two summations of moments. thereby reserving the summation of forces as a check
equation. Using this procedure, the two equations are

M A  0  (125 4)  (200 3)  (34010)  (18015)  RB 17 or RB  365 N (1)

M B  0  (12521)  R A 17  (20014)  (340 7)  (1180 2) or R A  480 N (2)

Checking,  F  125  480  200  340  180  365  0 . This sum should, within the limits of

accuracy, equal zero. Since it does, the beam reactions are correct.

SECTION II. EQUILIBRIUM OF NON COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS

3.2.1 EQUILIBRIUM OF A NONCOPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM
Equilibrium of a non-coplanar force system occurs if the resultant is neither a force R nor a couple
C. The necessary and sufficient conditions that R and C be zero vectors are

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 36

Equilibrium

R   F  0 and C   M  0

where  F  0 vector sum of all the forces of the system

 M  vector sum of the moments (relative to any point) of all the forces of the system.
The two vector equations above may be applied directly or, in the simpler problems, the following
derived scalar equations may be used for the three types of non-coplanar systems.

1. CONCURRENT SYSTEM
The following set of equations ensures equilibrium of a concurrent, non-coplanar system of forces:

F x 0 (1)

F y 0 (2)

F z 0 (3)

where F , F , F
x y z  algebraic sums of the x, y, and z components, respectively, of the forces

of the system.

M  0 may be used as an alternative to one of the above equations. For example, if it replaces

equation (3) then M must be the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces of the system about

an axis neither parallel to nor intersecting the z axis.

2. PARALLEL SYSTEM
The following set of equations ensures equilibrium of a parallel, noncoplanar system of forces:

F y 0 (1)

M x 0 (2)

M z 0 (3)

where F y  algebraic sum of the forces of the system along the y axis, which is chosen parallel

to the system

M ,M x z  algebraic sums of the moments of the forces of the system about the x and z

axes, respectively.

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 37

Equilibrium

3. NONCONCURRENT, NONPARALLEL SYSTEM

The following six equations are necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium of the most
general force system in three-dimensional space:

F x 0 (1)

F y 0 (2)

F  0 z (3)

M  0 x (4)

M y 0 (5)

M z 0 (6)

where  F , F , F
x y z  algebraic sums of the x, y, and z components, respectively, of the forces

of the system

 M , M ,  M
x y z  algebraic sums of the moments of the forces of the system about the x. y, and

z axes, respectively.
All systems previously studied are special cases of this system. Not all of the six equations are
necessary in these special cases.

Example 3-5. In Fig. 6-1, a pole 30 ft high is shown supporting a wire in the xy plane. The wire exerts
a force of 150 Ib on the top of the pole at an angle of 10 below the horizontal. Two guy wires are
affixed as shown. Determine the tension in each guy wire and the compression in the pole.

Solution
Since the pole is subjected only to end loads, it is a two-force member carrying an axial compressive
load P. For the concurrent system shown in the free-body diagram (see Fig. 6-2).

F z  0   A cos60 sin 30  B cos60 sin 30 or A B

and

F x  0  150cos10  B cos60 cos30  A cos60 cos30

Substituting A for B and solving, we obtain A  170 Ib T .

To determine P, sum the forces vertically along the y axis.

F y  0  P  150sin10  2 A sin 60 or P  322 Ib C

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 38

Equilibrium

O x y
10°

150 Ib O
x

30 '
B
60° z
150 Ib
P
30° C B
30° z
A
60°
A,B,C in a horizontal plane
A

Fig.6-1 Fig.6-2

Example 3-6. A table 600 mm by 600 mm is mounted on three legs. Four loads are applied as show
in Fig. 6-3. Determine the three reactions. Since three equations are available for a parallel system,
only three supports are necessary.

O x
10 N
30 N R3
(400,200)
(200,300)
20 N 50 N

(200,500) (400,500)

z R1 R2
Fig.6-3
Solution
Applying the three equations of the parallel system, the following equations result:

F y  0  R1  R 2  R3  20  30  10  50 (1)

M x  0   R1  600  R2  600  20  500  30  300  50  500  10  200 (2)

M z  0   R2  600  R3  600  20  200  50  400  10  400  30  200 (3)

Upon simplification, these become

R1  R2  R3  110 (1 )
R1  R2  76.7 ( 2 )
R2  R3  56.7 ( 3 )

Engineering Mechanics by OLENG (0703688747) 39

Equilibrium

Substitute R1  R2  76.7 into equation ( 1 ) to obtain 76.7  R3  110, or R3  33.3 N .

Substitute R2  R3  56.7 into equation ( 1 ) to obtain R1  56.7  110, or R1  53.3 N .

Finally, from equation ( 1 ) , R2  110  R1  R3  23.4 N .

Note: Another method of solving is to sum moments about edges R1 R2 and R2 R3 to obtain R3 and R1
respectively.