Biology

Overview
Cell Structure and Function

The unit 'Cell Structure and Function' delves into the intricate details of the building blocks of life,
cells. These are divided into two types: Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells, with the former
being primitive and lacking a Nucleus, while the latter is more complex and contains a nucleus.
All cells are encapsulated by a Cell Membrane, a semi-permeable barrier that controls the
movement of substances in and out of the cell. The unit also introduces the Cell Theory, which
states that all living organisms are composed of cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all
cells come from pre-existing cells.

The unit further explores the various Cell Organelles and their functions. The nucleus, often
referred to as the control center of the cell, houses the genetic material, DNA, and controls cell
growth and reproduction. The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a network of tubules involved in
protein and lipid synthesis. The Golgi Apparatus, often likened to a post office, modifies, sorts,
and packages proteins and lipids for transport. These organelles, among others, work in unison
to ensure the cell functions optimally, thereby contributing to the overall functioning of the
organism.

Key Terms
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch scientist who is known as the Father of Microbiology for
his groundbreaking work in improving the microscope and discovering the existence of
microorganisms.

He made over 500 microscopes, each with a single lens, which allowed him to observe tiny
organisms in detail.
He was the first to describe bacteria, red blood cells, and sperm cells.
His observations fueled the debate on spontaneous generation versus the theory of
biogenesis.
Leeuwenhoek's discoveries paved the way for further understanding of the invisible world of
microbes.

calcium storage

Calcium storage is a process that involves the storage of calcium ions within cells or organisms
for various physiological functions.
 Calcium storage is crucial for maintaining proper muscle contractions, nerve transmission,
and blood clotting.
In animals, calcium is primarily stored in the bones and teeth, while in plants, it is stored in
specialized structures like vacuoles.
Calcium storage is regulated by hormones like calcitonin and parathyroid hormone, which
control calcium absorption and release from storage sites.
Imbalances in calcium storage can lead to disorders such as osteoporosis, hypocalcemia, or
hypercalcemia.

Capsule

In biology, a capsule refers to a protective layer or structure found in certain organisms, such as
bacteria and fungi.

The capsule helps protect the organism from its environment and can provide resistance to
harsh conditions.
Capsules can also help pathogens evade the immune system by preventing phagocytosis.
The composition of capsules varies between organisms, but they are typically made up of
polysaccharides or proteins.
Capsules can play a role in biofilm formation, which is when organisms adhere to surfaces
and form a protective community.

Cell

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life, capable of self-replication and
performing all necessary processes for the organism's survival.

Cells come in different shapes and sizes, ranging from the simple and single-celled
organisms to complex multicellular organisms composed of trillions of cells.
Cells can be categorized into two main types: prokaryotic cells, characterized by lacking a
nucleus, and eukaryotic cells, which have a nucleus.
The cell membrane is a selectively permeable barrier that surrounds the cell, controlling the
movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Organelles are specialized structures within the cell that perform specific functions, such as
the mitochondria responsible for energy production.

Cell adhesion

Cell adhesion refers to the process by which cells stick together, either through direct physical
contact or through the binding of molecules on the cell surfaces.

Cell adhesion is essential for various biological processes, including tissue formation, cell
migration, and immune response.
There are two major types of cell adhesion: homophilic adhesion, where cells of the same
type adhere to each other, and heterophilic adhesion, where cells of different types adhere to
 each other.
The proteins involved in cell adhesion are called adhesion molecules, and they can be found
on the cell surface or within the extracellular matrix.
Cell adhesion can be regulated by various factors, such as cell signaling molecules,
mechanical forces, and changes in the surrounding environment.

Cell components

Cell components refer to the various structures found inside a cell that perform specific
functions.

Cell components include the nucleus, mitochondria, vacuoles, and cytoplasm.

The nucleus is the control center of the cell, containing DNA and RNA.
Mitochondria are responsible for producing energy through cellular respiration.
Vacuoles store nutrients and waste products.
Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance that surrounds the organelles and holds them in place.

Cell Function

Cell function refers to the specific purpose or role of a cell within an organism, such as
transporting nutrients, producing energy, or maintaining structure.

Cells have various functions that are essential for the survival and functioning of organisms.
Different types of cells have specialized functions that contribute to the overall functioning of
the organism.
Cell functions can vary based on the cell's location within the organism and the specific
tissue or organ it belongs to.
Cell functions are carried out through complex biochemical processes and interactions
between different molecules and structures within the cell.

cell makeup

Cell makeup refers to the composition and structure of cells, which are the basic building blocks
of all living organisms. It includes various components such as cell membranes, cytoplasm,
organelles, and genetic material.

The cell membrane is a thin, semi-permeable barrier that surrounds the cell and controls what
substances can enter or leave.
Cytoplasm is the gel-like substance within the cell membrane, where processes such as
metabolism and protein synthesis occur.
Organelles are specialized structures within cells that perform specific functions, such as
mitochondria for energy production and ribosomes for protein synthesis.
The genetic material of a cell is stored in the form of DNA, which contains the instructions for
the cell's structure and function.
Cell membrane

The cell membrane is a semi-permeable barrier encircling cells, regulating molecular traffic to
maintain a stable internal environment and supporting cellular structure.

It's composed of a lipid bilayer interspersed with proteins.

It's involved in processes like endocytosis, exocytosis, and signal transduction.
Proteins embedded in the membrane fulfill functions like transport and receptor signaling.
Membrane fluidity is influenced by lipid composition and temperature.

Cell organelles

The cell organelles are specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions, such
as the nucleus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum.

Organelles are like tiny organs within a cell, each with their own unique structure and
function.
The nucleus is the control center of the cell, containing DNA and directing cell activities.
The mitochondria are responsible for producing energy in the form of ATP through cellular
respiration.
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.

Cell recognition

Cell recognition is the process by which cells identify and interact with other cells or molecules in
their environment.

Cell recognition is important for various biological processes, such as immune response and
cell communication.
Cell recognition is typically mediated by specific proteins on the cell surface called receptors.
Cell recognition can be involved in self-recognition, distinguishing between 'self' and 'non-self'
cells.
A breakdown in cell recognition can lead to autoimmune diseases or rejection of transplanted
organs.

Cell Structure

Cell structure refers to the components and organization of a cell, including the cell membrane,
cytoplasm, organelles, and the nucleus.

Cells are the basic units of life and can be found in all living organisms.
The cell membrane protects the cell and controls the movement of substances in and out of
the cell.
The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that fills the cell and contains various organelles.
 Organelles are specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions, such as
mitochondria for energy production.
The nucleus houses the cell's genetic material, controlling cellular activities and heredity.

Cell theory

The cell theory is a fundamental concept in biology that states all living organisms are
composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms, and all
cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Cells are the smallest unit of life and are capable of carrying out essential functions.
The discovery of cells and the development of cell theory is credited to scientists Robert
Hooke, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, and Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.
The cell theory was proposed in the mid-19th century and revolutionized the understanding of
life and biology as a whole.
The cell theory serves as the foundation for many branches of biology, including genetics,
microbiology, and cell biology.

Cellular Functions

Cellular functions refer to the various processes and activities performed by cells to maintain
homeostasis and carry out necessary functions.

Cells perform specific tasks to support the overall functioning of the organism.
Examples of cellular functions include metabolism, reproduction, and response to stimuli.
Cellular functions are regulated by genetic information encoded in DNA and carried out by
specific proteins.
In multicellular organisms, cells have specific roles and functions that contribute to the
overall function of tissues, organs, and systems.

Cellular organization

Cellular organization refers to the hierarchical arrangement of cells into various structures and
systems within an organism.

Cells are the basic building blocks of life and are organized into tissues, organs, and organ
systems.
Cellular organization allows for specialization and division of labor among different cell types.
The arrangement of cells in multicellular organisms ensures efficient functioning and
maintenance of homeostasis.
Cellular organization is essential for the proper functioning and survival of an organism.

Cell wall

The cell wall is a rigid outer layer found in plants, fungi, and some prokaryotes, providing support
and protection for the cell.

The cell wall is made up of cellulose in plants, chitin in fungi, and peptidoglycan in
prokaryotes.
It is not present in animal cells.
Cell walls allow plants to stand upright and resist mechanical stress.
The cell wall also helps in preventing the entry of pathogens and provides shape to the cell.

Centrioles

Centrioles are small, cylindrical structures found in animal cells that play a role in cell division
and the organization of the cytoskeleton.

Centrioles are composed of microtubules and are usually found in pairs.

They are involved in the formation of cilia and flagella, which are important for cell motility.
During cell division, centrioles duplicate and migrate to opposite poles of the cell, forming the
basis for the mitotic spindle.
Defects in centriole structure or function can lead to various genetic disorders and diseases.

Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in plant cells that contain chlorophyll, allowing
them to photosynthesize and convert solar energy into chemical energy.

They have a double membrane to protect the contents inside.

Chloroplasts contain their own DNA and ribosomes.
They are responsible for the green color in plants.
Chloroplasts are abundant in leaf cells, where photosynthesis takes place.

cis-Golgi network

The cis-Golgi network is a part of the Golgi apparatus that acts as the entry point for proteins and
lipids, receiving them from the endoplasmic reticulum.

The cis-Golgi network is responsible for modifying and sorting proteins and lipids before they
are transported to other parts of the cell.
It is located closest to the endoplasmic reticulum and functions to receive newly synthesized
molecules.
The cis-Golgi network plays a role in protein glycosylation, where carbohydrate groups are
added to proteins to modify their structure and function.
It acts as a quality control checkpoint, ensuring proper folding and assembly of proteins
before they are transported to their final destination.

Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that provides shape, structure, and support to
cells.

The cytoskeleton is composed of three main types of fibers: microtubules, microfilaments,

and intermediate filaments.
Microtubules are hollow tubes made of the protein tubulin, and they help maintain cell shape
and assist in cell division.
Microfilaments are made of the protein actin and are involved in cell movement, contraction,
and support.
Intermediate filaments provide mechanical support and help anchor organelles within the
cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules within eukaryotic cells that plays a critical
role in protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.

It exists in two forms: Smooth ER (SER) and Rough ER (RER).

SER is involved in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, detoxification, and calcium storage.
RER is studded with ribosomes, enabling protein synthesis.
Proteins synthesized in the RER are usually destined for the Golgi apparatus, cell membrane,
or secretion.

Eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cells are complex, multicellular organisms with a distinct nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles.

Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

They have a more organized structure compared to prokaryotic cells.
Their DNA is wrapped around histone proteins, forming chromosomes.
Eukaryotic cells have a higher energy requirement and have specialized organelles to carry
out specific functions.

Flagella

Flagella are whip-like appendages that allow single-celled organisms to move. These structures
extend from the cell surface and wave in coordinated actions.

Flagella are found in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.

They are larger and more complex than cilia, another form of locomotive appendage.
Flagella are constructed from proteins such as flagellin.
The 'motor' of the flagellum uses chemical energy to generate movement.
Folded membrane

A folded membrane refers to a structure that has been intricately folded or convoluted,
increasing its surface area for efficient absorption or secretion.

Folded membranes are commonly found in the respiratory system, such as the folded
epithelial lining of the alveoli in the lungs.
In the digestive system, folded membranes can be seen in the microvilli of the small
intestines, which aid in nutrient absorption.
In the kidneys, the folded structure of the renal tubules allows for the reabsorption of water
and other substances.
In chloroplasts, the folded thylakoid membranes increase the surface area available for light
absorption during photosynthesis.

Golgi apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells that processes and packages
proteins and lipids.

The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae.

It receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum and modifies them through processes
such as glycosylation.
It then packages and sorts the modified proteins into vesicles.
The Golgi apparatus plays a crucial role in the secretion of proteins and the transport of lipids
within the cell.

Golgi cisternae

Golgi cisternae are flattened membranous sacs found in eukaryotic cells responsible for
modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins and lipids.

Golgi cisternae are part of the Golgi apparatus, a cellular organelle.

They are often stacked on top of each other, forming a structure similar to a stack of
pancakes.
The cisternae have distinct regions, including the cis face (closest to the endoplasmic
reticulum) and the trans face (furthest from the endoplasmic reticulum).
Golgi cisternae play a vital role in processing and transporting molecules within the cell.

Golgi complex

The Golgi complex, also known as the Golgi apparatus, is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells
responsible for modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins and lipids for transport.

The Golgi complex consists of stacked structures called cisternae.

 It receives proteins and lipids from the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them for
transport to their final destinations.
The Golgi complex modifies proteins and lipids by adding or removing carbohydrates,
phosphates, or other molecules.
It sorts and packages proteins and lipids into vesicles that are then transported to different
parts of the cell or released outside the cell.

Golgi stack

The Golgi stack is a series of flattened membrane-enclosed compartments found in eukaryotic

cells responsible for modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins for transport.

It is located near the endoplasmic reticulum and plays a central role in intracellular trafficking.
The Golgi stack consists of multiple cisternae that are stacked on top of each other.
Proteins enter the Golgi stack at the cis face and exit at the trans face.
It is involved in the synthesis of various molecules, including complex carbohydrates and
lipids.

Intracellular compartment

Intracellular compartment refers to the specialized structures within a cell that perform specific
functions and are separated from the rest of the cell by membranes.

Intracellular compartments include organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria,

endoplasmic reticulum, and golgi apparatus.
These compartments allow for organization and compartmentalization of cellular processes.
Examples of intracellular compartments include the membrane-bound vesicles involved in
transport within the cell.
Intracellular compartments play a vital role in maintaining cell homeostasis and regulating
cellular activities.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are specialized vesicles found in cells, often referred to as the cell's 'garbage
disposal.' They contain digestive enzymes which break down wastes, toxins and cellular debris.

Lysosomes maintain cellular health by removing unwanted materials.

Their digestive enzymes can also trigger cell death - a process termed 'autophagy'.
They originate from the Golgi apparatus within the cell.
Abnormalities in lysosome function can contribute to human diseases like Tay-Sachs
disease.

makeup of cells

The makeup of cells refers to their composition and structure, which includes molecules such as
proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.

Cells are the basic building blocks of living organisms, and their makeup allows them to
perform various functions.
The cell membrane surrounds and protects the cell, controlling the movement of substances
in and out.
The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material, while organelles such as mitochondria and
endoplasmic reticulum help in different cellular processes.
Cells can be prokaryotic (lacking a nucleus) or eukaryotic (having a nucleus) in nature.

membrane-bound

In Biology, 'membrane-bound' refers to structures or organelles that are surrounded by a

membrane, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, or endoplasmic reticulum.

Membrane-bound organelles are distinct compartments within a cell that perform specific
functions.
The presence of a membrane allows for compartmentalization and separation of different
cellular processes.
Membrane-bound structures maintain homeostasis by regulating the flow of molecules in
and out of the organelles.
Examples of membrane-bound organelles include the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and
peroxisomes.

membrane-bound organelle

Membrane-bound organelles are specialized compartments within eukaryotic cells that are
enclosed by lipid bilayers, allowing for separation and organization of cellular processes.

Examples of membrane-bound organelles include the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi

apparatus, mitochondria, and lysosomes.
Each membrane-bound organelle has specific functions and structures that contribute to
overall cell function.
The membrane of organelles allows for compartmentalization, preventing mixing of different
cellular processes and maintaining optimal conditions.
Membrane-bound organelles are thought to have originated from the endosymbiotic theory,
where free-living prokaryotes were engulfed by ancestral eukaryotic cells.

Membrane Proteins

Membrane proteins are proteins that are embedded within or associated with the cell membrane,
performing various functions such as transport of molecules, cell signaling, and cell adhesion.

Integral membrane proteins are firmly embedded within the lipid bilayer and cannot be easily
removed without disrupting the membrane.
Peripheral membrane proteins are loosely attached to the membrane and can be easily
 removed without disrupting the membrane.
Transmembrane proteins span the entire width of the cell membrane, with their hydrophobic
regions embedded within the lipid bilayer.
Glycoproteins are membrane proteins that have carbohydrate chains attached to them, which
serve as recognition sites for other molecules.

Membrane trafficking

Membrane trafficking refers to the transport of membrane-bound vesicles between different

compartments within a cell.

Membrane trafficking plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and allowing for
proper communication and signaling.
This process involves the packaging of proteins, lipids, and other molecules into vesicles,
which are then transported and fused with their target membranes.
Vesicle budding, sorting, and fusion are key steps in the regulation of membrane trafficking.
Dysregulation of membrane trafficking can lead to various diseases, including
neurodegenerative disorders and cancer.

Microfilaments

Microfilaments are small, thread-like structures composed of a protein called actin. They are
crucial for cell movement, shape, division, and internal organization.

Actin, the protein in microfilaments, can polymerize to form long, thin fibers.
Microfilaments often interact with another cytoskeletal component called myosin to cause
muscle contraction.
They help in cytokinesis, the process where the cell pinches in two during division.
Microfilaments are highly dynamic and constantly assemble and disassemble within the cell.

microscope

A microscope is a scientific instrument used to view small objects or organisms that cannot be
seen with the naked eye.

Microscopes use lenses to magnify the image of the specimen.

There are two main types of microscopes: light microscopes and electron microscopes.
Light microscopes use visible light to illuminate the specimen.
Electron microscopes use a beam of electrons to create a highly detailed image.

Microtubules

Microtubules are hollow, tube-like strcuture in cells, part of the cytoskeleton, playing crucial roles
in maintaining cell shape and cell function.
 - Microtubules aid in cell division by forming the spindle apparatus.
- They serve as tracks for the intracellular transport of organelles and vesicles.
- Microtubules are composed of alpha and beta-tubulin protein subunits.
- Dynamic instability, the ability to rapidly grow and shrink, is a notable property of
microtubules.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are organelles found within eukaryotic cells that function as the cell's power
producers, generating most of the ATP energy cells require.

The number of mitochondria within a cell varies depending on the cell's energy needs.
Mitochondria have their own DNA, separate from the cell's nuclear DNA.
Through a process called cellular respiration, mitochondria convert nutrients into energy.
Disorders in mitochondria can lead to various diseases, like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

no membrane-bound organelles

No membrane-bound organelles refer to cell structures that lack a membrane, such as the
nucleus and mitochondria.

Cells without membrane-bound organelles are prokaryotic, while those with membrane-bound
organelles are eukaryotic.
The absence of membrane-bound organelles in prokaryotic cells allows for a simpler and
smaller cell structure.
Prokaryotes, like bacteria, rely on alternative mechanisms for genetic material storage and
energy production.
The presence of membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotic cells allows for more complex
cellular functions and compartmentalization.

no nucleus

In some biological cells, there is an absence of a nucleus, which means that the genetic material
is not enclosed in a membrane-bound nucleus.

The absence of a nucleus is found in prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria and archaea.
Prokaryotic cells have a circular DNA molecule that floats freely in the cytoplasm.
Without a nucleus, prokaryotic cells are capable of rapid reproduction and adaptation.
Prokaryotic cells have smaller overall sizes compared to eukaryotic cells, which typically have
a nucleus.

Nuclear envelope

The nuclear envelope, a feature within eukaryotic cells, is a double lipid bilayer that encloses the
cell nucleus, controlling the flow of molecules in and out of the nucleus.

It's perforated by nuclear pores that regulate transportation.

The nuclear lamina, a meshwork within, provides structural support.
Disintegration during mitosis allows chromosome migration.
Reassembly in telophase creates daughter nuclei.

Nuclear lamina

The nuclear lamina is a layer of proteins that forms a structural framework inside the cell
nucleus, providing support and maintaining the shape of the nucleus.

The nuclear lamina is composed of intermediate filaments made of lamins.

It interacts with chromatin to help organize and regulate gene expression.
The nuclear lamina plays a role in DNA replication, repair, and cell division.
Defects in the nuclear lamina can lead to genetic disorders.

Nuclear membrane

The nuclear membrane is a double-layered structure that encloses the nucleus, a cell's command
center, protecting it from materials in the cytoplasm.

Also known as the nuclear envelope

Perforated by nuclear pores for molecular transport
Surrounds and protects the nucleoplasm
Outer layer interacts with endoplasmic reticulum

Nucleolus

The nucleolus is a significant, non-membrane bound structure within the nucleus of eukaryotic
cells, primarily responsible for producing and assembling ribosomes.

Ribosomes produced by the nucleolus are crucial for protein synthesis.

The nucleolus contains proteins, DNA, and RNA.
Visible under a microscope during interphase, but not during mitosis.
Size and visibility of the nucleolus can be indicative of protein synthesis activity.

Nucleoplasm

Nucleoplasm is the gel-like substance that fills the nucleus of a cell and contains various
proteins, nucleotides, and enzymes.

It plays a crucial role in supporting the structure of the nucleus.

 Nucleoplasm helps in regulating gene expression by providing the necessary environment for
transcription and RNA processing.
It also contains chromatin, which consists of DNA tightly coiled around proteins called
histones.
The nucleoplasm is involved in DNA replication, DNA repair, and the transportation of
molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Nucleus

The nucleus is the central organelle in a eukaryotic cell, responsible for storing genetic material
and controlling cellular activities.

The nucleus contains chromosomes comprised from DNA and proteins.

The nucleolus inside the nucleus synthesizes ribosomal RNA.
Surrounded by a two-layered nuclear envelope which has pores for substance transportation.
Nuclear activities are crucial for cell replication, growth, and metabolism.

Permeability

Permeability refers to the ability of a substance or membrane to allow molecules or ions to pass
through it.

Permeability can be selective, meaning it only allows certain molecules or ions to pass
through.
The permeability of a substance or membrane can be influenced by factors such as size,
charge, and solubility.
Molecules or ions can pass through a membrane through various mechanisms, including
diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.
The study of permeability is important in understanding processes like nutrient absorption,
cell communication, and drug transport.

Prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells are simple, single-celled organisms that lack a true nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles.

Prokaryotic cells are typically smaller in size compared to eukaryotic cells.

Examples of prokaryotic cells include bacteria and archaea.
Prokaryotic cells reproduce through binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction.
Prokaryotic cells have a simpler internal structure compared to eukaryotic cells.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are minute particles consisting of RNA and associated proteins that function as the
site of protein synthesis in living cells.
 They are found in both prokaryotic (bacteria, archaea) and eukaryotic (plant, animal) cells.
In eukaryotic cells, they are located in the cytoplasm and on the endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes are composed of two subunits: one large and one small.
The process of protein synthesis they carry out is called translation.

Robert Hooke

Robert Hooke was an English scientist who made significant contributions to the field of
microscopy and cell theory.

He was the first to identify and name cells, and he coined the term 'cell'.
Hooke was also a skilled artist and created detailed illustrations of his observations.
He made many other important discoveries in various scientific disciplines, such as the law
of elasticity in physics.
Hooke's famous book, 'Micrographia', showcased his observations and helped popularize
microscopy.

Schleiden

Schleiden was a German botanist who co-founded the cell theory and proposed that all plants
are composed of cells.

Cell theory states that all living organisms are composed of cells.
Schleiden also conducted research on plant morphology and the importance of the cell
nucleus.
He collaborated with Schwann to develop the first two parts of the cell theory.
Schleiden's work laid the foundation for the modern understanding of cells and their role in
living organisms.

Schwann

Schwann was a German physiologist who discovered Schwann cells, the building blocks of the
peripheral nervous system.

Schwann cells are responsible for supporting and protecting neurons in the peripheral
nervous system.
Schwann cells produce the myelin sheath, a fatty substance that insulates nerve fibers and
increases the speed of electrical impulses.
These cells also aid in nerve regeneration by forming a pathway for new nerve fibers to grow.
Schwann cells play a role in autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis when the immune
system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath.

Secretion
Secretion is the process by which cells release substances. It plays a crucial role in maintaining
homeostasis and in various bodily functions.

Secretion helps in the removal of waste products from the body.

Cells secrete substances such as hormones, enzymes, mucus, and sweat.
Secretion can occur through various mechanisms, including exocytosis and active transport.
Disruptions in secretion can lead to various health conditions and diseases.

Secretory Vesicles

Secretory vesicles are small membrane-bound compartments within cells that store and
transport specific molecules. They are involved in the secretion of substances such as hormones
and enzymes.

Secretory vesicles are formed by the Golgi apparatus during the process of exocytosis.
They contain a variety of molecules, including proteins, lipids, and small signaling molecules.
The release of secretory vesicles is tightly regulated and can be triggered by stimuli such as
hormones or nerve signals.
Secretory vesicles are essential for cell-cell communication and the proper functioning of
various physiological processes.

Selective permeability

Selective permeability refers to the ability of a cellular membrane to control which substances
can pass through it.

It's a fundamental property of cells, allowing some substances to cross more easily than
others.
This process supports vital functions such as water balance and waste removal.
Substances can move via passive transportation or active transportation.
Membranes use proteins as specific pathways for certain molecules or ions.

selective transport

Selective transport is the process by which cells regulate the movement of specific substances
across their membranes.

Selective transport is essential for maintaining homeostasis within cells and organisms.
In passive selective transport, substances move from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration.
Active selective transport requires the use of energy to transport substances against their
concentration gradient.
Examples of selective transport include diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubular membranes within a cell that lacks
ribosomes on its surface, involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification of drugs, and storage of
calcium ions.

Smooth ER is involved in the detoxification of various drugs and metabolic byproducts.

Smooth ER plays a role in lipid metabolism, including the synthesis of steroid hormones.
It is responsible for the storage and release of calcium ions, which are important for muscle
contraction and cell signaling.
Smooth ER is abundant in cells that are involved in lipid secretion, such as liver cells and cells
in the adrenal glands.

stacked cisternae

Stacked cisternae refers to a cellular organelle composed of flattened, membrane-bound sacs,

that are stacked on top of each other, allowing for efficient transport of materials within the cell.

Stacked cisternae are commonly found in the Golgi apparatus, where they play a key role in
modifying and packaging proteins.
These membrane sacs are interconnected through small vesicles called transport vesicles,
which facilitate the movement of molecules between different cisternae.
Stacked cisternae are dynamic structures, constantly forming, breaking down, and reshaping
to accommodate the needs of the cell.
The unique structure of stacked cisternae allows for a highly ordered and regulated process
of protein synthesis, sorting, and secretion.

stacked membranous sacs

Stacked membranous sacs are structures found in cells that are responsible for processing,
packaging, and transporting proteins and lipids.

They are known as Golgi apparatus or Golgi bodies.

The sacs are arranged in a stacked formation called cisternae.
The Golgi apparatus receives proteins and lipids from the endoplasmic reticulum.
It modifies and sorts these molecules before sending them to their final destination in the cell
or outside of it.

Structure

In the realm of life sciences, 'Structure' refers to the organization and shape of an organism’s
components at both macroscopic and microscopic levels.

Cross-sections of 'Structure' include cellular, tissue, organ, and organismal configuration.

Different structures perform distinct roles in organisms like energy production and waste
removal.
 'Structure' follows the principle of 'form follows function', denoting its shape often correlates
with its role.
Anomaly in 'Structure' can result in disease or dysfunction.

Unicellular

Unicellular organisms are living organisms composed of a single cell. They have a relatively
simple structure and perform all necessary functions within that single cell.

Examples of unicellular organisms include bacteria, archaea, protists, and some types of
fungi.
These organisms can exist in both aquatic and terrestrial environments.
Unicellular organisms can reproduce through asexual reproduction, such as binary fission or
budding.
Some unicellular organisms have specialized structures like flagella or cilia which help them
with movement.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles are membrane-bound compartments within cells, primarily responsible for the
maintenance of cell shape and physiological balance.

- They can store nutrients, waste products, and non-functional proteins.

- In plant cells, vacuoles are larger and help in turgor pressure maintenance.
- Vacuoles can sequester harmful materials, acting as a cellular defense.
- They also play a key role in autophagy, aiding in cell metabolism and cell death processes.

Vesicle formation

Vesicle formation is a biological process where membrane-bound sacs called vesicles are
formed from a parent membrane.

Vesicle formation is involved in various cellular processes, including intracellular transport

and secretion.
This process is mediated by protein complexes, such as clathrin, dynamin, and COPII, which
are responsible for vesicle budding and scission.
Vesicle formation can occur through different mechanisms, such as endocytosis, exocytosis,
and vesicular trafficking within the cell.
Dysregulation of vesicle formation can lead to various pathologies, including
neurodegenerative diseases and cancer.

Vesicles

Vesicles are small, fluid-filled sacs that transport substances within cells.
 Vesicles are formed by the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi apparatus.
They play a crucial role in transporting molecules such as proteins, lipids, and
neurotransmitters.
Vesicles can fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents outside the cell.
Exocytosis is the process by which vesicles release their contents, while endocytosis is the
process by which vesicles bring substances into the cell.

Virchow

Virchow was a German physician and biologist who is credited with the principle that all cells
arise from pre-existing cells through cell division.

He proposed the theory of biogenesis.

His work contributed to the development of the cell theory.
Virchow's famous quote is 'Omnis cellula e cellula' meaning 'every cell originates from
another existing cell'.
He established the field of cellular pathology.