PhD Coursework- JULY 2024 Batch

Research Methodology & Computer Application (PPD-101) (Common for

Ph.D. Scholars)

Student Id- 2446467

Name- Mukesh Kumar Bhardwaj
Stream-Pharmacy

Assignment-2
Unit.2 Defining the Research Problem, Unit.3 Sample Design
Q.1 What is a research problem? Mention criteria for selecting a research problem.
Ans.- Research problem is defined as the specific issue , gap, difficulty or deficiency in any research
work of any research area of concern as the focus of their investigation that has not been analyzed
due to any reason and which requires further solution to compensate that gap or deficiency. A
research problem guides the objectives, methodology, and overall direction of the study.
Selection of a research problem is itself a very important for carrying out further research because
there is a limited range of reachable problems in sciences, but there is an inability to locate the
socially relevant topic without duplicating earlier studies.
Following are the criteria for selecting a research problem-
1. Relevant and Significant- Most important thing in selecting a research problem is that it
should have relevance and significance that contribute to field of study, society or related
industry any other field.
Secondly, it should have either practical or theoretical implications while the range of
problems accessible in the sciences is limited, it is often challenging to identify socially
relevant topics without duplicating previous studies.
2. Originality- The research problem should explore new areas or provide a fresh perspective
on an existing topic and it should aim to fill knowledge gaps or improve existing practices.
3. Feasibility-The problem should be manageable within the resources (time, funds, and
expertise) available to the researcher and also it should be possible to conduct the study
within the given timeframe and scope.
4. Specificity-The problem should be clearly defined and focused to avoid being too broad or
vague. Secondly, a well-defined problem leads to precise objectives and effective research.

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 5. Researchable- The problem should be amenable to empirical investigation using scientific
methods. The problem must be concerned with the relationships between two or more
variables that can be defined and measured or explained. Also, there should be enough
available data or the possibility of collecting data to address the problem.

6. Interest and Expertise-The researcher should have a genuine interest in the problem to stay
motivated throughout the study. The researcher should also have some level of expertise or
familiarity with the topic.

7. Ethical Considerations-The problem should adhere to ethical standards and not involve
harm to individuals, communities, or the environment.Ensure that informed consent and
confidentiality can be maintained.

8. Alignment with Goals-For academic research, the problem should align with the academic
institution’s or funding agency’s objectives. It should also fit the researcher’s career or
academic goals.

9. To narrow and too vague research problem should be avoided.

Q.2 What do you mean by “Problem Statement”? Give suitable examples.

Ans.- The foundation and focal point of the research report is the problem statement, which should be
a clear, concise, stand-alone statement that clearly states what the researcher hopes to find or
establish. A good problem statement should include the problem to be found, its severity, its
existence, and its significance and scope.
For example2-
Problem: Antibiotic resistance is increasing worldwide, yet there is limited information on its
prevalence in rural communities.
Context: Most studies primarily concentrate on urban hospitals, often neglecting rural
healthcare systems.
Aim: This research aims to examine the extent of antibiotic resistance in rural areas and propose
targeted interventions.

Q.3 How a social problem is different from a research problem?

Ans.- A social problem differs from research problem in many aspects and depends on different
variables too. Differences between social and research problem is discussed below3-
Aspect Social Problem Research Problem
It involves society at large and has The term refers to a particular problem,
broader framework query, or knowledge gap that needs more
Definition research to produce fresh perspectives or
answers and has a narrow context, mostly in
academia or industry.
Objective It serves as a trigger or a launch pad for In order to describe, explain, forecast, and
the formulation of research problems ultimately solve societal problems,

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 researchers must rely on their research
findings.
It is subjective and depends on the Objective, systematic, and can be empirically
context, shaped by factors like cultural, investigated using scientific methods.
political, and historical. It is formulated by researchers and can be
Nature It is a onetime problem and cannot be repeated as per researchers requirement/s.
repeated once it is tackled. Research study causes no such disruption
A social problem causes disruption in other than minor intrusions into the
the smooth running of the social order respondents’ lives.
Its scope is broad and often involving Narrow and focused, typically within a
multiple disciplines like sociology, specific discipline or area of research.
Scope
cultural, religioneous, economics, and
policy studies.
Society-wide concerns (macro-level),
Focused inquiry (micro-level), such as the
such as poverty, inequality, or climate
Focus causes of poverty in rural areas or strategies
change and have elements of public
for reducing workplace inequality.
concern.
To create awareness, advocate for To generate knowledge, test hypotheses, and
Goal change, and develop policies to address provide data-driven solutions or theoretical
societal issues. frameworks.
- Factors contributing to homelessness in a
- Homelessness in urban areas.
specific city.
- Barriers to achieving gender equality in
- Gender inequality in workplaces.
corporate leadership.
Examples - Impact of vocational training on youth
- Unemployment among youth.
employment.
- researchers could be interested in the role of
- Riots, global warming,
media in covering communal riots
- Female foeticide etc awareness of female foeticide.
Often addressed through advocacy, Investigated through systematic research
Approach policy changes, or public initiatives, by using qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
intuitive thinking, common sense etc. methods.
Solutions or interventions that aim to Research findings, theories, or practical
improve societal well-being. For recommendations related to the problem
example, a social problem deals with address propositions. For example, early
mandatory propositions (e.g., the legal marriage can lead to health issues, or literacy
Output
age of marriage is 18 years) or can promote social awareness. The validity of
normative propositions (e.g., literacy both statements can be tested through
should serve as the foundation of a research.
nation).

Q.4 List the sources of information for conducting a review of literature.

Ans.- A literature review involves collecting, analyzing, and synthesizing existing research to identify
gaps, establish the context of a study, and inform research objectives. The following are key
sources of information used to conduct a literature review4-5:-

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 Category Source Description
- Research articles in peer-
Original, firsthand research
reviewed journals.
Primary Sources conducted by authors, containing
- Conference proceedings.
methods, results, and conclusions.
- Theses and dissertations.
- Review articles. Summaries or analyses of primary
Secondary Sources - Books or book chapters sources, providing a broader
summarizing research. perspective.
- Encyclopedias. Provide overviews and definitions
Tertiary Sources - Handbooks. of concepts, helping to
- Dictionaries. contextualize a topic.
- PubMed (for medical and life
sciences). Repositories of scholarly articles
Academic
- Scopus. and research papers relevant to
Databases
- Web of Science. various disciplines.
- JSTOR.
- Reports by government
Provide data and insights on
Institutional organizations (e.g., WHO, FAO).
specific issues, often with a policy
Reports - Reports from NGOs and
focus.
research institutions.
- Unpublished reports. Non-commercial, non-peer-
Grey Literature - Working papers. reviewed materials offering
- Policy briefs. valuable data and insights.
- E-books.
Easily accessible resources that
Electronic - Online research platforms (e.g.,
provide diverse academic and
Resources Google Scholar).
scholarly content.
- Open Access Journals.
Help trace foundational studies or
- References cited in journal
Reference Lists additional readings relevant to the
articles, books, and theses.
topic.
- Academic conferences. Provide access to the latest research
Professional
- Seminars and webinars. trends and expert opinions on the
Networks
- Expert interviews. topic.
Comprehensive collections of
- University libraries.
Libraries books, journals, and other academic
- National archives.
resources.

Q.5 How can you determine the relevance of your PhD topic?
Ans.- Relevance of the Phd topic can be determined by fulfilling following objectives-
Checklist for Relevance6-7-
i. Whether it aligns with your interests and expertise?
ii. Whether it addresses a gap or advance knowledge in the field?
iii. Whether it is feasible within the time and resources available?
iv. Whether it has societal, practical, or industrial significance?
v. Whether it aligns with future career opportunities?

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 1. Alignment with Personal and Academic Interests- Choose a topic that resonates with your
passions and aligns with your academic background. Selecting a subject that interests you
will help keep you motivated throughout the research process. Additionally, consider
incorporating elements from past coursework, projects, or professional experiences that have
intrigued you.
2. Contribution to the Field of Study-Assess whether your topic fills a knowledge gap or
enhances understanding within your field. Investigate the current literature to identify areas
that require further exploration. Use academic databases such as Scopus or Web of Science
to find recent studies and ongoing research in your area of interest.

3. Originality and Innovation- The topic should provide a fresh perspective or a novel
solution to an existing problem. Ensure your idea is original and contributes new insights by
reviewing dissertations, theses, and research papers to avoid overly researched or outdated
topics.
4. Alignment with Supervisor’s Expertise-Align your topic with the expertise of potential
supervisors, as their mentorship is crucial for your success. Before finalizing your topic,
explore the research interests of faculty members in your department to enhance your
chances of receiving valuable support.
5. Feasibility-Evaluate the feasibility of the topic regsarding time, resources, and expertise.
Confirm access to necessary data, equipment, or participants for the research by consulting
with advisors or experts in the field to ensure the topic's practicality.
6. Societal and Practical Relevance-A Choosing a relevant PhD topic provides an excellent
opportunity to tackle real-world problems and address societal challenges. To make a
meaningful impact, consider exploring research areas that resonate with current global or
local issues, such as sustainability, healthcare, or technological innovation. By aligning your
research with these themes, you can contribute valuable insights and solutions to pressing
concerns in our world today.
7. Future Opportunities-Consider how the topic aligns with your career goals or future
research opportunities. A relevant topic can open doors to academic, industrial, or policy-
oriented roles by searching for topics that address emerging trends or technologies in your
field.

Q.6 Describe technique of defining a research problem.

Ans.- Research problem is a condition, situation or circumstance that requires a solution to be
described, explained, or predicted. Initially, a research problem highlights a gap or contradiction
in the knowledge, or you can formulate a research problem to provide additional information to
a topic.
Defining a research problem is a critical step in the research process, as it lays the foundation for
the entire study. Techniques involved are:
•Statement of the problem in a general way
•Understanding the nature of the problem
•Surveying the available literature
•Developing the ideas through discussions
•Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition
Below are the key techniques to systematically define a research problem8-9:

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
1. Understanding the Problem Area & the nature of the problem-Gain a thorough
understanding of the subject area by reviewing existing literature, consulting experts, and
analyzing trends.
Steps involved are –
i. Identify gaps in existing research.
ii. Highlight unresolved questions or inconsistencies.
For example: In education, a researcher may identify inconsistent results in studies
about the effectiveness of online learning during the pandemic.

2. Formulating Research Questions- Transform broad topics into focused, specific, and
researchable questions.
Steps involved are –
i. Start with a broad question and narrow it down.
ii. Ensure the question is clear, concise, and feasible to address.
For example: Instead of asking, “How does technology affect education?”, refine the
question to “What is the impact of gamification on students' engagement in primary
schools?”.

3. Identifying Objectives-Clearly define the purpose of the research by setting

objectives that guide the study.
Steps involved are –
i. State the general objective (e.g., "to study the impact of X on Y").
ii. Break it into specific objectives (e.g., "to examine the factors influencing X"
or "to analyze the outcomes of Y").
For example: A study on climate change might have the general objective of “assessing
the impact of urbanization on local weather patterns.”

4. Analyzing the Problem Context- Study the context in which the problem exists,
including its causes, consequences, and stakeholders.
Steps involved are –
i. Identify the geographical, social, or organizational context.
ii. Understand the historical background and current relevance.
For example: A study on youth unemployment would analyze economic conditions,
educational gaps, and policy frameworks affecting employment.

5. Evaluating Feasibility-Assess the practical aspects of addressing the problem,

including resource availability, timeline, and data access.
Steps involved are –
i. Ask whether the research can be completed within the available resources and
timeframe.
ii. Determine if data sources are accessible.
For example: Studying rare diseases might require extensive resources and access to
specialized medical facilities.

6. Stating the Problem Precisely-Write a clear and concise problem statement that
reflects the essence of the research.
Steps involved are –

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 i. Use operational definitions to clarify terms.
ii. Focus on a single issue or question.
For example: Instead of writing, “This study examines poverty,” write, “This study
investigates the impact of microfinance initiatives on reducing poverty levels among
rural households in India.”

Q.7 Define the main issues which should receive the attention of the researcher in formulating
the research problem. Give suitable examples to elucidate your points.
Ans- Formulating a research problem is a critical step in any research process. A well-defined problem
ensures clarity, relevance, and feasibility of the research. Main issues to be taken under consideration
while formulating a research problem are as follow10-
1. Interest
2. Magnitude
3. Measurement of concepts
4. Level of expertise
5. Relevance
6. Data availability
7. Ethical issues

Below are the main issues that should receive attention when formulating a research problem,
along with examples for better understanding:-
1. Relevance of the Problem
i. What to Address: The problem should address a significant gap in knowledge or a
pressing societal, industrial, or academic issue.
ii. Why It Matters: Research should contribute meaningfully to the field or have
practical implications.
For example: In public health, addressing the “Impact of vaccine hesitancy on childhood
immunization rates” is relevant due to its global health implications.

2. Novelty and Originality

i. What to Address: The problem should contribute something new or innovative to
the field.
ii. Why It Matters: Research lacking originality may not add value and might face
rejection in academic or professional settings.
For example: Instead of revisiting the general effects of social media, a novel approach
might focus on “The influence of TikTok algorithms on mental health among teenagers.”

3. Clarity and Precision11

i. What to Address: The research problem must be stated clearly and concisely to
avoid ambiguity.
ii. Why It Matters: A vague problem leads to confusion in research objectives and
methodology.

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 For example: Instead of writing “Impact of education on employment,” a more precise
problem statement would be “The role of vocational training programs in improving
employment opportunities among high school graduates.”

4. Feasibility and Practicality

i. What to Address: Consider the availability of resources, data, and time required
to conduct the research.
ii. Why It Matters: An overly ambitious or impractical research problem can lead to
project delays or failure.
For example: Studying “The long-term impact of artificial intelligence on global labor
markets” may be too broad, whereas “The adoption of AI tools in the manufacturing
industry of Country X over five years” is more feasible.

5. Researchability
i. What to Address: The problem must be researchable, meaning it should allow for
empirical investigation.
ii. Why It Matters: If the problem cannot be studied through available methods or
tools, the research will not yield valid results.
For example: The question “What is the nature of life after death?” is philosophical and
non-researchable, while “What are the psychological impacts of near-death experiences
on individuals?” is researchable.

6. Ethical Considerations
i. What to Address: Ensure the research does not harm participants and complies with
ethical guidelines.
ii. Why It Matters: Ethical issues can undermine the credibility and acceptance of the
research.
For example: Research on “Genetic predisposition to criminal behavior” must
safeguard participant anonymity and prevent stigmatization.

7. Alignment with Goals and Expertise

i. What to Address: The research problem should align with the researcher’s skills,
academic background, and career goals.
ii. Why It Matters: Misalignment may lead to difficulties in understanding or
executing the project effectively.
For example: A researcher with a background in microbiology may focus on “The
efficacy of probiotic treatments for gut health disorders” rather than on an unrelated
field like quantum physics.

8. Impact on Stakeholders
i. What to Address: Consider how the research will benefit stakeholders, including
communities, industries, or policymakers.
ii. Why It Matters: A problem with direct impact is more likely to attract funding and
interest.

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 For example: Researching “The effectiveness of renewable energy policies in reducing
carbon emissions” could influence future policy decisions.

Q.8 “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow down the problem itself as well
as the technique that might be used.” Explain the underlying idea in this statement in the
context of defining a research problem.
Ans- The statement, “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow down the problem itself
as well as the technique that might be used,” highlights the critical role of data availability in shaping
and refining a research problem. When defining a research problem, the researcher must consider the
data that can be accessed, as this directly influences both the scope of the problem and the methods used
to address it. Below is a detailed explanation of the underlying idea12-13:

1. Impact of Data Availability on Problem Scope- Reflect on how this topic can enhance your
career aspirations and future research possibilities. Engaging with a relevant topic not only
expands your knowledge but also creates opportunities in academic, industrial, and policy-
oriented roles. Focus on identifying emerging trends or technologies in your field, as they can
significantly contribute to your professional growth and open new pathways for success.
2. Influence on Research Objectives- The availability of data plays a crucial role in shaping the
questions we can explore and answer. When we have access to comprehensive data, we can dive
deeper into specific aspects of a problem, leading to more insightful research. On the other hand,
while limited data may initially seem restrictive, it can also encourage us to engage in
exploratory or broader analyses, fostering creative thinking and new perspectives.
For example: A study on consumer preferences for sustainable products can focus on specific
demographics if detailed consumer survey data are available.
3. Determining the Feasibility of the Study-The research problems must be practically feasible to
investigate. In lack of accessible, reliable, and sufficient data, the research problem may become
impossible or too costly to address.
For example: A researcher intending to study the long-term effects of a rare genetic disorder
may find the study infeasible if patient records or longitudinal data are inaccessible.
4. Guiding Methodological Decisions: Data availability has a direct impact on the choice of
research techniques and methodologies. Quantitative methods require numerical data, while
qualitative methods often rely on interviews or case studies.
For example: If the researcher has access to a large dataset of sales transactions, they might
employ statistical techniques like regression analysis. However, if only qualitative feedback is
available, methods like thematic analysis would be more appropriate.
5. Refining Hypotheses- The presence of data allows researchers to create testable and measurable
hypotheses, ensuring that the research problem is anchored in observable evidence.
For example: A researcher studying urban traffic congestion might hypothesize that increased
public transport usage reduces congestion if data on public transport ridership and traffic flow
are available.
6. Avoiding Redundancy or Unrealistic Goals- Understanding the data helps researchers avoid
redundant problems that have already been addressed by existing information, as well as
prevents the setting of unrealistic goals that surpass the limits of the available data.For example:
If data on global carbon emissions trends are readily available, a researcher might shift their
focus from measuring emissions to analyzing the effectiveness of carbon reduction policies.

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
Q.9 “The task of defining the research problem often follows a sequential pattern”. Explain.
Ans- Defining a research problem involves a systematic and sequential approach to ensure that the
research process is clear, focused, and actionable. Below is a step-by-step explanation of this
sequential pattern14-15-
1. Identification of the Broad Problem Area-The researcher begins by identifying a general area
of interest or an issue that requires investigation. This step often stems from gaps in existing
literature, personal interests, societal needs, or professional challenges.
For example: A researcher interested in healthcare might start with the broad area of
“improving patient satisfaction in hospitals.”
2. Literature Review: Conducting a thorough review of existing research helps the researcher
understand what has already been studied, identify gaps, and refine the problem area.
For example: In the context of patient satisfaction, the researcher might review studies on wait
times, communication, and facility management to identify specific gaps.
3. Understanding the Problem Context-The researcher analyzes the context in which the
problem exists, including relevant factors such as geographic location, cultural settings, and
affected stakeholders.
For example: A study on “rural healthcare accessibility” would consider the geographic and
socioeconomic barriers in rural areas.
4. Narrowing the Focus: After exploring the broader area, the researcher narrows the focus to a
specific issue or aspect that can be feasibly studied within the available resources and time.
For example: From “patient satisfaction in hospitals,” the focus could shift to “the impact of
nurse-patient communication on patient satisfaction in urban hospitals.”
5. Problem Statement Formulation: The researcher formulates a clear and concise statement that
defines the specific problem, its scope, and its significance.
For example: “This study aims to examine how communication between nurses and patients
influences patient satisfaction in urban healthcare facilities.”
6. Identifying Variables and Hypotheses: The researcher identifies key variables (independent,
dependent, or control variables) and develops hypotheses to guide the study.
For example: In the context of patient satisfaction, variables could include communication style,
response time, and overall satisfaction ratings.
7. Assessing Feasibility and Ethics: The researcher evaluates whether the problem can be studied
within available resources (time, funds, and expertise) and ensures ethical considerations are
met.
For example: If data on nurse-patient interactions cannot be obtained due to privacy concerns,
the study design may need modification.
8. Finalizing the Research Problem: The researcher finalizes the problem, ensuring it is specific,
measurable, and researchable. This step also involves writing a formal problem statement and
setting research objectives.
For example: “This research will investigate how nurse communication styles affect patient
satisfaction scores in hospitals across urban areas in Country X.”

Q.10 Explain the importance of choosing an appropriate sampling in research? Discuss

various steps involved in sample design.
Ans- Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals, objects, or data points from a larger
population to represent the whole. Proper sampling is crucial for the validity, reliability, and
generalizability of research findings. Below are the reasons why choosing an appropriate

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 sampling method is essential16:
Importance of Sampling are briefed as follow-
1. Representation of the Population-Ensures that the sample reflects the characteristics of the
entire population, leading to accurate conclusions.
For example: In a study on consumer preferences, a diverse sample ensures that all demographic
groups are represented.
2. Cost and Time Efficiency-Sampling allows researchers to study a manageable portion of the
population, reducing costs and saving time.
For example: Surveying 1,000 people instead of the entire population of a country.
3. Improved Accuracy and Precision- Researchers can minimize bias and increase the reliability
of results by using suitable sampling techniques
For example: Random sampling reduces the chances of systematic errors.
4. Ethical Considerations-Appropriate sampling reduces the need to involve every member of the
population, which can be intrusive or impractical.
For example: In medical trials, only a subset of patients is tested instead of exposing the entire
population.
5. Generalizability of Results-Very well-chosen samples enables researchers to make valid
generalizations about the population. For example: A stratified sample of voters ensures that
election predictions are applicable to the entire voting population.

Steps Involved in Sample Design

Sample design is the process of systematically selecting a sample from a population to ensure that the
sample accurately represents that population. This process involves several key steps to ensure that the
selection is appropriate, efficient, and unbiased. Here’s a breakdown of these steps18:-
1. Define the Target Population
Description: The first step is to define the population of interest, which includes identifying the
characteristics that qualify an individual or object for inclusion in the study.
Objective: Ensures that the research focuses on the right group.
Example: In a study of high school students’ academic performance, the target population might
include all high school students in a specific district or country.

2. Specify the Sampling Frame

Description: The sampling frame is a list or database that represents the entire population from
which the sample will be drawn. A good sampling frame minimizes the possibility of excluding
relevant individuals or including irrelevant ones.
Objective: To identify a reliable and complete list for sampling.
Example: Using a school enrollment database as the sampling frame for a study on student
attendance.

3. Determine the Sampling Technique

Description: Select an appropriate sampling method based on the study’s objectives and the
nature of the population. Sampling techniques are broadly classified into:
Probability Sampling: Random selection methods, such as simple random sampling, stratified
sampling, or cluster sampling.
Non-Probability Sampling: Non-random selection methods, such as convenience sampling,
quota sampling, or judgmental sampling.
Objective: To choose a method that ensures a representative and unbiased sample.

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 Example: Stratified sampling might be used to ensure representation of students from different
grade levels.

4. Determine the Sample Size

Description: Decide on the number of individuals or elements to include in the sample. The
sample size depends on factors such as:
o Desired level of accuracy.
o Population size.
o Variability in the population.
o Budget and time constraints.

Objective: To ensure that the sample is large enough to provide statistically reliable results but
not as large as to waste resources.
Example: Calculating a sample size of 400 respondents to achieve a 95% confidence level with
a 5% margin of error.

5. Select the Sampling Units-

Description: Sampling units are the individual elements of the population that will be studied.
These units can be individuals, households, organizations, or geographical regions, depending
on the study.
Objective: To clearly define what constitutes a unit of analysis in the sample.
Example: In a study on family income levels, the sampling unit might be households.

6. Execute the Sampling Process

Description: Implement the chosen sampling method to select the sample from the frame. Care
should be taken to minimize bias and ensure consistency during the process.
Objective: To extract the sample according to the predefined methodology.
Example: If using systematic sampling, the researcher might select every 10th name from a list.

7. Validate the Sample

Description: Assess whether the sample is representative of the population by comparing its
characteristics with those of the entire population.
Objective: To ensure the reliability and generalizability of the study results.
Example: Checking whether a sample of survey respondents includes appropriate proportions of
gender, age, and socioeconomic groups.

Q.11 Discuss different criteria for selecting a sample procedure.

Ans- Selecting a sampling procedure is a critical step in research as it determines the reliability,
validity, and generalizability of the findings. The choice of a sampling method depends on
several criteria, which can vary based on the research objectives, population characteristics,
resources, and desired level of accuracy. Below are the main criteria to consider when selecting
a sampling procedure19-20:-

1. Nature of the Research Study-The purpose and design of the study play a significant role
in determining the sampling procedure.
Types of Studies:

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Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 a. Descriptive Studies: Often require larger and more representative samples using
probability sampling methods.
b. Exploratory Studies: Can use non-probability sampling methods due to their focus
on depth rather than breadth.
For ex. - A national survey on public health would use stratified random sampling, while a
case study on workplace dynamics might use purposive sampling.

2. Population Characteristics-The diversity, size, and accessibility of the population influence

the choice of sampling method.
Key Factors:
a. Homogeneous populations can be sampled using simple random sampling.
b. Heterogeneous populations might require stratified or cluster sampling to ensure
representation of subgroups.

For ex. -: In a study of rural healthcare access, cluster sampling may be used to account for
geographical diversity.

3. Accuracy Requirements-The level of precision needed in the results affects the sampling
method and size.
Key Considerations:
a. Higher accuracy requires larger, more representative samples and probability
sampling.
b. Lower accuracy tolerance can allow for smaller or convenience samples.
For ex. -: Clinical trials require rigorous random sampling to achieve high accuracy, while
exploratory research may use convenience sampling.

4. Available Resources (Time and Budget)-Limited time and budget may necessitate simpler
sampling procedures, even at the expense of representativeness.
Key Strategies:
a. Use systematic or convenience sampling to save time and costs.
b. Balance cost-efficiency with data quality.
For ex. -: In market research with limited resources, quota sampling can be used to quickly
gather insights.

5. Sample Size-The size of the sample required for statistical validity determines the feasibility
of certain sampling methods.
Key Considerations:
a. Larger sample sizes may necessitate simpler methods like random sampling.
b. Smaller sample sizes can use purposive or snowball sampling for depth.
Example: A nationwide poll may require a large stratified random sample, while a
qualitative study may use only 20 participants through purposive sampling.

6. Feasibility of Access-The accessibility of the population affects the choice of sampling

procedure.
Key Considerations:
a. Populations that are difficult to access may require non-probability methods like
snowball sampling.

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 b. Readily accessible populations are better suited for probability sampling.
For ex. -: Research on homeless individuals might use snowball sampling due to the
difficulty in identifying and accessing this group.

7. Ethical Considerations-: The sampling method must ensure fairness, inclusivity, and
respect for participants’ rights.
Key Considerations:
a. Avoid methods that systematically exclude certain groups.
b. Obtain informed consent from all participants.
For ex. -: Research on public health policies must ensure that marginalized communities are
not excluded from the sample.

8. Type of Data Required-The type of data (quantitative or qualitative) influences the choice
of sampling method.
Key Considerations:
a. Quantitative studies benefit from probability sampling for generalizability.
b. Qualitative studies often use purposive or convenience sampling for in-depth
insights.
For ex. -: A qualitative study on mental health experiences may use purposive sampling to focus
on specific groups.

Q.12 What are characteristics of a good sample?

Ans- A good sample is essential for ensuring the reliability and generalizability of research findings.

The following are the key characteristics of a good sample21:-

1. Representative- A good sample accurately reflects the characteristics of the population from
which it is drawn and ensures that the results can be generalized to the entire population.

2. Accessibility, Practicality and Feasibility- Sample should be easy to access and study
within the constraints of time, budget, and resources as it ensures the research is conducted
efficiently without compromising quality.
3. Low cost- A good sample should be economic and cost effective for a researcher/s
4. Adequate sample size- The sample size should be large enough to provide statistically
reliable results and also reduces sampling errors and increases the accuracy of findings.
5. Low Sampling Error- A good sample minimizes the difference between the sample
statistics and the population parameters and it reduces inaccuracies in the research findings.
6. Ethical Considerations- The sampling process must be fair and respect the rights and
dignity of all participants and it ensures the ethical integrity of the research.
7. Independence of Sampling Units-The selection of one unit should not influence the
selection of another and it reduces potential biases and ensures validity in the sampling
process.

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
Q.13 Give flow chart diagram of Sampling Design Process.
Define the Target Population16
↓
Specify the Sampling Frame
↓
Select the Sampling Procedure
↓

Probability Sampling Non- Probability Sampling

Types of Procedure Types of Procedure
Simple –Random Sampling Convenience
Stratified Sampling Judgemental
Cluster Sampling Quota

↓
Determine the appropriate sample size
↓
Execute the Sampling Process/Design
↓
Validate Sample Representativeness
↓
Conduct the Study

Q.14 Compare:
(i) Probability Sampling Vs Non-Probability Sampling22
Ans.
S. No. Aspect Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
1. Every member of the population has a Not all members have an equal chance
Definition known, non-zero chance of being of being selected; selection is
selected. subjective.
2. Random selection (e.g., lottery system, Based on convenience, judgment, or
Basis of Selection
random number generator). other non-random criteria.
3. Simple Random, Stratified, Cluster, Convenience, Purposive, Snowball,
Examples
Systematic Sampling. Quota Sampling.
4. More likely to produce a representative May not produce a representative
Representativeness
sample. sample; higher potential for bias.
5. Large-scale studies, generalizable Exploratory research, niche or hard-to
Use Cases
surveys, statistical analysis. reach populations, preliminary studies
6. Minimizes bias, results can be Faster, cheaper, practical for small or
Advantages
generalized, enables statistical analysis. unique populations.
7. Disadvantages Time-consuming, expensive, requires a Prone to selection bias, results cannot
complete sampling frame. be generalized.

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Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 8. Data Accuracy Lower accuracy, higher risk of bias in
High accuracy, less bias in data.
data.
9. Cost and Time Expensive and time-consuming. Cost-effective and faster.

(ii) Stratified Sampling Vs Cluster Sampling23

S. No. Aspect Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling
1. The population is divided into The population is divided into
homogeneous subgroups (strata), heterogeneous groups (clusters),
Definition
and samples are randomly and entire clusters are randomly
selected from each stratum. selected.
2. To ensure representation from To simplify sampling and reduce
Purpose each subgroup within the costs when the population is
population. geographically dispersed.
3. Division is based on Division is based on natural or
characteristics such as age, pre-existing groups, such as
Basis of Division
income, or education to create geographical regions or schools.
homogeneous strata.
4. Random samples are taken from Entire clusters are selected
each stratum. randomly, and all individuals in
Selection Process
the chosen clusters are included in
the sample.
5. Sampling based on gender, Sampling schools, villages, or
Examples
income levels, or job roles. districts.
6. Ensures representativeness of all May not ensure representativeness
Representativene
subgroups within the population. if selected clusters do not reflect
ss
the entire population.
7. - High accuracy and precision. - Cost-efficient for large, dispersed
Advantages - Effective for analyzing populations.
differences among subgroups. - Simplifies logistics.
8. - Requires detailed knowledge of - Risk of bias if selected clusters
the population. are not representative.
Disadvantages
- Can be time-consuming and - Less accurate compared to
costly. stratified sampling.
9. Studies requiring precise Large-scale surveys like national
Use Cases representation, such as income or regional studies.
distribution surveys.

(iii) Snowball Sampling Vs Quota Sampling22

Ans-
Aspect Snowball Sampling Quota Sampling
S. No.
Definition A non-probability sampling technique A non-probability sampling technique
1.
where existing participants recruit future where researchers fill pre-determined
participants from their networks quotas for specific subgroups
Selection Process Participants are chosen through referrals Participants are selected to meet specif
2.
from other participants quotas based on characteristics such as

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Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 age, gender, or income
Purpose Useful for identifying participants in hard- Ensures inclusion of specific subgroups
3.
to-reach or hidden populations in the sample to reflect their proportion
in the population
4. Studies involving drug users, Surveys requiring equal representation
Examples undocumented migrants, or rare disease of men and women or different incom
patients. levels.
5. Low representativeness due to reliance Can achieve representativeness for
Representativeness on networks and referrals specified subgroups but may not
represent the entire population.
6. - Effective for locating hard-to-reach - Ensures inclusion of important
Advantages populations. subgroups.
- Cost-effective for specific contexts. - Practical and quick.
7. - Prone to bias due to reliance on social - Potential for selection bias.
Disadvantages networks. - May not reflect true population
- Limited generalizability. proportions due to subjective selection
8. Research on social networks, Market research, political polls, and
Use Cases marginalized communities, or sensitive quota-based demographic studies.
topics.

(iv) Convenience Sampling Vs Judgement Sampling24

Ans.-
S. No. Aspect Convenience Sampling Judgment Sampling
1. A non-probability
A non-probability sampling
sampling method where (v)
method where participants are
Definition participants are selected (v)
deliberately chosen based on the
based on availability or (v)
researcher's expertise.
ease of access. (v)
2. Participants are chosen (v)
Participants are selected based on
from a readily available (v)
Selection Process specific characteristics or criteria
group, such as customers (v)
determined by the researcher.
in a mall. (v)
3. To quickly and easily To ensure the inclusion of (v)
Purpose gather data with minimal individuals with the most relevant (v)
effort or cost. knowledge or characteristics. (v)
4. Surveys conducted among (v)
Selecting industry experts or
students in a classroom or (v)
Examples policymakers for a study on policy
shoppers in a (v)
implementation.
supermarket. (v)

5. May represent specific (v)

Rarely representative of
characteristics well but lacks (v)
Representativeness the population; high
generalizability to the broader (v)
potential for bias.
population. (v)

6. - Fast and inexpensive. - Useful for specialized studies. (v)

Advantages - Practical for exploratory - Ensures the inclusion of key (v)
research. informants.
7. - High risk of selection
- Risk of researcher bias.
bias.
Disadvantages - Relies heavily onCourse
the researcher's
Coordinator
- Results cannot be
judgment.
generalized. Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
8. Pilot studies, informal Studies on niche topics requiring
Use Cases surveys, or when time and specific expertise, such as legal or
resources are limited. medical research.
 (v) Population Vs Sample25
Ans-
S. No. Aspect Population Sample
1. The entire group or set of individuals or A subset or smaller group selected fro
Definition
elements that are the subject of study. the population for the study.
2. Includes all members of the group being Represents a portion of the population
Size
studied, making it large. and is smaller in size.
3. It represents the entire group; It should ideally represent the
Representativene
conclusions can be generalized. population, but due to sampling
ss
methods, there might be biases.
4. To obtain comprehensive data that To draw conclusions about the
Purpose covers all aspects of the population. population without the need to collect
data from everyone.
5. Data is collected from every member of Data is collected from selected
Data Collection the population. individuals or items that represent the
larger population.
6. Expensive and time-consuming, as it More cost-effective and quicker, as it
Cost and Time involves collecting data from the whole involves a smaller group of participan
population.
7. Can provide highly accurate results but is Results may have some margin of erro
Accuracy impractical for large populations. but can be reliable if the sample is
chosen carefully.
8. - Provides complete data. - Easier to manage and analyze.
Advantages
- Ideal for small populations. - Saves time and resources.
9. - Impractical for large populations. - Results can be biased.
Disadvantages - Expensive and time-consuming. - Might not always represent the
population accurately.
10. Applied when dealing with small, Commonly used in surveys,
Use Cases manageable populations, such as in experiments, and studies where testing
census or detailed studies. the entire population is not feasible.

Q.15 Discuss different types of errors in survey.

Ans- Different types of errors in survey are discussed herewith26-
Type of Error Explanation Reason
Occurs when the sample selected The error that arises when the
does not represent the population sample size is too small or not
Sampling Error accurately. It’s the difference properly randomized.
between the sample statistic and the
actual population parameter.
Non-Sampling Error Refers to errors that occur during These errors are often harder to
data collection or processing, not control as they can arise from
related to the sampling method. various stages in the survey
Includes errors in data recording, process.

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Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 response bias, etc.
Results from inaccuracies in the Occurs due to poorly worded
instruments used for measurement or questions or instruments not suited
Measurement Error
differences in how questions are to the data being gathered.
interpreted.
Occurs when respondents do not This error is common in self-
answer questions truthfully, either reported surveys where
Response Error
due to misunderstanding, social participants may feel pressure to
desirability, or memory recall issues. respond a certain way.
Occurs when individuals selected for
This error arises when participants
the sample do not respond or cannot
fail to answer or refuse
Non-Response Error be reached. This leads to an
participation, causing bias in the
underrepresentation of certain
results.
groups.
Happens when certain segments of Results from incomplete or
the population are not included in the inaccurate sampling frames, which
Coverage Error
sample frame. This leads to skewed do not cover the entire population.
results.
Occurs when a particular group is Over-sampling a certain
overrepresented in the sample. This demographic could skew the
Over-Sampling Error
often results from poor survey design results if the sample is not
or incorrect sampling methods. corrected for this bias.
Occurs when certain groups are Under-sampling certain groups
Under-Sampling Error underrepresented in the sample, may lead to biased or unbalanced
which may distort the survey results. results.
Q.16 List the Dos and Don’ts of sampling design?
Ans- Dos of sampling design27-

1. Define the Target Population Clearly-Ensure that the target population is well-defined and
relevant to the research objectives.
2. Choose an Appropriate Sampling Technique-Select the sampling technique that best suits the
research problem and objectives (e.g., random sampling, stratified sampling).
3. Determine the Sample Size Appropriately-Calculate the sample size based on the desired
level of confidence, margin of error, and population size.
4. Use a Representative Sample-Ensure that the sample reflects the characteristics of the
population to avoid bias.
5. Ensure Randomness (If Using Probability Sampling)-For probability sampling, ensure that
each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to avoid selection bias.
6. Pilot Test the Sampling Procedure-Conduct a pilot test to refine the sampling process, making
sure it works smoothly before the full-scale survey.
7. Consider Practical Constraints-Keep in mind practical constraints such as time, budget, and
access to the population while designing the sampling plan. (Lohr, 2009, p. 91)
8. Monitor for Non-Response Bias-Keep track of response rates and make adjustments if
necessary to minimize non-response bias.

Don’t of sample design-

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 1. Don’t Use Inappropriate Sampling Method-Avoid choosing a sampling method that doesn’t
suit the nature of the research or the population.
2. Don’t Over-Simplify the Sampling Process-Don’t make assumptions that lead to an overly
simplified sampling process, especially when the population is diverse.
3. Don’t Ignore Ethical Considerations-Ensure the sampling process respects participants'
privacy and consent, particularly in sensitive research areas.
4. Don’t Neglect Sample Size Calculations-Avoid proceeding without calculating the sample size
based on statistical guidelines. A sample size that’s too small can lead to invalid results.
5. Don’t Select a Biased Sample-Avoid any form of bias in sample selection, such as convenience
sampling in a diverse population, which could lead to skewed results.
6. Don’t Overlook Data Collection Challenges-Do not ignore potential barriers to data collection,
like accessibility to participants or language barriers.
7. Don’t Ignore Variability in the Population-Don’t assume the population is homogeneous;
account for any variations within the population for more accurate results.
8. Don’t Fail to Check for Non-Sampling Errors-Don’t forget that errors can still occur even
with correct sampling methods; pay attention to potential non-sampling errors.

Q.17 Why probability sampling is generally preferred in comparison to non-probability

sampling?
Ans- Probability sampling is generally preferred over non- probability sampling on the below
mentioned reasons28-
Factors/Reasons Probability sampling Non-probability sampling
Generalizability of Results It ensures that every member of the The results cannot be generalized
population has a known, non-zero reliably because the sample is not
chance of being selected. This allows representative of the entire
the results to be generalized to the population. There is a higher risk
entire population with a known level of bias, leading to results that
of confidence and precision may not apply broadly.
Reduces Bias Since the selection process is random, t is prone to researcher bias in
it minimizes the risk of bias in the selection process. The
choosing participants. This helps in researcher may consciously or
obtaining a more objective sample. unconsciously choose
participants who align with their
views or research hypothesis.
Statistical Analysis and Because the sampling process is It does not lend itself to the same
Precision random and based on probabilities, statistical analysis as probability
statistical techniques can be applied to sampling, and the precision of
estimate sampling errors and make inferences drawn from the
precise inferences about the sample is uncertain. This limits
population. Confidence intervals and the ability to calculate errors or
significance tests are more valid assess the reliability of the
estimates.
Improves Validity of the It ensures that the sample is a true It can introduce systematic
Study representation of the population, errors, leading to a sample that
which improves the internal and does not adequately represent
external validity of the study. The the population, thus

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
 sample is more likely to reflect the compromising the validity of the
population’s diversity. study.
Objective Sampling The process is driven by random It is subjective, as the researcher
Process selection, which is objective and based may make judgment calls or use
on chance. This helps ensure that the convenience sampling, which can
selection is not influenced by the be biased.
researcher's preferences.
Reproducibility of Results The random nature of selection means It is difficult to replicate the
that the sampling process is sampling process exactly, which
reproducible, and other researchers limits the reproducibility and
can replicate the study under similar reliability of the results
conditions with similar results.

References-
1. Kothari, C. R. (2004), Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (2nd ed.). New Age
International, “Criteria for selecting a research problem”, Pages 40–42
2. Creswell, J. W. (2014), “Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications; ‘Definition and components of problem statement’,
Pages 118–120
3. Kothari, C. R. (2004), Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (2nd ed.). New Age
International, ‘Differentiating research and societal problems’, Pages 37–38
4. Creswell, J. W. (2014), “Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
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International, Literature review techniques and sources: Pages 111–114
6. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications, pp. 119–121.
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Publications, pp. 29–30.
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International, pp. 29–30.
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Approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications, pp. 120–122.
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International, pp 33-34.

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava
13. Creswell, J. W. (2014), “Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches (4th ed.)”, SAGE Publications; pp-109–112.
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22. Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2007), “Mixed methods sampling: A typology with examples. Journal of
Mixed Methods Research”, 1(1), 77-100.
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28. Kothari, C. R. (2004), “Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (2nd ed.)”, New Age
International, pp. 84.

Course Coordinator
Dr. Kriti Shrivastava