BATTERY TEST GUIDE

By

Mike Weighall

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mike Weighall is an independent consultant with 35 years

experience in the battery industry. He obtained his Chemistry degree
from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and
Technology (UMIST). He has spent most of his working career
associated with the battery industry, in a range of technical and
managerial roles with major UK employers, including Lucas,
Crompton, Cookson, and ENTEK International. This has included
responsibility for the Battery Test Laboratories at Crompton Batteries
(now Hawker Energy Products) and setting up and running the
laboratory at Cookson Entek/ ENTEK International. As a result, Mike
has extensive practical experience of the planning and implementa-
tion of test schedules for a range of battery tests for SLI, Motive
Power and VRLA applications.

©2000, Digatron/Firing Circuits, Inc., All Rights Reserved

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction...

What is a Battery? ...

Battery Types and Applications...

The Purpose and Importance of Battery Testing ....

Test Battery Sampling/ Scheduling and Statistical Analysis of Data ..

National / International Test Standards...

Basic Definitions and Data.

7.1 Definitions.
7.2 Influence of Discharge Rate on Capacity .
7.3 Influence of Temperature on Capacity
7.4 Acid Density
7.5 Open Circuit Voltage .....
7.6 Influence of Temperature on Specific Gravity and Voltags
7.7 Peukert Equation...
7.8 Reference Electrodes.
7.9 General Test Requirements

Test Equipment Requirements.

Guidance on Laboratory Size, Equipment and Layout relative to

Battery Throughput

Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) Batteries....

Automotive (SLI) Battery Testing...

11.1 Key Parameters
11.2 Test Sequence
11.3 SAE J240 Life Cycle Test

Motorcycle Batteries.

Lead-Acid Traction Batteries..

13.1 Industrial Trucks...
13.1.1 Typical Test Sequence .
13.1.2 Key Parameters .
13.1.3 Specific Values
13.2 Light Electric Road Vehicles ..
18.2.1 Key Parameters ....
13.3 Deep Cycle Batteries

Stationary Lead-Acid Batteries....

14.1 Type Testing of Vented Stationary Batteries
14.1.1 Specific Requirements ....
14.2 Classification of Valve Regulated Types
14.3 Planté Type ....
14.4 General Information .

Aircraft Batteries
15.1 Type Approval Tests.
15.2 General Requirements
15.3 Acceptance Tests
15.4 Other Key Parameters
15.5 Specialized Test Equipment Requirement
Battery Charging
16.1 General
16.2 SLI Batteries...
16.3 Stationary Batteries
16.4 Valve Regulated Batteries (VRLA)
16.5 General Guidance.
16.6 Charging Temperature
16.7 Series / Parallel Arrangement of Cells

Accelerated Battery Tests

Unusual Battery Applications and Test Procedures

Evaluation of Test Results.

Internal Battery Examination...

Future Battery Developments

FIGURES AND TABLES

Figures

Figure 1. Charge and Discharge Reactions for the Lead-Acid Battery.

IN
Figure 2. Percentage of the 20 hour Capacity Available at
Other Rates of Discharge.

[REFN AY
Figure 3. Typical Capacity Discharges at + 25'
Figure 4. High Rate Performance at -18°C ....
Figure 5. Effect of Temperature on High Rate Battery Performance ....
Figure 6. Influence of Discharge Rate and Temperature on Relative Capacity.
Figure 7. High Rate Discharge at 315 Amps at -18°C at Different Fully
Charged Specific Gravities.
Figure 8. Relationship Between Open-Circuit Voltage, Specific Gravity,
and Capacity of Batteries at 25°C.
Figure 9. Temperature Correction of s.g. for Reference Temperature of 25°C
Figure 10. Example Laboratory Layout..
Figure 11. Dynamic Capacity Test. (EN 60254 -1)..
Figure 12. Discharge Characteristic for Short Circuit Test
(Stationary Battery BS EN 60896)
Figure 13. Typical Test Circuit (Stationary Battery BS EN 60896)
Figure 14. Series or Parallel connection of cells.....

Tables

Table 1. Twin Cadmium Readings

Table 2. Cold Crank Test Method:
Table 3. Typical Stationary Lead-Acid Battery Applications...
Table 4. Typical Types and Construction of Stationary Lead-Acid Batteries 17
Table 5. Stationary Battery Test Schedule (BS EN 60896) 17
Table 6. Performance Class of VRLA Batteries. . 18
Table 7. Final Discharge Voltages for Stationary Cells. . 20

Appendices

Appendix 1. Examples of National/ International Test Standards...

Appendix 2. Some Basic Electrochemical Terms.....
1. INTRODUCTION The lead-acid battery is an example of the Secondary
The intention of this guide is that it will be of value to battery. Nickel-cadmium is also a secondary battery and
both the novice and the expert in the art of battery testing. competes with lead-acid in some applications e.g. standby
It will provide guidance concerning the equipment that will power, telecommunications etc. New battery technologies
be needed to set up a battery test laboratory, and the type are also emerging e.g. nickel metal-hydride, nickel-zinc,
of tests that will be required. Reference will be made to lithium-ion and lithium-polymer systems.
commonly used national or international test specifications In the lead-acid system the electrodes are lead and lead
and their relevance to specific battery applications. It is dioxide, and the electrolyte is dilute sulfuric acid. During
directed primarily at the testing of lead acid batteries, and discharge, both electrodes are converted to lead sulfate.
all the referenced test specifications relate to lead-acid Recharge converts them back to the original lead and lead
batteries. However, the equipment used for testing lead- dioxide. The number of charge/discharge cycles that can
acid batteries is normally also suitable for testing other be carried out before the battery fails depends on the battery
battery types. Many of the basic definitions are also valid design and its application. The charge and discharge
for other battery types. reactions are well known, and are shown in Figure 1.
For the benefit of the novice, the first part of the Unlike most other battery systems, in the lead-acid battery
brochure will deal with some of the basic definitions, the electrolyte (sulfuric acid) actually takes part in the
including the most basic one of all “What is a battery?” electrochemical reaction. Measurement of the density of
the electrolyte - and monitoring of the electrolyte density at
2. WHAT IS A BATTERY? the end of charge or the end of discharge - provides a
A battery is a source of electrical energy, which is stored useful indicator of the state of charge or state of health of
as chemical energy. Typically it contains two dissimilar the battery.
metals or metallic compounds, immersed in an electrolyte -
usually a liquid and separated by a separator. The metals 3. BATTERY TYPES AND APPLICATIONS
or metallic compounds are called electrodes. A difference This brochure will concentrate on the testing of lead-
in potential or voltage is developed between the electrodes, acid batteries but some of the general principles will also
and when connected together by an external load e.g. a be valid for the testing of other battery types. Lead-acid
light bulb, chemical reactions take place inside the battery batteries are used in a wide range of applications, and the
and electrical current flows through the external circuit. intended application has to be taken into account when
The electrolyte in which the electrodes are immersed deciding on the range of tests to be carried out. Some of
can be a liquid as in the lead-acid battery, or a solid paste the broad applications include:
to make the battery unspillable as in the dry-cell battery m SLI — Starting, Lighting, Ignition.
used for torches, radios etc. Some sealed lead-acid + Automotive
batteries use a gelled electrolyte, or a starved electrolyte « Heavy Duty Automotive
design in which the acid is absorbed in a specially absorbent * Truck
glass mat. These are known as Valve Regulated Lead Acid + Normal maintenance/low maintenance/
Batteries (VRLA), because the internal cell pressure is maintenance free.
controlled by a re-sealable valve. = Motor-cycle.
The terms battery and cell are often used interchange- m Motive Power (Traction)
ably. A cellis a single unit having a voltage which is Industrial Trucks
characteristic of the battery system e.g. a lead-acid battery « Light Electric Road Vehicles
has a cell voltage of about 2 volts. A battery may consist + Deep Cycle Marine
of one or more cells, normally connected in series. For + Golf Car
example, a car battery has 6 cells connected in series to + Floor Maintenance Machinery
give a voltage of 12 volts. m Stationary/standby
Batteries fall into two main groups - Primary or + Vented (flooded)
Secondary. A Primary battery is one in which the « Sealed (VRLA)
electrical current can only be supplied until the materials in + Planté type
the battery are exhausted. The chemical reactions are not + Flat Plate
reversible, and the battery cannot be recharged. When it Tubular
can deliver no further power, it has to be thrown away. um Aircraft
Examples are zinc-carbon and alkaline manganese dry + Vented
cells widely used in various electrical items such as radios, + Sealed (VRLA)
cassette players, toys etc. All the applications listed above are the subject of
A Secondary battery or Storage battery is one in which national and/or international specifications. It is not the
the chemical reactions that take place are reversible. intention of this brochure to provide details of all these
Electrical power can be drawn from the battery until the specifications. A listing of some of them is included in
chemicals are used up and the battery is discharged. The Appendix 2 for guidance. This brochure will give guidance
battery can be recharged and the materials converted back concerning the general test methods for each of the above
into the original charged materials by applying a charging applications, and where appropriate will highlight differences
current in the reverse direction to the discharging current. between specific commonly used test specifications.
This cycle of charge and discharge can be carried out At the moment, the variety of national test standards
many times before the battery fails. can be confusing, but IEC Committees are currently
 Original Material Used

lonization Program

%e Tam
Current Producing Pb**-2e
Process
Less amt used 21 |
Final Products of Pb S04 | 2H,0 v PbSO4
Discharge
Discharge Reactions

1
Electrolyte | Positive plate
|

Final Products of
Discharge

lonization Process

Process Produced by
Current

Original Materials
Restored
Ha504 | PbO,
Charge Reactions

Figure 1. Charge and Discharge Reactions for the Lead-Acid Battery

developing international standards which it is anticipated looking at new or improved materials (e.g. new
will eventually supersede the various national standards. separator or grid alloy).

4. THE PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF 5. TEST BATTERY SAMPLING/SCHEDULING

BATTERY TESTING AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA
m To ensure that the battery meets its design (rated) Itis an unfortunate fact that battery manufacturers and
capacity, and to provide certification to customers. battery test laboratories often forget to consider the influence
m To highlight specific manufacturing problems. of sample size on the validity of test data, and rarely subject
m For sales promotion e.g. to show that the battery the test results to any form of statistical analysis. Even with
performance and/or life is better than that of modern equipment and production techniques, the variation
competitors batteries. As part of the design process between one battery and another in the same batch can be
for a new battery type or an improved battery design. surprisingly large. There will be an even greater variation
mAs part of the battery manufacturers or materials
suppliers research and development program e.g.
between batteries from different batches
different days from different paste mixes
(e.g. made on
etc.). In order to <
be able to draw valid conclusions from the battery test 7. BASIC DEFINITIONS AND DATA
data, certain precautions must be taken.
7.1 Definitions
1. The sample size must be decided based on established The electrical energy supplied by the battery can be
statistical techniques. For a specific sample, a minimum used in a number of different ways, but essentially an
of 5 batteries is needed. The guidance given in the electrical current is drawn from the battery for a defined
relevant test specification should be followed where period of time, at a voltage which is characteristic of the
appropriate. Sample requirements may differ dependent battery system. However, the battery voltage may vary as
on the purpose of the test e.g. whether the testing is the battery is discharged, and eventually the voltage of the
part of a research and development program or for rou- battery will fall too low to carry out the desired work e.g.
tine production/quality control checking. For production/ powering a light bulb, running an electric motor etc. The
quality control, decisions also have to be taken as to battery size, weight and design have to be such as to meet
how frequently batteries are sampled from the produc- the requirements of the duty application. The purpose of
tion line (every day? every week?). testing the battery is to ensure that it meets these design
requirements.
2. Test data should be analyzed using established Basic electrochemical definitions and battery property
statistical techniques. definitions are summarized in Appendix 2.

3. Where comparisons are being made between different 7.2 Influence of discharge rate on capacity.
batteries e.g. because of an internal design change The capacity of a battery at a given temperature will be
such as a new grid alloy or separator, the results need influenced by the rate at which it is discharged — the higher
to be analyzed using established statistical techniques, the discharge rate the lower the actual capacity. An example
to determine whether any observed differences are sta- of this is shown in Figure 2 where the capacity of a battery
tistically significant. For example, the “Students “t” test” at different rates of discharge is shown as a % of the 20-
for small samples can be used. hour rate capacity. In this particular example, the capacity at
the 10-hour rate is only 88% of the capacity at the 20-hour
4. Standards are available for sampling procedures, rate; at the 5-hour rate it is only 75% of the 20-hour rate
acceptable quality level etc., for example BS 6001-1: capacity. This influence of the discharge rate on capacity is
1999. Appendix 1 gives more detail. shown in a different way in Figure 3, where the capacity of
a battery with a 10-hour rate capacity of 60Ah is shown at 3
6. NATIONAL/INTERNATIONAL TEST STANDARDS different discharge currents.
Some of the most important test standards are The influence of discharge rate on capacity is even more
summarized in Appendix 1. marked at high currents and low temperatures, as shown in
% Capacity

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2 24
Discharge Time -Hours

Figure 2. Percentage of the 20 hour Capacity Available at Other Rates of Discharge

Figure 4, where the high rate performance at -18°C is place more slowly at low temperatures, and the viscosity
shown for different discharge currents from 210 amps to and resistivity of the acid increase. Formulae are available
600 amps. From this curve it should also be noted that the to calculate the influence of a change in temperature on
slope of the voltage curve becomes steeper the higher the the capacity of the battery (see below).
discharge current. Figure 5 shows the influence of temperature on high
rate battery performance for a typical battery discharged at
7.3 Influence of temperature on capacity. a current of 340 amps. It can be seen that a reduction in
The lower the temperature the lower the capacity of the the temperature affects the average discharge voltage as
battery. This is because the electrochemical reactions take well as the discharge time.

13
Battery Volts

° Hl 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Discharge Time Hours

Figure 3. Typical Capacity Discharges at +25°C.
Battery Voltage

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Discharge Time - Minutes

Figure 4. High Rate Performance at —18°C.

 Figure 6 shows the influence of both discharge rate and C = measured capacity
temperature on relative capacity over a temperature range from A = temperature coefficient of capacity.
-50°C to +27°C, and a discharge rate from 1 min to 600 min. t = measured temperature
Some test specifications include a formula to enable tw = reference temperature.
When using this equation, the value of \ used should be
temperature correction of the capacity if the measured
the value given in the relevant test specification (or by the
average temperature is different from the reference
battery manufacturer), as different specifications give
temperature. This formula is typically of the form:
different values for \, from A = 0.006, to A = 0.010. This is
Ca=C/(1 + A(t- tw)
because the temperature coefficient is also affected by the
Where: test temperature range and the discharge time.
Ca = actual capacity (corrected for temperature)
1
Battery Voltage

0 05 1 15 2 25 3 35 4 45 H
Discharge Time - Minutes
Figure 5. Effect of Temperature on High Rate Battery Performance
% of 5-Hr. Rate Capacity

0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Discharge Rate -Minutes
Figure 6. Influence of Discharge Rate and Temperature on Relative Capacity.
7.4 Acid Density (specific gravity) within the previous 24 hours, then the open circuit voltage
Changes in the acid density have a slightly different may be higher than the equilibrium voltages shown in this
effect on the positive and negative plates in the battery. graph. Discharging the battery for a few seconds only will
However, in general, a lower capacity is obtained if the restore the “equilibrium” voltage while having no significant
specific gravity of the acid is reduced. For example, a effect on the capacity of the battery.
change from 1.280 to 1.240 s.g. will reduce the capacity by
up to 11% at the 10-hour discharge rate, and up to 40% at 7.6 Influence of temperature on specific gravity
the high discharge rate (3-minute rate). This effect is and voltage.
important, because batteries intended for operation in Specific gravity decreases as temperature increases,
tropical climates may be specified with a lower top of and vice versa. Different test methods may specify the fully
charge specific gravity than batteries intended for operation charged specific gravity of a battery at different reference
in temperate climates. An example of the influence of spe- temperatures e.g. 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 26.8°C (80°F). When
cific gravity on capacity is shown in Figure 7. The main measuring the specific gravity of the battery electrolyte, it is
graph shows the influence on the high rate capacity, while important that the temperature is also recorded and the
the inset table shows the influence on capacity at the 10- measured specific gravity is corrected to the required
hour rate (6.8 amps). The effect of acid specific gravity on reference temperature. The temperature correction used
capacity is much greater at a high rate of discharge than at is as follows:
low discharge rate. In the example shown, the high rate For every 10°C below the specified reference tempera-
capacity at 1.240 s.g. is only 60% of that at 1.280 s.g.; at ture, subtract 0.007 from the observed hydrometer read-
the 10-hour rate, the capacity at the lower s.g. is 88% of
that with the higher acid s.g.
ing.
For every 10°C above the specified reference temperature, >)
add 0.007 to the observed hydrometer reading.
7.5 Open Circuit Voltage or:
The open circuit voltage of a fully charged lead acid cell For every 10°F below the specified reference temperature,
(at 1.280 s.g.) is ~ 2.12v (~ 12.70 v for a 12 volt battery). subtract 0.004 from the observed hydrometer reading.
Measurement of the open circuit cell / battery voltage can For every 10°F above the specified reference temperature,
provide a good indication of the state of charge of the cell add 0.004 to the observed hydrometer reading.
or battery, and of the specific gravity of the acid. However, This relationship is shown graphically in Figure 9.
the open circuit voltage is also influenced by the fully Temperature correction of the battery voltage on charge
charged specific gravity of the acid (e.g. different fully can be made using the following formula:
charged acid s.g. for tropical climate and temperate climate °C:
batteries). These relationships are shown in Figure 8.
It should be noted that if the battery has been on charge
Vig = Va + N x 0.0063(T, - Tp)

95

8s

fs
3
> 3 i

££ 757. |. . CAPACITIES AT 6.8 AMPS

)
124058. 60.5 Ah
7
1280sg. 68.3 Ah
J I: YIP RERTE SE

6
0 0.5 1 15 2 2.5 3 35
Discharge Time - Minutes
Figure 7. High Rate Discharge at 315 Amps at -18°C at Different Fully Charged Specific Gravities
 9% Capacity
at 20hr. Rate
Tropical Climate Battery
LI TS NE SE SE SE EE SE TE
13.00 0 10 2 50 © 50 © 0 0 %0 100
b) h : : s s H s L L :
Temperate Climate Battery: Initial Acid s.g. 1.280 2.15

5 a) Tropical Electrolyte: 1.230 s.g.

8 b) Temperature Electrolyte: 1.2680 s.g. 210 ©
2 10 &
S> 12.50 gI}
] 23
4
a 205 2
= °

©s c3
§2 1200
1a 200 §&

1.95

11.50i 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300

Specific Gravity of Acid: 25°C

Figure 8. Relationship Between Open-Circuit Voltage, Specific Gravity, and Capacity of Batteries at 25°C

°F: the example below:

Assume that |; and I, are the two discharge rates, and
Vi = Va + N x 0.0035(T, - Tr) t; and t, are the discharge times:

Where: "ty =C
Vg = Voltage at the reference temperature.
Vj = Actual voltage as measured at the actual tempera- =C.
ture.
N umber of cells. .nlogly=logC-logt;. Nlogl,=logC-logt,.
Ta = Actual temperature.
Tg = Reference temperature. log t, - log tg
The temperature also has an effect on open-circuit log ly - log I,
battery voltage, although the effect is smaller and usually
less important. A rise in temperature is accompanied by a 7.8 Reference electrodes
rise in open circuit voltage, the value is +0.20 millivolts per Connecting a voltmeter across the terminals of a cell or
degree centigrade. battery gives a record of its overall voltage, i.e. the potential
difference between the positive and the negative plates. It
7.7 Peukert equation does not yield specific information about the potential of the
As we have seen already, the battery capacity is individual positive or negative plates. This information may
dependent upon the rate at which the battery is dis- be useful if, for example, it is desired to establish whether it
charged: the higher the rate, the lower the battery capacity. is the positive or negative plates which have failed first at
The Peukert equation defines this relationship between the
the end of a discharge.
current and the discharge time as shown below: Individual plate potentials need to be measured against
I"t=C another electrode or “reference” electrode. For research
C and n are constants, and can be evaluated by testing laboratory use, the best reference electrode is the mercury/
a battery at 2 different discharge rates, and inserting mercurous sulfate electrode. However, this is not really suit-
values for | and t in the equation. This enables the con- able for general laboratory use, and the cadmium electrode
stants n and C to be calculated, and the equation can then is preferred for general use.
be used to calculate the discharge time for any other dis- The cadmium stick is about 8mm in diameter and at
charge rate, or vice versa. The way to do this is shown in least 25mm in length. It needs to be soaked in sulfuric acid
7
 ADI):
FAQ
Correction Factor

SUBT!
i

Temperature °C
Figure 9 Temperature Correction of s.g. for Reference Temperature of 25°C

of about 1.280 s.g. for 2 hours before first use. It needs to The twin cadmium has two cadmium sticks which.are
be dipped into the electrolyte in the cell but should not connected to a 3.0v voltmeter. The twin cadmium head
touch the plates. The cadmium is connected via a wire to uses the intercell connector to complete a circuit, and
the negative terminal of a voltmeter, while the plate or measures the difference between the positive plate
plates under test are connected to the positive terminal of potential in one cell and the negative plate potential in the
the voltmeter. The voltmeter needs to have a resistance of next cell, when the twin cadmium test head is placed with
about 1000 ohms/volt, and a scale reading from one cadmium stick in each cell. Thus only 5 potentials can
-0.5v to +2.5v. actually be measured:
The relationship between the cell potential and the indi-
Neg. potential cell 1 with Pos. potential cell 2 - Reading 1
vidual plate potentials is:
m2 3 2
Cell potential = Positive plate potential - negative ” » ng ono ” "4 3
plate potential. » » ng ono BH "5 » og
A couple of examples follow: » » ng non » "6 N 5 ")
1. Cell on charge Positive to cadmium = 2.30v
Negative to cadmium = -0.20v The twin cadmium reading will still detect a faulty cell
.-. Cell potential = 2.50v e.g. a fault in cell 3 would affect readings 2 and 3. The twin
cadmium readings can be used in the same way as the cell
2. Cell on discharge Positive to cadmium = 2.00v voltage readings i.e. a variation of more than 0.15v between
Negative to cadmium = 0.30v the highest and lowest twin cadmium reading indicates a
.~. Cell potential = 1.70v faulty cell.
Table 1 for twin cadmium readings taken while a battery
Cadmium readings should be taken only when the cell is on charge (compared with individual plate readings) gives
is on charge or discharge as open-circuit readings are an example:
meaningless. In the example, the cell voltage shows a fault in cell 3
Cadmium readings are used less frequently now than in and the individual plate potentials indicate that both the
the past, because most modern automotive batteries have positive and the negative plates are faulty. The twin cadmium
one-piece lids and inaccessible intemal intercell connections. readings show a low voltage between cell 2 and 3, and
In addition, the batteries are often of a sealed design with between cell 3 and 4 i.e. cell 3 is faulty. However, the twin
no access to the electrolyte within the cells. Cadmium cadmium readings do not indicate whether it is the positive
readings may still be of value when testing motive power or negative plates which are faulty.
cells, which normally have removable vent plugs to allow Twin cadmium readings are now rarely used routinely,
access to the electrolyte, and external cell connectors. but may be of some value e.g. when checking warranty
For batteries with one piece lids having internal intercell claims returns to establish if there is one faulty cell, and
connectors, where measurement of individual cell voltages the battery has internal intercell connectors so that
is not possible, a twin cadmium test head may be used. individual cell readings cannot be taken.
Ga

7.9 General Test Requirements constant voltage ( + 0.10 V) of up to 2.7 V per cell.
Testing of new batteries. The definition of a new m High current power supply capable of supplying a
battery is defined in the relevant test specification. For constant high rate discharge current ( + 1%) at least
example, the BCI specify that the battery should be equal to the maximum cold crank rating of the batteries
unused and undamaged with no previous performance to be tested.
testing, and be no less than seven and no more than sixty m Water bath or environmental chamber capable of
days from date of manufacture. maintaining a set temperature in the range 20°C to
30° within + 2°C of the test temperature.
Stand time after charging. At the completion of a m Freezer or environmental chamber capable of main-
charge, the battery will be polarized above normal open taining a set temperature of -18°C or 0°C within
circuit values, and may also be at a higher temperature + 1°C of the set temperature.
than that specified for the subsequent test. The relevant m Ammeter of accuracy class 1 or better.
test procedure will specify the minimum and maximum m Voltmeter of accuracy class 1 or better.
stand times between the end of charge and the beginning m Hydrometer for electrolyte density measurement.
of the test discharge. The hydrometer should have a graduated scale, the

Table 1

Individual plate potenti LAR ;

Cell Ses pa Loe oy Cell voltage (v) | Twin Cd reading (v)
1 2.30 -0.20 2.50 1: 2.52
2 232 -0.18 2.50 2:1.38
3 } 0.90 3:1.95
4 } 2.45 4: 2.40
5 2.20 2.45 5.255
6 2.30 2.50
8. TEST EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS value of each division should be 0.005 kg/l or less. The
When equipping a new battery test laboratory, some accuracy of calibration should be to 0.005 kg/l or better.
basic qiestions need to be asked and answered before m Thermometer for temperature measurement, the
deciding on the equipment and space requirements: value of each scale division shall be not greater than 1 K,
m Purpose of laboratory: the accuracy of calibration shall be not less than 0.5 K.
+ Routine production/quality control testing m Stopwatch or timer graduated in hours, minutes and
+ Type approval testing seconds, or hours and centihours, with an accuracy of at
+ Research and development least = 1%.
m Battery throughput The advanced, well equipped laboratory will want to
m Types of battery being tested and maximum battery automate as much of the testing as possible, and add
capacity. additional equipment, as suggested below:
m Initial performance tests only, or cyclic/endurance
m Automated, computer controlled battery test equipment.
tests. This will enable each test circuit to be programmed with
Before purchasing the test equipment, certain basic
the exact test requirement, enabling the battery to complete
decisions have to be taken:
many test cycles without operator input.
® Maximum current requirement per test circuit.
Test data (e.g. current, voltage, ampere hours in/out,
m Voltage range per test circuit.
temperature etc), is collected automatically and stored for
m Is special equipment required for high current tests
later analysis. With this modern equipment it is also guar-
(e.g. cold cranking performance for SLI batteries). If
anteed by the supplier that the current and voltage will be
so, what is the maximum current requirement.
controlled to the accuracy required by all the latest test
m Are tests at low temperature needed e.g. 0°C, -18°C,
standards. (Assuming of course that the equipment is regu-
-29°C.
larly calibrated).
m Will tests at temperatures higher than normal ambient
temperatures be needed e.g. 40°C, 60°C, 75°C.
m Water bath or environmental chamber capable of
m Is automatic test circuit programming and data collec-
maintaining higher temperatures (up to 75°C) e.g. for
tion needed.
accelerated life testing.
What is the total budget.
m Environmental chamber for low temperature tests,
"basic" battery test laboratory for routine testing of
e.g. as low as -29°C.
automotive (SLI) batteries needs to include at least the
m Equipment for vibration testing.
following items: m Enclosed area with additional safety features for short
m Power supply capable of supplying a constant
circuit tests, induced destructive overcharge etc.
current ( = 1 %) for discharges of up to 25 amps.
m Area for battery teardown analysis to include stainless
m Power supply capable of supplying a constant
steel or lead lined sink and bench; water supply;
current ( = 2%) for charge of up to 25 amps, and a
facilities for acid disposal.
 m Digatron/Firing Circuits offers a complete line of com- 9. GUIDANCE ON LABORATORY SIZE, EQUIPMENT
puter controlled battery test equipment designed for AND LAYOUT RELATIVE TO BATTERY THROUGHPUT.
production and research laboratory environments. Atypical layout for a medium sized battery test laboratory
BTS-600 software developed for Windows(tm) provides is given in Figure 10. This particular laboratory has 24
centralised control of all test circuits. charge/discharge circuits capable of testing up to twenty
m For laboratories requiring the highest level of four 12 volt batteries or the equivalent number of 6 volt
automation for automotive battery testing Digatron/ batteries or 2 volt cells. The layout is given only by way of
Firing Circuits provides a SAE J240 Automated Test example, but some key points should be noted:
Sequencing stand. This test stand automatically
m The test equipment and computer for control of the test
sequences batteries through the cycling portion of
circuits are separated from the main laboratory to avoid
J240 with the required periodic high-rate discharge.
damage to the electronic equipment by acid spray or
There is no technician intervention required. This is of
fumes. The cabling for connection to the test batteries is
special value to large scale laboratories performing tests
fed through a hole in the dividing wall.
with large sample sizes.
m The number and size of water baths are sufficient to
Test equipment available from Digatron/Firing Circuits
hold up to 24 batteries (average 8 batteries per water
includes:
bath).
mA storage area is shown — this is necessary but could
m Life Cycle Tester (Series LCT) 3 iy "
m Cold Cranking Tester (Series HRD) be in a separate area immediately outside the laboratory.
m SAE J240 Automated Test Sequencing Stand However, the test batteries should be held in a secure area.
® Reserve Capacity Tester (Series RCT) m The environmental chamber will be regularly used for
m Constant Potential Charger the cold crank (high rate) testing, therefore is sited close
= Discharge Capacity Tester to the high rate tester. J
m Water Baths [] Asink and bench for battery teardown examination are
included.
m Freezers
m Vibration Testers

* A
.
; 0.7m i
i i Sink & Bench |
| ¥ ]

i . Water Bath

6m niall
Chal

< 0.82m—-> Water Bath

Figure 10. Example Laboratory Layout

10. VALVE REGULATED (VRLA) BATTERIES specified by the battery manufacturer) at
Historically, VRLA batteries have been used mainly in (25 + 2)°C, and allowed to stand for 20 minutes. It
stationary applications, but are now finding increasing use is then discharged at a current of 0.6lcc to volt
in other applications such as SLI, Motive Power, Electric per cell (6v). A minimum discharge time of 90
Vehicles. Most test specifications now include reference to seconds is needed.
the particular requirements and test procedures which may SAE J537: A dry charge activation test is not
be required for VRLA batteries. The main features of VRLA specified as part of J537. Reference should be
batteries are summarized below: made to customer specifications if an activation
test is required. Otherwise, the battery should be
m Any gases generated during charging (by electrolysis of filled and charged in accordance with the manu-
water) are recombined internally. facturers instructions, and then tested in accor-
m The sulfuric acid electrolyte is immobilized either by a dance with the specification for filled and charged
gel or a special type of separator. batteries.
m Each cell has a re-sealable valve that vents gases to BCI Cold Activation Performance: The
atmosphere if the internal pressure rises above a battery and acid (of specific gravity 1.265 +
certain level. 0.005) are placed in a chamber cooled to 0°C for
®m The VRLA battery is unspillable and maintenance free. a minimum of 18 hours. The battery is removed
There are 2 types of valve regulated battery: from the cold chamber and filled with the acid to
1. The sulfuric acid is gelled using fumed silica. the correct filling level. 20 minutes after the last
2. The sulfuric acid is held totally in the pores of the cell has been filled, the battery is discharged at a
plates and the separators. Special separators are current equal to 75% of the Cold Cranking
used, normally of microfine glass fibers. These are Performance Rating at -18°C for the battery. The
often abbreviated as MFG (Microfine Glass) or AGM terminal voltage of the battery is recorded after 15
(Absorptive Glass Mat). An alternative generic term second of discharge, and should exceed 1.2 volts
is RBSM (Recombinant Battery Separator Mat). per cell.

The VRLA battery may have particular charging require- Cold cranking performance. In practice this is the
ments (e.g. maximum charge voltage) as specified by the most important test for the car user. The battery must be
battery manufacturer. These special requirements need to able to provide sufficient power to the starter motor to
be followed when testing the batteries, rather than using ensure satisfactory engine starting. It must be able to
the defauft recommendations given in the test specification. achieve this at low temperatures (e.g. as low as -18°C) and
Because the VRLA battery is completely sealed, it is not in a partial state of charge. The battery must maintain a
possible to determine the acid density during testing. As a satisfactory voltage during the cranking operation and must
routine, only the voltage can be determined. There may be be able to maintain this for the time defined in the test
other test requirements which are specific to the VRLA specification (typically 30 seconds or 1 minute). A number
battery (these may be optional or by agreement with the of different cold cranking tests are actually in use, so that
battery user) e.g. the battery manufacturer may quote several different val-
ues for the cold cranking amps, dependent on the test
High current safety tests specification. Differences between the test specification
Thermal runaway. relate to the discharge time (e.g. 30s or 1min) and the
Seal integrity voltage after the defined discharge time (e.g. 7.2v, 8.4v).
Gas emission. The test may also define a minimum time to 6 volts as well
as the minimum voltage after 30s or 1min. Examples are
11. AUTOMOTIVE (SLI) BATTERY TESTING given in Table 2. BS3911 is now obsolete but is included
Automotive battery tests are designed to test for certain for comparison. BS EN 60095-1 differs from the other exam-
key parameters which will normally include: ples in that the battery is tested at the cold cranking current for
10s, followed by a 10 s rest and then a discharge at
11.1 Key parameters 0.6 lcctoBv.
Dry Charge Activation. This test is only required for
dry charged batteries which have to be filled with acid Low current drain — 20-hour capacity. This test was
before use. In the manufacture of these batteries, the formerly widely used when cars needed to have side lights
plates will not retain 100% of full capacity, and the capacity on during hours of darkness if parked on the street. This is
retained over a period of time is also susceptible to storage no longer a legal requirement, and the 20 hour rate capaci-
conditions. The dry charge activation test establishes how ty is now rarely quoted. It is still included in test methods,
much charge has been retained in the battery, and may be but as an option rather than a requirement.
carried out at ambient temperature or low temperature In BS EN 60095-1: 1993, the nominal capacity is
dependent on the test specification. Some examples are defined as the electric charge (in Ah) which a battery can
given as follows: supply with a current I, = C/20 amps, to a final voltage
Uj = 10.50 V. The effective capacity is determined by dis-
charging a battery with constant current In to Ug = 10.50 V.
EN 60095-1: The battery is filled with electrolyte
The resultant figure is used for the verification of Cy.
(specific gravity in the range 1.270 to 1.300 or as
 Table 2

Test Method Due Temp. Time | Voltage Notes

SAE J537 CCA’ -18°C 30" 72v
BCI CCA’ -18°C 30" 72v
BS3911 CCA' -18°C 60" 8.4v
DIN 42539 CCA’ -18°C 30" 9.0v >150"to 6 v.
EN 60095-1 ke -18°C 10* 75v Rest for 10°, discharge @ 0.6 lec to
6 v, record discharge time
IEC 60095 5 -18°C 60" 8.4v
IEC 60095 Ist 0°C 60" 84v Tropical climate battery
' Manufacturers cold crank rating.

IEC 60095 uses the same definition. SAE J537 no longer for several weeks or months.
includes a specification for the 20-hour rating.
Gassing rate characteristic. Both SAE J537 and BCI
Low current drain — reserve capacity rating. This include a test for gassing rate characteristic. The test
has now generally superseded the 20-hour capacity rating. specifies procedures for steady state charging current
Regardless of battery size, the battery is discharged at 25 measurement and gassing rate measurement. On a vehicle,
amps, and the reserve capacity is quoted in minutes. This the battery is normally charged at a constant current. A
test is in effect an emergency current test, and defines for measurement of the gas evolution rate or the current
how long the battery can sustain the electrical load on the accepted at a charging voltage typical of a vehicle electrical
car in the event of an alternator failure. system, provides a basis for comparing battery designs in
In BS EN 60095-1: 1993 the nominal reserve capacity respect to their ability to withstand service water losses.
C, nis defined as the period of time (in minutes) for which
the battery can maintain a discharge current of 25 Ato a Standards of compliance to performance ratings. The
cut-off voltage Ug = 10.50 V, at a temperature of 25°C. The BCI give guidance on standards of compliance. When
effective reserve capacity Cre is determined by discharging statistically evaluated in accordance with accepted sampling
a battery with the constant current | = 25 Ato Us = 10.50 V. and test procedures, 90% of all batteries should meet or
The resultant discharge time (in minutes) is used for the exceed the reserve capacity rating, and 90% should meet
verification of C; ,. IEC 60095 uses the same definition. or exceed the Cranking Performance Rating (based on
SAE J537 and BCI are similar, but the test temperature is each batteries best performance within a test sequence).
27°C (80°F). If the actual test temperature deviates from The compliance to Reserve Capacity and Cranking
the nominal temperature, the capacity can be corrected Performance Ratings should be evaluated separately. If a
using the following formula: battery fails to reach rated performance values during
[1 — 0.005 (T — 80)] (°F) electrical tests, it should be checked for mechanical
M, = M, [1 — 0.009 (T-26.7)] °C) defects. If it is defective, the test results for that battery
Where: should be disregarded in the statistical analysis, and the
tests repeated on a new battery.
M, = minutes corrected to 80°F (26.7°C)
M; = minutes actually run.
T = end of discharge electrolyte temperature (°F) or (°C) Life tests. It can be very difficult to devise a satisfactory
laboratory life test because of the wide range of operating
Charge current acceptance. Controlled voltage alterna- conditions experienced by an automotive battery in actual
tors are now universally fitted to automobiles. It is impor-
service. It may be necessary to carry out more than one
tant that the battery is able to accept charge from a partial life test regime (e.g. a deep cycle test and an overcharge
test) in order to assess whether the battery will exceed the
state of charge at a low temperature when the charge
potential is controlled. The test is normally carried out with guaranteed life in the marketplace. If carefully chosen, the
life test can be of particular value in assessing the effect of
the battery in a 50% state of charge at 0°C. The current
changes in battery design or battery materials (e.g. different
must reach a certain minimum figure after 10 minutes
charge. In some tests (e.g. SAE J537), the charge is grid alloy, new separators etc.).
continued for 120 minutes, and the charge rate acceptance A range of life cycle tests are available dependent on the
battery application. The most appropriate life test should be
is determined by checking the reserve capacity after the
battery has been allowed to warm up to 25°C or 27°C selected from those available, taking into account the
intended application of the battery.
(without additional charge).
Accelerated life tests are also available, which generally
Self discharge on open circuit. This test has become rely on testing the battery at a high temperature. These can
less important with the advent of low maintenance and be useful, but some preliminary tests need to be carried
maintenance free batteries. It is designed to ensure that out to establish whether the high temperature changes the
the battery will still start the car even if it has been unused normal battery failure mode. If so, the test should be used <
with caution, as the results could be misleading. Section 11.3 SAE J240 Life Cycle Test.
17 gives further information. The SAE J240 life test for automotive storage batteries
has become a widely used and well respected life test. In
11.2 Test sequence the original test procedure, the test temperature is 40°C.
A typical test sequence (e.g. BS EN 60095-1, IEC However, a high temperature J240 life test at 75°C is also
60095) for automotive (SLI) battery testing is given below: used, particularly for new product development (see also
1. Cy (20 hour rate) capacity or C, (reserve capacity section 17).
test) check at 25°C or 27°C. Because of its popularity, the SAE J240 test is summa-
2. Cranking performance test at -18°C. rized below:
3. Cy or C, check
4. Cranking performance test = The battery is tested in a water bath maintained at
5. . Cy or C, check y
40°C (normal) or 75°C (high temperature).
. Cranking periormance test 5 , m The test cycle consists of:
o

It is important that these tests are carried out in the cor- «4 min discharge @ 25 amps.
rect sequence as specified above or in the relevant test « Charge at a constant potential of 14.8 V, with a
specification. The performance of a battery on a particular rhasimum current of 25A. for 10min.
test may be influenced by its previous history. For exam- w The battery is cycled continuously for 100 hours,
ple, a discharge at a lower rate must always be carried out followed by an open circuit stand of 60 to 72 h on
before a cranking performance fest. ’ open circuit in the water bath. (~ 428 cycles per week).
The battery has to meet the specified value for capacity m With the battery at the test temperature (i.e. 40°C or
or cranking performance in at least one of the three rele- 75°C), it is discharged at a rate equal to its -18°C cold
vant discharges above. For routine quality checks, these cranking rate in amperes. It is discharged to 1.20 V
may be the only tests which are needed. However, for full per cell or for a minimum discharge time of 30 s
characterization testing, additional tests may include: whichever occurs first. 2
m Endurance test m The battery is replaced on the life test without a
m Charge retention separate recharge, starting on the charge portion of
m Charge acceptance the cycle.
m Electrolyte retention m The life test is complete and the battery is considered
m Vibration resistance to have failed when the battery fails to maintain 1.2 V
m Water consumption. per cell for a minimum of 30 s on the control discharge
* for two consecutive 100 to 110 h test periods.
Reference should be made to the relevant test procedure m Water is added to the electrolyte as required during
for details, Lay ) d the cycling portion of the test unless the battery is
The SAE J537 test is still widely used particularly in described as maintenance free.
North America, and the test sequence is somewhat different
to the IEC test outline given above. The BCI recommended
test is very similar to SAE J537. In the SAE test the test 12. MOTORCYCLE BATTERIES
sequence is: Motorcycle batteries are closely allied to SLI batteries for
a R automobiles, and are also intended for starting, lighting and
1. Dry charge battery activation (if required) ignition duties. They may be in 6-volt or 12-volt construction
2. Pre-conditioning (charging/acid $.G. adjustment) and are smaller than automotive SLI batteries.
3. Reserve capacity test Motorcycle battery testing is covered by the Japanese
4. Chargs rate acceplance fost Industrial Standard JIS D 5302. This standard also includes
5. Cold cranking test at -18°C details of layout, dimensions and nominal capacities. The
6. Reserve capacity test key test parameters are:
7. Cold cranking test at -29°C (optional)
8. Reserve capacity test General test requirements — The specific gravity of
9. Optional tests (see below) the electrolyte should be 1.280 x 0.010 at 20°C.
Test events 6 and 8 are not needed if the capacity rating 4 |
is met in event 3. Event 7 is optional, but event 6 is Capacity (10 hour rate C10) — The test temperature is
required if this test is run. (Low rate discharge before high 25 + 2°C. The batteryis discharged at a current of 0.1C10
rate discharge as specified above). to an end voltage equivalent to 1.75 V per cell. The capacity
The following additional optional tests may also be is the product of the discharge time and the 10-hour rate
performed: current. Up to three tests are carried out, and the battery
m Life Test for Automotive Storage Batteries (SAE must achieve 95% of the specified capacity on at least one
J240) of the capacity discharges.
m Test Procedure for Battery Flame Retardant Venting y m Jub
Systems (SAE J1495) High rate discharge — The battery is discharged at the
m Life Test for Heavy-Duty Storage Batteries (SAE specified high rate current at a temperature of -10 = 1°C, to
J2185) a final average cell voltage of 1.00 V. The fully charged
=m Vibration battery needs to be held at the set temperature of -10°C for
m Gassing rate characteristic a minimum of 10 hours before the test is carried out. During

13.
the test, the 5-second voltage and the time to reach the to the actual capacity C, using the formula shown in section
end-point voltage are recorded. The 5-second voltage and 7.3, and a value of 0.006 for A.
total discharge time need to meet the specified values. Up
to three high rate discharge tests may be carried out, but a Charge Retention Test. This test is optional. A typical
capacity test needs to be carried out before each high rate test procedure is to store the battery on open circuit for a
discharge. period of 28 days at an average cell temperature of
20°C + 2°C. The residual capacity C, is determined (see
Resistance to vibration — Resistance to vibration is above) and shall be not less than 0.85 C,.
particularly important for a motorcycle battery, therefore
this is included as a standard test. It is summarized below: High rate discharge performance test. This test is
* 0.1C4q discharge for 2 hours optional, dependent on the intended application. In some
+ Vibration: simple harmonic motion up and down, applications, traction batteries need to be able to supply
with 7 G (68.6 m/s?) acceleration. high current rates e.g. for acceleration and/or lifting of
+ Frequency: increased from 50 Hz to 500 Hz and loads. The value of the high rate discharge current 10.5
then decreased from 500 Hz to 50 Hz continuously should be indicated by the manufacturer. The test is carried
at a constant rate, with a time sweep of 10 min. out on a new battery which has attained a capacity C, = C,.
The battery is discharged at temperature of 30°C and a cur-
Life test — The life test consists of a cycle of 1 hour rent of 10.5 and the discharge time to a final (average) volt-
discharge followed by 5 hour charge, at currents depen- age of 1.50 V per cell is recorded. If necessary (if the actual
dent on the battery size and specified in the JIS standard. battery temperature varies from the nominal temperature),
The test temperature is 40 — 45°C. The capacity is the discharge time Th is corrected for temperature using a
checked every 25 cycles and the battery has failed when value of 0.008 for \. The discharge time Ty, should exceed
the 10-hour rate capacity has fallen below 40% of the 0.5h.
specified value.
One-hour rate (C1) capacity test. This test may be
13. LEAD ACID TRACTION BATTERIES used for traction batteries intended for light road vehicles.
Traction batteries are used as power sources for electric The rated capacity C4 is declared by the manufacturer, for a
propulsion, in applications such as industrial fork lift trucks temperature of 30°C, a discharge time of 1 h and a cut-off
and mechanical handling equipment, electric road vehicles, voltage Uy = 1.60 V per cell. The battery is discharged at a
locomotives, deep cycle marine, golf cars, floor maintenance current 4 to an average discharge voltage of 1.60 V per
machinery etc. In these applications the battery is routinely cell, and the discharge time is recorded. If the initial battery
deeply discharged on each cycle and has to withstand a temperature is different from the reference temperature, the
large number of these deep discharge cycles before failure. capacity C; is corrected to the actual capacity C,, using the
Life cycle testing forms a critical part of the type testing of formula given in 7.3, and a value of 0.007 for A.
these batteries.
Cyclic Endurance Test. This is a destructive test and
13.1 Industrial Trucks should be carried out on a minimum of 3 cells of the same
type. A typical test cycle consists of a discharge in which
13.1.1 Typical Test Sequence 75% of the nominal capacity is removed over a period of 3
A typical test sequence is given below (example based hours, followed by a controlled recharge with the charge
on BS EN 60254-1): input and time as set by the test specification or the manu-
1. Capacity test at Cs rate (up to 10 cycles) facturer. Controlled capacity discharges are carried out
2. Capacity test at C4 rate. every 50 or every 100 cycles, and the battery is deemed to
3. Charge Retention. have failed if it delivers less than 80% of the nominal
4. High rate discharge performance at C0.5 rate. capacity during the controlled capacity discharge. The test
5. Cyclic Endurance Test. temperature may be at or near ambient temperature e.g.
The charge retention and high rate discharge performance 25°C or 30°C, or at higher temperatures for accelerated
tests are optional. The capacity test at the C1 rate may be tests. By way of example, the test procedure for EN 60254-1:
carried out if the application is for a light road vehicle. 1997 is summarized below:
Each cycle consists of:
13.1.2 Key Parameters. + Adischarge for 3 h at a current of | = 0.25C,
Rated Capacity. The key parameter for a traction battery + Arecharge for 9 hours immediately following the
is the capacity at the Cs rate. The nominal capacity Cy, at discharge. The charge factor is normally 1.15, but
the 5-hour rate is declared by the manufacturer. The actual may be higher or lower dependent on cell type and
capacity C, is determined by discharging the battery at a manufacturers recommendation. The current at the
constant current of 0.2Cs to a cut-off voltage end of charge should not exceed C,/16.66.
Us of 1.70 V per cell at a temperature of 30°C. Because of + The nominal test temperature is 40°C, the temperature
the specific internal design of traction batteries, they normally of the cells should be maintained within the range
take several cycles to attain the full nominal capacity Cy. 33°C to 43°C during the test.
C, is required to be at least 0.85 C,, on cycle 1, and 1.00 » The cells undergo a capacity test every 50 cycles.
C, at or before the 10th cycle. If the initial temperature The test is terminated when the corrected capacity C,
differs from the test temperature, the capacity is corrected is less than 0.8 C,, during 2 successive series of 50 cycles.
 + The endurance in cycles is the number of cycles above, and be determined using the average voltage
completed up to the end of the first of the 2 final during the test. The average voltage is based on a
series. This should be at least equal to the number minimum of five voltage readings equally spaced over
stated by the manufacturer. the specified discharge period. The initial reading is
taken 5 s after the start of the discharge.
For valve regulated cells, the test cycle may be rather m The specific energy or gravimetric energy density is
different, as summarized in the example below, again from quoted at the 5 h rate or the 1 h rate, and expressed
EN 60254-1: 1997: in Wh/kg.
m The volumetric energy density is quoted at the 5 h
Each cycle consists of: rate or the 1 h rate, and expressed in Whil.
+ Adischarge for 3.5 h at a current of | = 0.2C, m Cell weights should not include intercell connectors
+ Arecharge for a maximum of 14 h immediately unless they are an integral part of a monoblock. Cell
following the discharge, at a constant voltage not dimensions should be overall dimensions including
exceeding 2.45 V per cell (unless otherwise terminals, vent plugs etc.
recommended by the manufacturer). The current
during the last two hours of charge should be not 13.2 Light Electric Road Vehicles.
greater than C,/66.66. This covers a range of applications including floor scrub-
+ For safety reasons, a current limit may be needed bers, golf cars, personnel carriers, small mine tractors, light
during the initial part of the constant voltage charge. passenger vehicles, motor cycles, light commercial vehicles
The voltage may be allowed to rise above 2.45 V per etc. In practice, the battery may be required to supply widely
cell during the last two hours of charge. varying current rates, and a variety of dynamic discharge
performance tests are available which attempt to simulate
13.1.3 Specific values real life duty.
mw The gravimetric energy density or specific energy,
and the volumetric energy density have already been 13.2.1 Key Parameters
defined. Rated Capacity. This is normally quoted at the 1-hour
m Where the specific energy or energy density are rate, for example as defined in section 13.1.2 above. In the
defined, it should apply to a capacity test as summarized BCI specification batteries are tested at rates to give discharge

Ugatt (nom)
100%
(2,0 VIC)

* 1%

6
20s
4 30s
L; 1 2 3 n-2 n-1 n
Tt T T t sense
0 60 120 Time in seconds

Figure 11. Dynamic Capacity Test (EN 60254-1)

 <
times from 1 to 6 hours at 27°C to a final voltage of 1.75 The discharge is carried out as described above at a temperature
times the number of cells. Performance is expressed in the of 30°C: after each complete discharge the cells are recharged
form of a log-log scale, plotting rate of discharge vs. time as specified by the battery manufacturer. A series of cycles are
of discharge. Average voltages may be recorded as an carried out until the discharge cycle time falls to less than 90
option to enable watt-hour capacity to be calculated (this min on two consecutive discharge cycles. The discharge time for
requires at least ten equally time spaced voltage measure- each discharge cycle, the cumulative discharge time, and the
ments which include beginning and end discharge points). total number of discharges achieved are recorded. The dynamic
The test sequence is to carry out the 3 hour rate discharge endurance is the cumulative discharge time for the entire
first (up to 15 cycles if desired), followed by the 6 hour dynamic endurance test when measured in hours.
capacity test then the 1 hour capacity test. The approximate Other dynamic endurance tests include:
ampere-hour relationships are similar to those shown in FUDS Federal Urban Driving Cycle (Usa)
Figure 2. SFUDS Simplified Federal Urban Driving Cycle (USA)
DST Dynamic Stress Test ECE 15L (Europe)
Dynamic discharge performance. The driving profiles
can be simplified to high-rate current for acceleration, low- 13.3 Deep Cycle Batteries (Marine/RV/Golf Cart etc)
rate current for constant speed driving and zero current for These batteries are used in a wide range of deep-cycling
rest periods. The various test procedures have driving vehicles) to electric wheelchairs and golf carts, therefore
profiles of varying complexity. A relatively simple one is typical discharge rates will vary widely. There is a BCI
given in EN 60254-1: 1997, and is summarized below by specification (1997) for constant current cycle life testing of
way of example: deep cycle batteries which covers all these applications and
The discharge has 3 current levels on a 60 iterated cycle, 8 x standardizes on a discharge rate of 25 amps 2 hour rate of
I for 10" followed by 2 x ly for 20” followed by a 30” rest period. discharge, at a temperature of 26.7°C (80°F). The life cycle
In is the nominal 5 hour rate capacity, and the battery is test is summarized below:
discharged at 30°C to a cut-off voltage Uy = 1.5 V per cell. The The battery is tested in a water bath at 26.7°C and a fully charged
average current for this iterated micro-cycle is 2 x Iy. The battery specific gravity as specified by the battery manufacturer. Each
is subjected to a continuous series of these micro-cycles until cycle consists of a discharge at a constant current equal to | (the
the terminal voltage falls to 1.5 V per cell, and the discharge 2 hour current rate in amperes as specified by the manufacturer)
time T is recorded. The dynamic performance is stated in the 25 amps to a final voltage of 1.75 volts per cell (10.5,volts),. and a
form of discharge time Ty or capacity Cg. If the initial tempera- recharge as specified in Table 3 below. The battery is recharged
ture differs from the test temperature, the capacity can be in accordance with the manufacturers instructions or by constant
corrected using the formula shown in section 7.3, and a value current or current limited constant voltage, such that not less than
of 0.006 for \. 5% and not more than 30% overcharge is delivered to the battery
The discharge cycle for this dynamic discharge test is (and charge voltage and specific gravity of the electrolyte are con-
shown graphically in Figure 11. stant). When the cut-off voltage is reached on the discharge, the
battery is allowed to sit at open circuit until the total time for dis-
Dynamic endurance test. This is a destructive test and charge and open circuit is 4 hours. The battery is considered to
is carried out on a minimum of 3 cells of the same type. have failed when the discharge time in minutes falls to 50% of the
For applications such as light passenger road vehicles it manufacturers rated 2-hour ampere-hour capacity. The total num-
may be carried out on the complete battery pack. The dri- ber of cycles is reported.
ving profile used is normally the same as is used for the
dynamic discharge performance test. The test in accordance 14. STATIONARY LEAD-ACID BATTERIES @
with EN 60254-1: 1997 is summarized as follows: Stationary Batteries are defined as cells or batteries
which are designed for service in a fixed location and which

Table 3

Application Abbreviation

Telecommunications TLCM

Power Station Switch Operation PSSP

Central Emergency Lighting and Alarm Systems CES

Uninterrupted Power Supplies UPS

Stationary Engine Starting SES

Solar Power Storage SPS <

 Table 4

Test Method Current Temp. | Time| Voltage Notes

SAE J537 CCAT -18°C 30" 7.2v
BCI CCAT -18°C 0" 7.2v
BS3911 ccAl 18°C | 60" 85v
DIN 42539 ccaT -18°C 30” 9.0v >150'to 6 v.
EN 60095-1 1.1 -18°C 10" 75y | Restfor 10”, discharge @ 0.6 lccto 6 v.
i record discharge time
IEC 60095 1s? -18°C 60" 84v
IEC 60095 Is1 -0°C 60" 8.4v |Tropical climate battery

Table 5

Tests 7 Series
2 3

Capacity test X X X
Test of suitability for battery floating operation X
Endurance test in discharge-charge cycles X
Charge retention test X

Short circuit and internal resistance test X

are permanently connected to the load and to the d.c. this type of duty, the electrolyte densities and individual
power supply. They are used in a variety of applications, cell voltages must remain within specified limits. After a
examples of which are shown in Table 3. Any type of battery period of 6 months the actual capacity must be at least
construction may be used for stationary battery applica- equal to the rated capacity, and the loss of electrolyte must
tions, and typical types and construction are summarized in not exceed 50% of the volume between the minimum and
Table 4. Variations in the battery test procedure may be maximum levels. The float voltage Uflo is specified by the
required dependent on the application and the battery con- battery manufacturer, and is typically in the range 2.14 to
struction. Free Venting and Valve Regulated batteries are 2.25 = 0.01 volts per cell. The float voltage across the bat-
covered by different test specifications. tery is given by Uy, x n, where n is the number of cells in
the battery.
14.1 Type testing of Vented Stationary Batteries
A typical test sequence (based on EN 60896-1: 1992) Endurance — This is defined as the ability of the cell
for type testing of Stationary Batteries is given in Table 5. or battery to withstand operation under specified conditions
A minimum of 6 cells or monoblocs is recommended per for a minimum period of time. The cells undergo a continuous
series. series of charge-discharge cycles, with a capacity test
after every N cycles, where N may be e.g. 50 cycles. By
14.1.1 Specific Requirements: (reference EN 60896-1: way of example, a typical cycle could be:
1992) 3 hour discharge at a current of | =2.0 l1g A
(These requirements are valid for vented flat plate and
tubular stationary batteries. The requirements for VRLA
(lip = C1/10h)
21 hour charge at a voltage of 2.40 + 0.01 V per cell.
batteries are given in 14.ii; and for Planté batteries in (Initial charge limited to pay = 2.0 ly).
14.ii).
Charge retention test — Normally stationary batteries
Capacity — The rated capacity Cy, is a reference value are on permanent charge, but the battery may become
indicated by the battery manufacturer in accordance with electrically disconnected either deliberately or accidentally.
the manufacturers specification. The most commonly used The charge retention test involves determination of the
values of the discharge time t are between 10h and 3h, to capacity of the battery before and after a prolonged open
a final voltage Uy = 1.80 V per cell. The reference tempera- circuit stand e.g. for 90 days at 20°C.
ture is normally 20°C.
Short-circuit test and internal resistance test — This
Suitability for floating battery operation — Stationary information is obtained indirectly by establishing the capacity
batteries are used mainly in floating operation, in which a of the cells at 2 different discharge currents. A similar test
constant voltage Ug, is permanently applied to its termi- may be carried out for other applications also e.g. aircraft
nals. This applied voltage is sufficient to maintain it in a batteries. An example of the test is given below.
state close to full charge, in readiness to supply a circuit The test is carried out on a minimum of 3 cells which have a
whose normal power supply may fail. When subjected to
 Table 6

Unit Temperature corrected

Petioimance Conformity pe (48 V battery) pd Deriomance
% Unit Performance Battery Performance
1 99.9% > Cs All units C;> 0.99 Cs 100% batteries Cr> Cs
2 99% > Cs All units Cr> 0.97 Gs 100% batteries C;> Cs
3 95% > Cs All units Cr> 0.95 Cs 75% batteries Cr> Cs
4 90% > Cs All units C;> 0.93 Cs 0% batteries Cr > Cx
The values for battery performance are based upon the
3 h rate of discharge and assume a battery size of 48 V.

capacity at least equal to the rated capacity. lection device (which can be left unattended if necessary) so
The test is carried out at a temperature of 20°C. that any gas emitted can be collected over a period of sev-
The cells are discharged at a current I; = 4lyq...6154 (A) for 20 eral days. The units are float charged as a series string at
seconds, the voltage and current are read and give the first a voltage equivalent to 2.4 volts per cell for 72 hours. Gas
point. collection is started after 72 hours, and continued for a fur-
After an open-circuit stand of 2 min to 5 min, the second point ther 96 hours. The cumulative actual volume of gas
is determined. collected is recorded, and the ambient temperature and
After 5 s discharge at a current I, = 20 |....40 114 (A) the voit- pressure are also noted. Formulae are given in the relevant
age and current are read and give the second point. standard to enable the gas emission to be calculated and
The characteristic U = (1) is linearly extrapolated to U = 0 (V). expressed per cell, per Ah, per hour.
The intercept gives the short-circuit current |. The intemal
resistance (Ri) may also be determined. High current endurance — If the battery manufacturer
This is shown in Figure 12 and Figure 13. states that the battery is suitable for high current endurance,
it is tested as follows: :
14.2 Classification of Valve Regulated Types
Valve regulated cells used in Stationary applications 3 units which have achieved the rated capacity Cs are used for
often have a large number of cells connected in series. It this test. Each unit is discharged for 1 min at a constant current
is important that the capacity band for the individual cells equal to 3.5 times the rated 5 min current. The unit is recharged
is as small as possible, otherwise the performance of the in accordance with the manufacturers instructions, and then a
complete battery may be compromised by the low perfor- capacity test is performed at the Cj rate. The actual capacity
mance of individual cells. Test specifications such as BS Ca after the high current test shall be not less than Cs. There
6290: Part 4: 1997 deal with this by including classification must be no sign of melting of the unit group bars or internal
tests and tests for conformity to cover the performance of intercell connections. There must be no combustion or self-
complete batteries as well as individual cells. This requires ignition during the high current test.
that 20 units are subjected to a defined capacity test pro-
gram. The data from this test program is analyzed statisti- CAUTION: There is a risk of an explosion of the internal
cally and a conformity factor and percentage conformity gas mixture during this test and it should take place in an
are derived from this statistical analysis. This enables the enclosure capable of containing explosion debris.
battery to be placed in a given performance class from 1 to
4, as summarized in Table 6: 14.3 Planté Type
The values for battery performance are based upon the Historically Planté cells were the preferred option for
3 h rate of discharge and assume a battery size of 48 V. stationary cells — more recently they have been displaced
Note that classification tests may require specialized by VRLA cells in many applications and markets. In the
test equipment with a voltage capability of at least 60 V, to high performance Planté cell, the active material of the
enable a series circuit of 20 — 24 batteries to be tested. positive plate is obtained by oxidizing the surface of the
Other specific requirements: lead plate rather than using a lead oxide paste. The
negative plate is a conventional pasted plate.
Rated capacity — recommended values of t are typical- The Planté cell is typified by a very long lifetime (> 20
ly in the range 10 to 1, with the 3 h rate being the most com- years in stationary applications), however its design is not
monly used rate, to a discharge voltage of 1.80 V. appropriate to regular deep discharges. The discharge
characteristics do not vary throughout its life, and the voltage
Gas emission — this test is specific to valve regulated characteristics on discharge, float or recharge are stable
batteries. The test determines the gas emission from new and reproducible.
valve regulated stationary lead-acid units when operated in The test specification (e.g. BS 6290-2: 1999) may specify
the overcharge float condition. It is carried out on a number certain design parameters for the Planté cell, but the test
of new units, equivalent to 12 cells, at a temperature in the procedure will be broadly similar to that for the flooded cell
range 20°C to 25°C. Each unit valve is fitted with a gas col (see above). The rated capacity is normally stated in terms
 Upla-Ualy
VOLTAGE (U) 4 lsc = 70 (A)

Uy. U.
Tl) mm me ime Ry= 1)
! Io 14
i
i
1
i
1]
WU), EE ——
i
i
i
i
L >
ly lz lsc Current (I)

Figure 12. Discharge Characteristic for Short Circuit Test (Stationary Battery BS EN 60896)

Or
Or ©

O
/
Figure 13. Typical test Circuit (Stationary Battery BS EN 60896)

The voltage shall be measured at the terminals at the outlet of each cell or monobloc in order to insure that no external
voltage drop interferes with the test. A typical test circuit is shown in Figure 13.

The values of short-circuit current and internal resistance obtained in this test refer to a single cell or monobloc.
However, the resistance of intercell connections has to be taken into account when calculating the short circuit current
and internal resistance for a complete battery.

This test method provides information in stabilized test conditions, and does not indicate dynamic reactions occurring,
for example, during the first few milliseconds of a short circuit. The results of this test have an accuracy which is of the
order + 10%.
 15. Charge acceptance
Table 7 16. Charge stability
17. Overcharge endurance (sealed batteries only)
Discharge Duration | Final voltage per cell 18. Short circuit current
h \ 19. Topple
1 1.75 20. Vibration
2 1.78 21. Cell/cell block leakage (vented batteries only)
3 1.80 22. Normal acceleration
4 1.81 23. Cell/cell block leakage (vented batteries only)
5 1.82 24. Crash acceleration
25. Explosion containment
6 1.83
26. Gas emission
7 1.83 27. Induced destructive overcharge
8 1.84 28. Fluid contamination
9 1.84 It can be seen that this is a very comprehensive test
10 1.85 sequence incorporating some tests not used in other applica-
Discharge Duration | Final voltage per cell tions, for which specialized test equipment may be needed.
Min \4
1 1.60 15.2 General Requirements
5 1.62
Type approval testing — For type approval testing a
minimum of 6 batteries of each type is tested, using a ww
15 1.65 defined test procedure and order of testing.
30 1.69
Temperature range —The battery has to be capable of
of a discharge time of 3 h, at a fully charged electrolyte operating over a very wide temperature range, typically
density of 1207 kg/m3 at 20°C. (Note that the electrolyte -30°C to +50°C, and shall not be harmed by exposure to
density is lower than for conventional vented cells with the temperature range -40°C to +70°C. Unless otherwise
pasted or tubular plates). specified, the type approval tests are conducted in
an ambient air temperature of 23 + 56°C. *
14.4 General information
The final voltages for discharge durations from 1minute Measuring equipment — Measuring equipment accuracy
to 10 hours are shown in Table 7. may need to be higher than for routine battery tests on
other battery types. For example, voltmeters and ammeters
15. AIRCRAFT BATTERIES have to conform to an accuracy of class 0.3 or better.

15.1 Type Approval Tests Safety — The battery is required to be inherently safe,
Aircraft Batteries have specific test requirements which and some of the tests are designed specifically to test this,
differ in many respects from other standard tests. The test e.g. the effect on the battery of thermal runaway or electrical
specification may also include details of general construction short circuit.
requirements, dimensions, terminals, battery performance
characteristics (power rating) etc. For details, reference
should be made to the relevant test procedure, but a typical
15.3 Acceptance Tests
The minimum test requirement for acceptance tests as
<
test sequence for type approval tests (based on BS 6G part of the Quality Plan is summarized below:
205: 1995) is shown below:
1. Storage Physical Examination — Each battery is examined to
2. Physical examination ensure conformity to the relevant standard with respect to
3. Cellcell block leakage (vented batteries only) materials, dimensions, mass, identification, venting
4. Rated capacity arrangements, workmanship and general condition.
5. Insulation resistance
6. Unspillability Rated capacity — the rated capacity is expressed at
7. Altitude (sealed batteries only) the 1 hour rate (1C;) to a mean voltage per cell of 1.67 V
8. Ventilation at an ambient temperature of 23 + 2°C.
9. Charge retention
10. Rapid discharge capacity Rapid discharge capability — This is carried out both
11. Low temperature starting capability at ambient temperature and low temperature. For example,
12. Endurance BS 6G 205 specifies discharge at the 6C1 rate at 23 + 2°C
12.1 Vented Battery to a mean voltage per cell of 1.33 V. At -18°C the battery is
12.2 Valve Regulated Sealed Battery discharged at the 25C rate for 10s, immediately followed
12.3 Valve Regulated Sealed Battery (additional test by a rate of 10C4 for 50s. The minimum voltage per cellis
method) specified in the standard.
13. Duty cycle
14. Power rating @
 Insulation Resistance — This is measured at 250 V 15.5 Specialized Test Equipment Requirements
d.c. between the negative terminal and the case immedi- Some of the test procedures for aircraft battery testing
ately after charge without cleaning, and then re-measured seu specialized equipment as indicated below:
after the battery is cleaned. Environmental chamber capable of changing the
atmospheric pressure (for the altitude test).
Charge Retention — The capacity of the battery at the = Centrifuge (for Normal Acceleration and Crash
1C1 rate is determined before and after a 28 day open- Acceleration test).
circuit stand at 23 + 5°C. * Vibration Generator Table (for Vibration test).
+ Topple Test Rig.
Cell/Cell Block Leakage (vented batteries only) — * Enclosed Safe Test Area (for Short Circuit Current,
Each cell/cell block is subjected to an internal air pressure Explosion Containment and Induced Destructive
of 14 kPa, and there should be no detectable leakage during Overcharge tests).
a period of 15 s. For valve regulated sealed batteries, + Gas sample analysis (for gas emission test).
leakage may be established by visual inspection.
16. BATTERY CHARGING
15.4 Other Key Parameters
Life cycle testing — This is of 2 types, an endurance 16.1 General
test, and a duty cycle test. The endurance test is carried Correct charging of the battery is very important and
out at ambient temperature (23 + 5°C) and each cycle con- may influence the capacity/performance of the battery
sists of a constant current discharge for 9 minutes followed on the subsequent discharge. The charging process is
by recharge for 51 minutes at constant current or con- not 100% efficient, and towards the end of charge, part
trolled voltage. The capacity is checked at the 1C, rate of the charge current is used in decomposition of water
every 250 cycles. An alternative test for valve regulated and corrosion of the positive grids. In order to ensure
batteries is also available. In the duty cycle test, the dis- that the battery is fully charged, the charge input has to
charges are carried out at a higher current. be up to 20% higher than the charge removed during
the previous discharge (this applies only to conventional
Power rating — This is carried out a 3 different tem- flooded batteries, see special notes below on charging
peratures: 23°C, -18°C, and -30°C. At each temperature of VRLA batteries). At the end of the charge, the charge
the battery is discharged at such a rate that the terminal current needs to be limited to prevent an excessive
voltage is maintained at 1.00 V per cell for not less than temperature rise and possible damage to the plates. The
15s. The current requirement at each test temperature is charge regime may be at a constant current, a constant
specified in the standard. potential, or a stepped regime involving both constant
current and constant potential possibly also including
Overcharge endurance (for sealed batteries only) — rest periods.
The battery is subjected to a constant voltage overcharge The charge regime to be used may be specified in
at the equivalent of 2.42 volts per cell for 400h. At the end the test procedure, or by the battery manufacturer. If the
of the test, the weight loss shall be not more than 1.0%, charge regime is specified by the battery manufacturer,
and the capacity not less than 90% of the initial capacity. this should be followed where possible. If no regime is
specified, the examples below may give some general
Charge stability — This test requires the battery to be guidance:
held at 50°C in an environmental chamber with assisted
ventilation, while being subjected to a high rate discharge 16.2 SLI Batteries
(6C1) foliowed by a constant potential recharge for 10 Charge at a constant current e.g. 0.1 Cog until a
hours. After 16-24h open circuit stand, the capacity of the constant voltage or constant acid density is reached (2
battery is determined at the 1C, rate at 23°C. The test is consecutive hourly readings). Or, charge at a constant
designed to assess the tendency of the battery to thermal current to an average voltage equivalent to 2.4 V per
runaway and specifies the maximum charging current, cell cell, then charge for a further 5 hours at the same
temperature and discharge duration after the test. At the current. Charge input should be 15-20% more than the
end of the test, the battery after charging should still be charge removed during the previous discharge.
serviceable. BCI recommend charging at a constant current which
is between '/2 and % % of the Cold Cranking Performance
Short circuit current — Extreme care needs to be (-18°C) rating (in amperes). The criteria for full charge is
taken when carrying out this test. Because of the possible as indicated in section 16.5.
fire/explosion hazard, it is strongly recommended that the Charge at ambient temperature 20°C — 30°C. If the
operator is screened from the battery under test, and previous discharge was at a low temperature (e.g. 0°C
preferably is supervising the test remotely from a separate or -18°C), allow the battery to warm up to > 10°C before
room. The battery needs to be able to withstand its own commencing charge.
short circuit current when tested in accordance with the With computer controlled test equipment which auto-
relevant standard. The standard specifies the total resis- matically calculates ampere hours, it may be possible to
tance of the test circuit (e.g. 1.5 mQ). set the test program so that the charge input is automatically

21.
related to the charge output e.g. charge input = 1.2 x to charge a number of cells from a power supply which has
charge output. a low voltage but a high current availability. Or if a battery
needs to be constructed with a high capacity but low voltage.
16.3 Stationary Batteries If cells are connected in parallel, the voltage is the same as
Charge at 0.09C3 (C3 = 3 hour rate capacity) for approxi- the voltage of the individual cells, but the capacity is additive.
mately 14 hours. Or: Commence charge at a higher start- For example, a cell has a capacity of 40Ah and a voltage
ing rate 0.18C3, and reduce to the finishing rate (0.09C3) of 2v. If 3 cells are connected in series, the battery will
when the gassing voltage has been reached (e.g. 2.35 V have a capacity of 40Ah and a voltage of 6v. If connected
per cell). Recharge time will be about 10 hours. Or: Limited in parallel, the battery has a capacity of 120Ah, and a
voltage charging. The voltage may be limited to e.g. 2.25V voltage of 2v. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 14,
per cell, with a current of 0.09C3, but the starting current which also shows a series/parallel arrangement of cells.
could be increased to 0.18Cs. It will take a lot longer for the
battery to reach full charge, possibly up to 50 hours. 17. ACCELERATED BATTERY TESTS
In one sense, all endurance tests included in test
16.4 Valve Regulated Batteries (VRLA) specifications are accelerated tests because the battery
Valve regulated batteries are a special case, as they fails more rapidly on these tests than they would in normal
are designed so that any gas generated during charge is duty. The main reason for this of course is that the en-
recombined internally. It is essential that the manufacturers durance tests exclude the long rest periods that normally
recommendations be followed when charging valve regulated occur e.g. for an SLI battery on a vehicle. However, these
batteries. If the manufacturers recommendations are not standard endurance tests do test the battery under the con-
available, the recommendations in the relevant standard ditions of charge current, discharge current, voltage and -
for VRLA batteries should be followed. The maximum voltage temperature which would normally be experienced in the
during charge is normally limited e.g. to 2.40 V per cell, to relevant duty application. Accelerated tests change one or
minimize the risk of excessive gas generation resulting in more of these parameters.
incomplete internal gas recombination. The recommended
* — - y
% overcharge on each recharge is also normally lower
than for flooded batteries e.g. 106% - 110%.

16.5 General Guidance on Voltage Changes During

Cells connected in series — 6 Volts: 40Ah
Charge
During battery charging, there is a steady increase in
the cell voltage until the battery is nearly fully charged and
the battery voltage then levels off. When the voltage has
LJ
become constant for a period of time, the battery is
considered to be fully charged (e.g. when the temperature
corrected voltage does not change by more than 0.008V - - .
per cell over three successive hourly intervals). When the
battery is fully charged, the specific gravity of the electrolyte
also reaches a maximum and becomes constant (e.g.
when the temperature corrected specific gravity is constant
within + 0.002 over three successive hourly intervals).
Alternatively, if the charge is at constant voltage, the
Cells connected in parallel - 2 Volts: 120Ah <
observed current should not show any appreciable change
during a period of 2 hours. Any changes in temperature
should be taken into account. L]
16.6 Charging Temperatures
] ] ]
If the charge follows a previous discharge at low
temperature, the battery should be allowed to warm up
to at least 10°C (and preferably 15°C) before charge
commences. During charge, the battery temperature
should be maintained between 15°C and 40°C. LJ * J]

16.7 Series/Parallel Arrangement of Cells

When building a battery from more than one cell, the
cells are normally connected in series. For example, a 12v
automotive battery is assembled from 6, 2v cells connected - J ]
in series. The capacity of the battery is the same as the
capacity of the individual cells, but the voltage of the battery
is additive.
There may be occasions when it is necessary to connect
cells or batteries in parallel, for example if it is necessary Figure 14. Series of Parallel Connection of Cells <
~
A good example of an accelerated life test is the SAE 19. EVALUATION OF TEST RESULTS
J240 life cycle test in which the test temperature has been These notes can only act as a check list and give general
changed from 40°C to 75°C. This high temperature test is guidance in the evaluation and interpretation of the test
becoming more widely used because it is more representative data. It is important to be aware that the interpretation of
of actual service duty on modern automobiles than the results must take into account the test sample size and be
40°C test. However, some caution must be used in interpreting carried out using accepted norms of statistical practice.
the results, because for certain battery designs (e.g. m What is the purpose of the test? For example, is it for
wrought calcium alloyed lead positive grids) the test failure routine production sampling or Research and Development
mode may not correspond with the service failure mode. testing of different battery builds.
The following paragraph is being added to the current J240 m Did the batteries meet the performance specification?
standard and is quoted here in full because it summarizes If there were differences between different battery builds,
the potential risks when accelerated life tests are used: were these differences statistically significant?
Optionally, this test may be conducted with the water If the performance specification was not met, examine
bath temperature maintained as high as 75°C + 3°C the results in more detail:
depending on the temperature and severity of the applica- m Were open circuit voltages and on-charge voltages
tion. Shortening of time and of number of cycles can be normal? Look out for abnormalities such as unusually high
expected. However, this test option may change the types or unusually low voltage on charge or discharge.
and distribution of failure modes depending on the battery m Was the test temperature correct? If the test temperature
design technology. The battery supplier and the automotive differed from the specified temperature, was the appropri-
user should concur that this test option will produce failure ate temperature correction applied to the capacity result?
modes that correlate with application life and the temperature At the completion of life cycle testing, the cells/batteries.
required to produce these failure modes. are normally subjected to a teardown examination to determine
The above comments need to be taken into account cause of failure. Section 20 gives further guidance.
when considering the use of an accelerated life test.
Before adopting an accelerated life test on a routine basis, 20. INTERNAL BATTERY EXAMINATION
the laboratory should carry out the normal endurance test An important function of any battery test laboratory is
and the accelerated test on representative sample batter- the ability to carry out an internal examination of batteries
ies from the same batch of batteries, and examine the bat- at the end of test to determine their condition and cause of
teries at the end of the test, to establish whether the accel- failure. The battery test laboratory may also be used to test
erated test has changed the failure mode. warranty claims batteries to determine whether the claim is
justified, and if so to establish the cause of failure.
18. UNUSUAL BATTERY APPLICATIONS AND TEST The first stage in the internal battery examination is to
PROCEDURES drain the acid and remove the lid. At this stage the open
Sometimes test procedures are agreed between the circuit voltage of each cell should be measured to deter-
supplier and the customer, or used as part of a research mine whether one cell has a lower voltage than the other
and development program, which are not covered in the cells in the battery — if so, this cell should be examined
relevant national or international test standards. This may first.
be because the battery application is unusual, or because A guide to the more common causes of battery failure is
the test procedure has been devised to test a specific given below, but this does not claim to be comprehensive.
component such as the grid or the separator. Examples If the battery is being examined after a destructive laboratory
might include: test e.g. life cycle or overcharge, then the cause of failure
is normally fairly obvious as it is related to the known duty
m High temperature overcharge test designed to deter- cycle. Determination of the failure cause of batteries
mine the resistance to oxidation of the internal com- returned from the field can often be much more difficult,
ponents such as the grids or the battery separator. and may also require discussions with component suppliers.
This may include teardown examination of selected Detailed notes should be made, accompanied by
cells at defined intervals e.g. for detailed separator photographs if possible. This will make it easier to spot
or grid analysis. any trends in battery failures caused e.g. by assembly
m Test designed by the motor vehicle manufacturer. faults or component failures.
For example there is a Mercedes test used some-
times in Europe which is a life cycle test at 60°C. Fault: Normal end of life.
Each week of the test involves a combination of Plate appearance: Positive paste soft, and possibly
overcharge, cranking test (at 60°C), a cycle test (8 shedding. There should be uniform shedding from the surface
charge/discharge cycles) and an open circuit stand. of the plates rather than pellet loss. If leaf separators have
been used, there may be a build up of “sludge” in the mud-
When using a new or unusual test procedure, some
rack at the bottom of the container. If envelope separators
preliminary development work may be needed, to establish
have been used, any active material loss should be contained
that the test procedure is relevant to the proposed applica-
within the separator envelope. The negative plates should
tion, and that the failure cause replicates the typical failure
be in good condition, with a leady streak if scraped with a
cause of the battery in actual service.
fingernail. The grid frame and lattice may be weak but
should still be intact.

23.
 Cause: This is normal end of life for a battery which Fault: short circuit
has been on a life test at temperatures below 40°C, or Plate appearance: Loose, mossy deposits of material,
which has reached the end of its life in normal service usually gray in color, around the edges of the plates, or
duty. around a hole/break in the separator. The positive plates
may have an orange patch where the short circuit has
Fault: Overcharge. been taking place.
Plate appearance: Positive grids corroded. The grid Cause: A low voltage on charge or discharge, with very
frame may be intact, or there may be one or more breaks little gassing during charge, is normally indicative of an
in the frame. The grid lattice (ribs and strands) is weak and internal short circuit. The initial cause may be an assembly
corroded, and may have disintegrated completely. The fault such as a bent plate, a damaged separator etc. A
positive active material normally remains fairly hard, but short circuit may occur towards the end of life when active
there may be significant loss of complete paste pellets. material which has shed from the positive plates builds up
The negative plates may still be in a reasonable condition. at the edges of the plates so that a bridge is formed
Depending on the severity of the overcharge, the separators between the positive and negative plates (this is less likely
may also have been oxidized, with the possibility of to occur with envelope separators). It can sometimes be
splits/holes in the separator resulting in short circuits. difficult to decide whether a short circuit (e.g. through the
Cause: This is the expected failure mode when the bat- separator) has caused high temperatures and battery
tery has been on an overcharge test or a cycling test which failure, or whether high battery temperatures (from some
involves a significant degree of overcharge on the charge other cause) have resulted in overcharge and separator
part of the cycle. If the battery has been in service on a deterioration. In this instance, it may be necessary to
vehicle, there are a number of possible causes including examine all the cells in the battery to determine the primary
faulty alternator setting, high battery temperature (e.g. due cause of failure.
to high ambient temperature) etc. The overcharge causes
corrosion of the positive grids, and excessive gassing Fault: cell reversal
which loosens the positive active material. It also results in Plate appearance: Each plate will contain some posi-
excessive water loss. The oxidizing atmosphere at the posi- tive and some negative material. The positive plate active
tive plates arising from the excessive gassing, and the material will contain patches of dark brown color.
resultant high battery temperature may also destroy the Cause: This fault may be due to an assembly fault (e.g.
integrity of the separators. cell inserted into the battery container backwards). Or for
some reason one cell in the battery has a much lower
Fault: undercharge capacity than the other cells. If all the cells are reversed,
Plate appearance: Positive paste hard, crystalline and the battery has been connected and charged in the wrong
light in color. The plates may be buckled and distorted. direction.
The negative plates are hard and light in color. A very fine
white powder of lead sulfate may be deposited in the bot- Fault: Weak (low density) acid
tom of the cell. Plate appearance: Negative plates severely contracted.
Cause: This failure cause is unlikely to be a typical Cause: The battery has been filled with incorrect acid
cause of failure in the routine laboratory battery tests. It is s.g., or has been left in a discharged condition.
more likely to be observed in a battery removed from a
vehicle, if for example the vehicle electrical system has Fault: Strong (high density) acid
failed, the alternator voltage is set too low, or the fan belt Plate appearance: Negative plates expanded and
is loose/slipping. Use of the vehicle for short journeys only, spongy with a sandy or gritty feel.
or in stop/start conditions of heavy traffic may also result in Cause: The cell has been topped up with acid instead
this failure cause. of water during service. Or the cell has not been topped up
as water is lost during service, and the remaining acid
Fault: Overdischarge (sulfation) becomes steadily more concentrated.
Plate appearance: Positive paste hard and almost
white. The grid frame may be broken due to expansive Fault: Low electrolyte level.
forces. Negative paste hard and sulfated. Plate appearance: The upper part of the plate is differ-
Cause: This fault is unlikely to be observed after routine ent in color and texture to the lower part. The positive plate
laboratory testing. It may arise if the battery has been left is lighter in color where it is out of the acid. The upper part
for a long time in a discharged condition, or has been of the negative plate will not give a leady streak when
persistently undercharged. scraped with a fingernail.
Cause: The battery has not been topped up when
Fault: Hydration. electrolyte has been lost through gassing and evaporation.
Plate appearance: White deposit on positive and nega- This will also cause the remaining acid to become steadily
tive plates, also white powdery deposit on separators. more concentrated, which may damage the plates and the
Cause: The battery has been left for a long time in a separators. The battery performance will also be adversely
low state of charge, so that the electrolyte is effectively affected.
water, or has a pH very close to that of water. This permits
the formation of hydrated lead oxides.
General comments: Sulfation and Hydration
Lead sulfate is a natural product of the discharge
process, and is normally in a finely crystalline form, which
is readily converted back to the active materials lead and
lead dioxide by action of the charging current. It also
forms as a result of self discharge and unless the battery
is left in a discharged state for a very long time, it is again
readily converted to the active materials. However, under
certain conditions, much larger crystals of lead sulfate may
form, which prove very difficult to reconvert to the active
materials on charge.
A related problem is the phenomenon known as hydra-
tion, which occurs when virtually all the sulfuric acid has
combined with the active material of the plates, so that the
pH of the electrolyte is very close to that of water. Under
these conditions, the lead sulfate in the plates which is
normally insoluble in the sulfuric acid, can become slightly
soluble and migrate into the pores of the separators. On
recharge, the lead in solution is converted back to lead,
and this can result in short circuits (sometimes known as
microshorts) through the separators. Some battery manu-
facturers try to avoid the occurrence of this problem by
adding sodium sulfate to the electrolyte. The presence of
the sulfate ions from the sodium sulfate inhibits the
solubility of the lead sulfate.

21. FUTURE BATTERY DEVELOPMENTS

36 volt battery (42 volt automotive system).

Within the next 3-5 years, 36-volt batteries will start to
appear as ariginal equipment on luxury vehicles in the
USA and Europe. Over a period of time, 36-volt batteries
will also appear on “mass market” automobiles. This has
implications for battery testing, in particular:
m These new batteries will require higher voltage test
rigs. These will require a maximum voltage of 54v,
compared with 18v for test rigs that are used for
existing 12-volt automotive batteries.
m The test specification may need to include a test for
Peak Power in addition to the routine performance
tests as described in section 11.

Electric Vehicles/ Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Some mention has already been made of battery test
specifications for Light Electric Road Vehicles in section
13.2. As E’'s/ HEV’s gain wider acceptance in the market-
place, specialized test equipment will be needed in order
to test electric vehicle batteries. This is because the
dynamic endurance tests are complex in nature, involving
a variety of current levels on both charge and discharge,
with some of the current spikes of very brief duration. Testing
of complete battery packs also requires test rigs capable of
supplying voltages of up to 300v.

25.
 APPENDIX 1.

EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL/INTERNATIONAL TEST STANDARDS

SAE Standards

SAE J537: June 1994 Storage Batteries.

SAE J240: June 1993 Life Test for Automotive Storage Batteries.
SAE J2185 Life Test for Heavy-Duty Storage Batteries.

BCI Standards (Battery Technical Manual)

4-001 to 4-008/ 1-93 BCI Storage Battery Electrical Specifications

5-001 to 5-003/ 5-93 BCI Specifications for Electric Vehicle Batteries
6-001 to 6-002/ 1-97 BCI Specification for Constant Current Cycle Life Testing of Deep Cycle Batteries

European Standards

EN 60896-1: 1992 Stationary lead-acid batteries. General requirements and methods of

(IEC 896-1: 1987) test. Part 1. Vented types.
EN 60896-2: 1996 Stationary lead-acid batteries. General requirements and methods of (IEC 896-2:1995)
test. Part 2. Valve regulated types.
BS 6290-2: 1999 Lead-acid stationary cells and batteries. Part 2: Specification for the high-performance Plante
positive type.
BS 6290-3: 1999 Lead-acid stationary cells and batteries. Part 3: Specification for the flat positive plate type.
BS 6290-4: 1997 Lead-acid stationary cells and batteries. Part 3: Specification for classifying valve regulated types.
EN 60254-1: 1997 Lead-acid traction batteries. Part 1. General requirements and methods
(IEC 60254-1:1997) of test.
EN 60095-1: 1993 Lead-acid starter batteries. General requirements and methods of test. z
(Shortly to be superceded by EN 50432)
BS 6G 205: Part 1: 1995 Secondary batteries for aircraft. Specification for lead-acid batteries.
BS 7483: 1991 Specification for lead-acid batteries for the propulsion of light electric vehicles.
IEC 60095-1: Ed. 6: 1999 Lead-acid starter batteries. Part 1. General requirements and methods (In draft)
of test.
Japanese Standards (JIS)

JIS D 5301: 1999 Lead-Acid batteries for Automobiles

JIS C 8702: 1988 Small-Sized Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries
JIS D 5303: 1986 Lead-Acid Traction Batteries
JIS C 8704: 1989 Stationary Lead-Acid Batteries
JIS D 5302: 1985 Motorcycle Batteries

Standards for Statistical Sampling and Data Analysis

BS 6000: 1996 Guide for the selection of an acceptance sampling system, scheme or
(ISO TR 8550: 1994) plan for inspection of discrete items in lots.
BS 6001-0: 1996 Introduction to the BS 6001 attribute sampling system.
(ISO 2859-0:1995)
BS 6001-1: 1999 Sampling procedures for inspection by attributes. Sampling schemes
(ISO 2859-2: 1985) indexed by AQL for lot-by-lot inspection.
BS 6001-2: 1993 Specification for sampling plans indexed by limiting quality (LQ) for
(ISO 2859-2: 1985) isolated lot inspection.
BS 6001-3: 1993 Specification for skip-lot procedures.
(ISO 2859-3: 1991)
BS 6001-4: 1994 Specification for sequential sampling plans.
(ISO 8422: 1991)
BS 6001-5: 2000 Procedures for assessment of stated quality levels.
(ISO 2859-4: 1999)
BS 6002-1: 1993 Sampling procedures for inspection by variables. Specification for
(ISO 3951: 1989) single sampling plans indexed by AQL for lot-by-lot inspection.
BS 6002-4.1: 1994 Specification for sequential sampling plans for percent nonconforming.
(ISO 8423: 1991) Known standard deviation.
 APPENDIX 2.
SOME BASIC ELECTROCHEMICAL TERMS

Electron - An electron is a small particle, having unit Anode - The electrode at which oxidation occurs:
negative charge, small mass, and small size. An alternatively, it is the electrode at which electrons are
atom consists of a nucleus which is positively lost. It is the electrode to which Anions migrate
charged, circled by one or more electrons. Some of
these electrons can be readily removed from the Cathode - The electrode at which reduction occurs:
atom and are transferred from one element or alternatively it is the electrode at which electrons are
compound to another during chemical reactions. In gained. It is the electrode to which Cations migrate.
an electrical circuit, the flow of electrical current is
#™ carried by electrons. (an ATOM is the smallest DEFINITIONS
chemically indivisible part of an element).
Ampere — This is the unit of electrical current.
Electrolyte - An electrolyte is a liquid which is
capable of carrying an electric current. For example, Volt — The unit of electromotive force. It is the
dilute sulfuric acid is an electrolyte. Completely pure difference in potential required to make a current of
water is not an electrolyte, but can become an one ampere flow through a resistance of one ohm.
electrolyte if a small amount of an acid or salt has The electromotive force (EMF) of a cell — measured
been added. Paraffin oil is a good insulator and is in volts — is the difference between the two single
therefore not an electrolyte. potentials of the positive and negative electrodes in
the electrochemical cell.
Electrode - An electrode is a conductor of electricity
which brings the current into, and leads it from, the Ohm — This is the unit of electrical resistance.
electrolyte. In most batteries the electrodes also take
part in the chemical reactions which occur. In the Ohmis Law — This is expressed as E = IR, and
lead/acid battery the electrodes are lead and lead expresses the relationship between the current, |,
dioxide. measured in amperes, the electromotive force, E,
measured in volts, and the resistance, R, measured
™on - A particle of molecular size that carries electric in ohms.
charges through the electrolyte. It may be formed
either from the electrodes or from the substance Coulomb — A coulomb is a current of one amp
dissolved in the electrolyte. flowing for one second. This is a small quantity,
therefore the larger unit of one ampere-hour (3600
A positively charged ion is known as a Cation coulombs) is normally used.

A negatively charged ion is known as an Anion Faraday — A Faraday is 96,500 coulombs or 26.80
Example: H,SO, 2H+ + SO,2- ampere hours. It is also the quantity of electricity
in solution ion ion associated with one equivalent of chemical change.
The ‘SO4* ion is an Anion carrying 2 negative
charges: The H* ion is a Cation carrying 1 positive
charge.

27.
Ampere-hour (Ah): 1 ampere-hour = 1 amp flowing
for 1 hour. The ‘Ampere-hour’ capacity of the battery Electrolyte specific gravity/density — The
is a measure of the amount of electricity the battery specific gravity of a solution is the ratio of the weight
is able to deliver. The battery capacity is dependent of the solution to the weight of an equal volume of
on the discharge rate and therefore when the pure water at some fixed temperature. The density is
ampere hour capacity of a battery is quoted, the the ratio of the mass of the liquid to its own volume
discharge rate must also be specified. For example, at a definite temperature. So that density measures a
a battery may have a quoted capacity of 40Ah at the property of the substance itself, whereas specific
20 hour rate. This can also be stated in the format: gravity depends on the properties of two substances.
40Ah @ C20. This means that if the battery is dis- The specific gravity of the battery electrolyte is based
charged at 2 amps (0.05C5), the discharge time will on a comparison with water, for which the density at
be 20 hours. Another example would be a battery 4°C is unity, and therefore the specific gravity of a
with a capacity of 100Ah at the 5 hour rate (Cs). If solution and its density are very nearly the same.
discharged at 20 amps (0.2Cs) the discharge time Because the practical difference between specific
will be 5 hours. gravity and density is so small, this difference can
generally be neglected in commercial work on stor-
When specifying the ampere hour capacity of a bat- age batteries. The terms specific gravity and density ‘«
tery, the final voltage or “cut-off” voltage must also are often used interchangeably. The term for specific
gravity is often abbreviated as s.g.
be specified. This cut-off voltage will vary dependent
on the discharge rate: some examples are given
below:
20 hour rate Final voltage: 1.75 volts per cell.
5 hour rate Final voltage: 1.7 volts per cell.
1 hour rate Final voltage: 1.60 volts per cell.
3 minute rate Final voltage: 1.00 volts per cell.

Watt hour (Wh) — The watt hour capacity of the

battery is a measure of the energy available, or the
ability to do work. Watt hour capacity = Ampere hour
capacity x average voltage during discharge.

Specific Energy — This is the energy available

from the battery per unit of weight, and is normally
expressed in the units Whrkg. This value is
particularly important in electric road vehicle
applications.

Energy Density — This is the energy available

from the battery per unit of volume, and is normally
expressed in the units WhyLiter or Wh/L. This value
is particularly important in electric road vehicle
applications.