Perception

Learning  Objectives
Have  an  understanding   of  the  definition  of  
Perception

Explain  how  three  fundamental  aspects  of  

perception  are  achieved  – distance,  motion,  and  
form

Explain  the  different  approaches   to  understanding  

perception

What  are  some  influences  on  perception?

 Perception
• Sensation is  the  process  through  which  the  
senses  pick  up  visual,  auditory,  and  other  
sensory  stimuli  and  transmit  them  to  the  brain
• Perception is  the  process  by  which  the  brain  
actively  organizes  and  interprets  sensory  
information
 Perception
• Depth  perception  (Distance  Perception)
– The  ability  to  see  in  three  dimensions  and  to  estimate  distance
• Binocular  Cues
– Retinal  Disparity
– Retinal  Convergence
• Monocular  Cues
– Linear  Perspective
– Relative  Size
– Interposition
– Texture  Gradients
– Atmospheric  Perspective
– Motion  Parallax
 Perception
• Binocular  depth  cues
Depth  cues  that  depend  on  two  eyes  
working  together
– Retinal  Convergence
• Occurs  when  the  eyes  turn  inward  
to  focus  on  nearby  objects  – the  
closer  the  object,  the  greater  the  
convergence
– Binocular  disparity  (or  retinal  
disparity)
• Difference  between  the  two  retinal  
images  formed  by  the  eyes’  slightly  
different  views  of  the  objects  
focused  on
 Perception
• Monocular  depth  cues
– Depth  cues  that  can  be  perceived  by  only  one  eye
– Types  of  cues
• Interposition  (Overlap)
– When  one  object  partly  blocks  your  view  of  another,  
you  perceive  the  partially  blocked  object  as  farther  
away
 Perception
• Monocular  depth  cues
– Depth  cues  that  can  be  perceived  by  only  one  eye
– Types  of  cues
• Linear  perspective
– Parallel  lines  that  are  known  to  be  the  same  distance  
apart  appear  to  grow  closer  together,  or  converge,  as  
they  recede  into  the  distance
 Perception
• Monocular  depth  cues
– Depth  cues  that  can  be  perceived  by  only  one  eye
– Types  of  cues
• Relative  Size
– Larger  objects  are  perceived  as  being  closer  to  the  
viewer,  and  smaller  objects  as  being  farther  away
 Perception
• Monocular  depth  cues
– Depth  cues  that  can  be  perceived  by  only  one  eye
– Types  of  cues
• Texture  Gradient
– Nearby  objects  appear  to  have  sharply  defined  
features,  while  similar  objects  appear  progressively  
smoother  and  fuzzier  as  they  appear  to  recede  in  the  
distance.
 Perception
• Monocular  depth  cues  
– Depth  cues  that  can  be  perceived  by  
only  one  eye
– Types  of  cues
• Motion  parallax
– When  you  ride  in  a  moving  vehicle  
and  look  out  the  side  window,  the  
objects  you  see  outside  appear  to  be  
moving  in  the  opposite  direction
– Objects  seem  to  be  moving  at  different  
speeds  – those  closest  to  you  appear  
to  be  moving  faster  than  those  in  the  
distance
– Objects  very  far  away,  such  as  the  
moon  and  the  sun,  appear  to  move  in  
the  same  direction  as  the  viewer
 Perception
• Sensation is  the  process  through  which  the  
senses  pick  up  visual,  auditory,  and  other  
sensory  stimuli  and  transmit  them  to  the  brain
• Perception is  the  process  by  which  the  brain  
actively  organizes  and  interprets  sensory  
information
Problem: POVERTY OF THE STIMULUS
- proximal stimulus (retinal image) is inadequate for knowing
about distal stimulus

1) inverted - image of object is upside-down on retina

2) ambiguous - size and distance trade off:

- close-up small object has same image size as far-off large
object

3) two-dimensional - image is flattened, but objects are three-

dimensional solids

Conclusion: Perception doesn't happen in the EYE - it

happens in the BRAIN!
 Motion  Perception
• Motion  Perception
– The  ability  to  perceive  events  as  well  as  objects  (What  objects  
are  doing)
• Retinal  Motion
– Ability  to  see  things  moving  because  they  produce  an  image  
that  moves  across  our  eyes.
• Apparent  Motion
– A  series  of  stills  that  appear  to  move  because  the  individual  
images  change.    Motion  is  perceived  even  when  there  is  no  
motion  of  an  image  across  the  retina
Apparent  Motion
 Form  Perception  
• Form  perception
– The  ability  to  see  what  an  object  is.
• Features
– Simple  features  such  as  shape,  color,  and  orientation  pop-­out  
at  us.
• Organization
– The  features  are  organized  into  meaningful  patterns  (Gestalt)
 Form  Perception

n Gestalt  principles describe  the  brain’s  

organization  of  sensory  building  blocks  
into  meaningful  units  and  patterns.
 Form  Perception
• Gestalt  principles  of  perceptual  organization
– Figure-­ground
• As  you  view  your  world,  some  object  seems  to  stand  out  from  the  
background
– Similarity
• Objects  that  have  similar  characteristics  are  perceived  as  a  unit
– Proximity
• Objects  that  are  close  together  in  space  or  time  are  usually  
perceived  as  belonging  together  because  of  a  principle  of  
grouping  called  proximity
– Continuity
• We  tend  to  perceive  figures  or  objects  as  belonging  together  if  
they  appear  to  form  a  continuous  pattern
– Closure
• We  perceive  figures  with  gaps  in  them  to  be  complete
 Figure-­Ground

• You  can  see  a  white  vase  as  figure  against  a  

black  background,  or  two  black  faces  in  profile  
on  a  white  background
 Figure-­Ground

“Old  Woman/Young  Woman,”  by  E.  G.  Boring

 Gestalt  Principles
n Proximity
n Seeing  3  pair  of  lines  
in  A.
n Similarity
n Seeing  columns  of  
orange  and  red  dots  in  
B.
n Continuity
n Seeing  lines  that  
connect    1  to  2  and  3  
to  4  in  C.
n Closure
n Seeing  a  horse  in  D.
 What  do  you  see?

Now  what  do  you  see?

 Approaches  to  Understanding  Perception

• Classical  Approach
• The  Process  Model  Approach  
• The  Neuroscience  Approach
 The  Classical  Approach  to  Understanding  
Perception
• The  perceiver  plays  a  role  in  organizing  and  
interpreting  the  stimulus  input.
• The  perceiver  achieves  perceptual  constancy
even  though  there  could  be  variation  in  the  size  
of  the  proximal  stimulus.
• Even  though  we  tend  to  maintain  perceptual  
constancy  sometimes  we  misperceive  the  world.
 Perceptual  Constancies

n The  accurate  perception  of  objects  as  

stable  or  unchanged  despite  changes  
in  the  sensory  patterns  they  produce.
n Shape  constancy
n Size  constancy
n Color  and  Brightness  constancy
Fig. 6.13
 Shape  Constancy
n Even  though  these  images  cast  shadows  of  
different  shapes,  we  still  see  the  quarter  as  
round
Page 235
 The  Process  Model  Approach  to  
Understanding  Perception
• Bottom-­up  processing
• Information  processing  in  which  individual   bits  of  data  
are  combined  until  a  complete  perception  is  formed
• Top-­down  processing
• Information  processing  in  which  previous  experience  
and  knowledge  are  applied  to  recognize  the  whole  of  
a  perception
Fig. 6.28
 The  Neuroscience  Approach  to  
Understanding  Perception
• Parallel  Visual  Processing  Pathways
• “The  What  System”
– This  system  is  involved  in  determining  what  an  object  
is.
• “The  Where  System”
– This  system  is  involved  in  determining  where  an  
object  is.
The  Neuroscience  Approach  to  
Understanding  Perception
 Influences  on  Perception
• Perception is the  process  through  which  
the  brain  assigns  meaning  to  sensations
• Perception  is  influenced  by  a  number  of  
factors,  including
• Attention
• Prior  knowledge
• Cross-­modal  perception

Copyright  ©  2008   Allyn  &  Bacon

What  is  gained  and  what  is  lost  in  the  
process  of  attention?

• Attention  is  the  process  of  sorting  through  

sensations  and  selecting  some  of  them  for  further  
processing
• When  attention  is  focused  on  some  sensations,  
others  are  missed  altogether  or  misperceived
• Inattentional  blindness  occurs  when  attention  is  shifted  
from  one  object  to  another  and  we  fail  to  notice  changes  in  
objects  not  receiving  direct  attention
• The  cocktail  party  phenomenon shows  that  we  focus  
attention  on  information  that  is  personally  meaningful
 Attention

Selective  Attention: The  ability  to  focus  one's  

attention  on  a  particular  stimulus  while  filtering  out  a  
range  of  other  stimuli.

Sustained  Attention:  The  ability  to  sustain  one's  

attention  on  a  particular  stimulus.  
 Influences  on  Perception

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IGQmdoK_ZfY
 Perception
Prior  Knowledge

n What  you  see  in  the  center  figures  depends  

on  the  order  in  which  you  look  at  the  figures:
n If  you  scan  from  the  left,  see  an  old  woman
n If  you  scan  from  the  right,  see  a  woman’s  figure
How  does  information  from  multiple  sources  
aid  perception?
• Cross  modal  perception
• The  process  by  which  the  brain  integrates  information  
from  more  than  one  sense
• Cross  modal  perception  is  used  to  process  complex  
stimuli  such  as  speech
 Puzzling  perceptions?

Illusions
• False  perceptions  or  misperceptions   of  an  actual  
stimulus  in  the  environment
• Müller-­Lyer  illusion
• Ponzo  illusion
 Illusions

l Müller-­Lyer  Illusion
– The  two  lines  above  are  the  same  length,  but  the  diagonals  
extending  outward  from  both  ends  of  the  lower  line  make  it  look  
longer  than  the  upper  line
Illusions
 Illusions

• Pedersen  and  Wheeler

– Studied  Native  American  responses  to  the  Müller-­
Lyer  illusion   among  two  groups  of  Navajos
– The  group  who  lived  in  rectangular  houses  and  had  
experienced   corners,  angles,  and  edges  tended  to  
see  the  illusion
– The  other  group  tended  not  to  see  it  because  their  
cultural  experience  consisted  of  round  houses
 The  Ponzo  Illusion
n Linear  perspective  
provides  context
n Side  lines  seem  to  
converge
n Top  line  seems  
farther  away
n But  the  retinal  
images  of  the  red  
lines  are  equal!
 Fooling  the  Eye

n The  cats  in  (a)  are  the  same  size

n The  diagonal  lines  in  (b)  are  parallel
 Perception:  Origins  and  
Influences
n Inborn  abilities  
n Critical  periods
n Psychological  and  cultural  Influences  on  
perception
 Glass  surface,  with  
n
checkerboard  underneath  
The  Visual  
at  different  heights Cliff
n Visual  illusion  of  a  cliff
n Baby  can’t  fall
n Mom  stands  across  the  
gap
n Babies  show  increased  
attention  over  deep  side  
at  age  2  months,  but  
aren’t  afraid  until  about  
the  age  they  can  crawl  
(Gibson  &  Walk,  1960)
 The  Visual  Cliff
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WanGt1G6ScA
Critical  Periods
If  infants  miss  out  on  
experiences  during  a  
crucial  period  of  time,  
perception  will  be  
impaired.
When  adults  who  have  
been  blind  since  birth  
have  vision  restored,  
they  may  not  see  well
Other  senses  such  has  
hearing  may  be  
influenced  similarly.
 Psychological  and  Cultural  
Influences  on  Perception
n We  are  more  likely  to  perceive  something  
when  we  need  it.
n What  we  believe  can  affect  what  we  
perceive.
n Emotions,  such  as  fear,  can  influence  
perceptions  of  sensory  information.
n Expectations  based  on  our  previous  
experiences  influence  how  we  perceive  the  
world.
 Context  Effects
n The  same  physical  
stimulus  can  be  
interpreted  differently
n We  use  other  cues  in  
the  situation  to  
resolve  ambiguities
n Is  this  the  letter  B  or  
the  number  13?
 Puzzles  of  Perception
n Subliminal  Perception
n Extrasensory  Perception:  Reality  or  
Illusion?
 Unusual  Perceptual  
Experiences
• Subliminal  perception
• The  capacity  to  perceive  and  respond  to  
stimuli  that  are  presented  below  the  threshold  
of  awareness
• Extrasensory  perception  (ESP)
• Gaining  information  about  objects,  events,  or  
another  person’s  thoughts  through  means  
other  than  known  sensory  channels
 In  what  ways  does  subliminal  
perception  influence  behavior?
• Research  suggests  that  subliminal  
information  can  influence  behavior  to  
some  degree
• But  it  appears  to  be  ineffective  at  persuading  
people  to  buy  products  or  vote  in  certain  ways
• Persuasion  works  best  when  messages,  in  
the  form  of  advertising  or  self-­help  tapes,  are  
presented  above-­threshold,  or  at  a  
supraliminal  level
 Extrasensory  Perception
n Extrasensory  Perception  (ESP):
n The  ability  to  perceive  something  without  
ordinary  sensory  information
n This  has  not  been  scientifically  
demonstrated
n Three  types  of  ESP:
n Telepathy  – Mind-­to-­mind  communication
n Clairvoyance  – Perception  of  remote  
events
n Precognition  – Ability  to  see  future  events
 What  have  studies  of  ESP  shown?

• Some  studies  have  suggested  that  ESP  

exists
• But,  in  almost  all  cases,  attempts  to  
replicate  these  studies  have  failed
• So  most  psychologists  remain  skeptical  about  
existence  of  ESP