SCIENCE & TECH: UKPCS 2024 MAINS REVISION CA NOTES ORACLE IAS

Introduction
This Science & Tech PDF is meticulously crafted by the Oracle IAS team to aid aspirants in their
preparation for the UKPCS 2024 Mains exam. Focused on key developments and trends in the field of
S&T, this PDF serves as a comprehensive revision tool. Designed specifically for students with a
foundational understanding of the subject, it condenses essential information, helping candidates
reinforce their knowledge and sharpen their grasp of current affairs. This resource is strictly intended for
revision purposes, ensuring that aspirants stay updated and well-prepared for the examination.

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Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications..................................................................................................... 4
AI in Defence ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Blockchain Technology.................................................................................................................................. 6
Cryptocurrencies ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Open-Source Software (OSS) and Its Significance ...................................................................................... 10
Overview of 5G Technology ........................................................................................................................ 11
Internet of Things (IoT) ............................................................................................................................... 13
Semiconductor Fab ..................................................................................................................................... 14
Quantum Computing .................................................................................................................................. 15
Applications, Challenges, and Initiatives in Quantum Technology ............................................................. 16
National Supercomputing Mission.............................................................................................................. 18
Space Science .............................................................................................................................................. 19
Applications of Space Technology .............................................................................................................. 21
Gaganyaan Mission ..................................................................................................................................... 22
Aditya-L1 Mission........................................................................................................................................ 24
Satellite Internet ......................................................................................................................................... 25
Scramjet and Hypersonic Technology......................................................................................................... 28
IN-SPACe, NSIL, and the Role of the Private Sector in Space Industry ....................................................... 29
NavIC ........................................................................................................................................................... 30
Geospatial Data and National Geospatial Policy 2022................................................................................ 31
Drone Rules, 2021 and Applications ........................................................................................................... 32
Nanotechnology .......................................................................................................................................... 35
Nanotechnology in Agriculture ................................................................................................................... 36
Graphene, Carbon Nanotubes, and Liquid Nano Urea ............................................................................... 37
National Biotechnology Development Strategy (2021-25) ......................................................................... 39
Status of Bioeconomy in India: Tabular Summary ...................................................................................... 40
Genome Sequencing and Its Applications .................................................................................................. 41
Gene Therapy .............................................................................................................................................. 42
CAR T-Cell Therapy ...................................................................................................................................... 44
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) ................................................................................................................. 45
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Biotechnology in Agriculture ...................................................................................................................... 46

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HTBt Cotton and Associated Issues............................................................................................................. 48

Food Fortification:....................................................................................................................................... 49
Trans Fat...................................................................................................................................................... 50
National Hydrogen Mission......................................................................................................................... 51
Fuel Cells ..................................................................................................................................................... 52
Lithium-Ion Batteries and Battery Swapping .............................................................................................. 53
Deep Ocean Mission ................................................................................................................................... 54
Rare Earth Metals and India's Policy........................................................................................................... 56
National Science Technology & Innovation Policy (STIP)............................................................................ 57
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) ................................................................................................................ 58
National IPR Policy and Traditional Knowledge Protection ........................................................................ 60
Basics of Nuclear Energy ............................................................................................................................. 61
Applications of Nuclear Technology ........................................................................................................... 61
Nuclear Energy in India ............................................................................................................................... 62
Nuclear Fusion ............................................................................................................................................ 64
Nuclear Triad ............................................................................................................................................... 65

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Internet & Computing Tech.

Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications
Category Key Information

AI is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer

Artificial
systems. Machines perform cognitive tasks like thinking, perceiving, learning,
Intelligence
problem-solving, and decision-making.

Creates new, original content using machine-learning algorithms. Examples: DALL-E

Generative AI
(image generation), ChatGPT (text generation).

Artificial General Intelligence (AGI): Humans can think from scratch to solve
Human vs AI
problems, which AI lacks.

Applications of AI Details

- Optimising learning for individuals

Education
- Increasing safety in training

- Improving safety
Smart Cities - Intelligent infrastructure
- Optimising transportation hubs

Basic Sciences & Space - Extended, flexible space exploration (e.g., autonomous spacecraft,
Research smart habitats)

- Drug discovery: Predicting 3-D protein structures, drug design,

repurposing, and screening
- Personalised diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy
Healthcare
- AI-enabled medical imaging (e.g., computer vision for diagnosis and
surgery)
- Intelligent personal health records

- Surgical robots (e.g., laparoscopic operations)

- Rehabilitation assistants
Robotics & AI-Powered
- Robots integrated into implants and prosthetics
Devices
- Assistive robots for doctors and staff
- Disability mitigation (e.g., assisting the visually impaired)

- Crop yield prediction and price forecasts

Agriculture - Intelligent spraying (precise herbicide application)
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- Predictive insights on sowing and weather impacts

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Applications of AI Details

- Agricultural robots (harvesting at scale)

- Crop/soil monitoring for pests, soil defects, and nutrient deficiencies
- Disease diagnosis for crops

- Dual-use technology (civilian and military)

- Risks: Rogue use by criminals, terrorists, rogue states
National Security
- Deepfake technology and easily accessible hardware (e.g., GPUs) and
algorithms.

AI in Defence
Topic Details

Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, and Machine Learning enhance efficiency and

Potential of AI in
response capabilities of defence forces. Modern combat incorporates AI for
Defence
intelligence collection, cyber operations, command, and autonomous vehicles.

Benefits of AI Enables quicker decision-making.

1. AI-based automation
2. Autonomous/Unmanned/Robotic Systems
3. Blockchain-based automation
4. Cybersecurity
5. Human behavior analysis
6. Intelligent monitoring systems
7. IoT/Smart cities (e.g., IoBT, Smart Helmets)
Roles of AI in
8. Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems
Defence
9. Logistics & Supply Chain Management
10. Manufacturing & Maintenance
11. Operational Data Analytics
12. Perimeter Security Systems
13. Process flow automation
14. Simulators/Test equipment
15. Speech/Voice Analysis Systems using NLP.

1. Defence AI Council (DAIC) for guidance on AI frameworks and policies.

Steps Taken to 2. Defence AI Project Agency (DAIPA).
Advance AI in 3. Creation of Task Force for AI in Defence.
Defence 4. Targets for DPSUs to develop AI products.
5. Rs 100 crore allocated per service.
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Topic Details

6. Development of AI infrastructure for storage and computing.

7. Conducting user reviews.

1. Disinformation and Manipulation (e.g., deepfakes).

2. Data Bias in AI outputs.
3. Lack of Transparency in algorithms.
4. Job Loss due to automation.
Challenges with
5. Privacy Violations through unauthorized data use.
AI
6. Cybersecurity Threats from AI-driven malware.
7. Risks of Autonomous Weapons acting independently.
8. Ethical Concerns around accountability.
9. Technological Rivalry and lack of regulations (e.g., USA vs. China).

Blockchain Technology
Aspect Details

Distributed ledger technology for decentralized and transactional data

Definition
sharing across a large network of untrusted entities.

Features - Operates without a central authority

- Managed by a cluster of computers not owned by a single entity

- Data is open, transparent, and shared

Primary Use Cases Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Facebook's LIBRA

Non-Cryptocurrency
- Legally binding smart contracts
Applications

- Supply chain monitoring

- Remote voting and elections

Potential Applications of Blockchain Technology

Domain Applications

Governance - Land records transfer

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Domain Applications

- Digital certificates management

- Blockchain-enabled e-sign solutions

- e-Voting

Agriculture - Farm insurance

- Supply chain management

Health - Electronic health records management

- Public health monitoring

Economy - Cross-border payments (e.g., Singapore)

- Real estate deals (e.g., Sweden)

- Energy grid transparency (e.g., Chile)

- Land registry (e.g., Ghana)

Technology - Applications in NFTs and Cryptocurrency

- IoT device management and security

Art & Culture - Secure storage of digital artefacts

Blockchain in E-Governance

Benefits Details

Transparency & Accountability Improves trust with citizens and ensures clear visibility of transactions

Efficiency - Speeds up transactions

- Reduces costs

- Enhances inter-department communication

Data Security Protects sensitive data and ensures tamper-proof storage

Smart Contracts Enables automated, verifiable contract execution

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Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT)

Category Details

Strengths - Distributed control and resilience

- Open source and secure cryptography

- Supports native asset creation

Weaknesses - Lack of interoperability

- Poor user experience and tooling

- Immature scalability and skills scarcity

Opportunities - Reduced fraud

- Business process acceleration

- New business model enablement

Threats - Regulatory barriers

- Hostile nation-state actors

- Poor governance

Challenges to Blockchain Adoption

Category Challenges

Technology - Scalability: Slow due to decentralized architecture

- Interoperability: Limited communication between platforms

- Data format: Dependency on standardization

Regulation - Ambiguity in legal compliance

- Restrictions by RBI on cryptocurrency transactions

Awareness - Lack of skilled manpower

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Category Challenges

- Evolving technology

Security & Privacy - Privacy is not inherent as data is replicated on all nodes

- Heavy storage demands due to perpetual data replication

Examples of Global Use

Country Applications

Canada Transparency in government spending

Switzerland Accepts Bitcoin for tax payments

Singapore Cross-border payments

Chile Energy grid transparency

Cryptocurrencies
Category Details

Virtual Currency: Digital representation of value; functions as medium of

exchange, unit of account, or store of value.
Definition Not legal tender, lacks government backing.
Cryptocurrency: Subset of virtual currencies; decentralised and secured by
cryptography.

Supreme Court
Blanket ban on cryptocurrencies was lifted in 2020.
Decision

a) Users buy/store in digital wallets and transact on a decentralised network.

How Cryptocurrency
b) Powered by blockchain technology (open ledger updated in real-time).
Works
c) Transactions preserved on the blockchain network.

1. High power consumption due to crypto mining.

2. Crypto-related crimes like theft and hacking.
Challenges
3. Misuse for illicit activities (money laundering, terror financing).
4. Lack of regulation by central banks and governments, eroding sovereignty.
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Category Details

1. Bitcoin
Examples
2. Ethereum

1. Mandating firms in the crypto ecosystem (e.g., exchanges) to combat

money laundering.
Way Forward
2. Broaden regulatory oversight of crypto firms.
3. Enforce measures like KYC and report suspicious transactions.

Open-Source Software (OSS) and Its Significance

Aspect Details

Software distributed with its source code available for use, modification, and
Definition
distribution under original rights.

Linux, Mozilla Firefox, VLC media player, SugarCRM, Digilocker, Diksha, Aarogya
Examples
Setu, CoWIN, etc.

Closed vs Open
iOS (Apple): Closed-source; Android (Google): Open-source.
Source

Indian Contribution India has 13.2 million developers on GitHub, ranking second after China.

- Democratisation: Reduces monopoly by Big Tech.

- Affordability: Cheaper than proprietary software.
- Innovation: Faster development using crowdsourcing.
- Drives growth in 5G/6G, AI, IoT, and other technologies.
- Cloud Adoption: Published code by Amazon and Google facilitates technology
adoption.
Advantages of OSS - Efficiency: Reduces redundancy, enabling focus on innovation.
- Privacy: Offers transparency and privacy with open access.
- Trust: Builds user trust due to transparency.
- IoT Boom: Fuels creativity in IoT development.
- Democratisation of AI: Opens AI development to the community.
- Governance: Facilitates accountable and responsive governance using Digital
Public Goods.

- 2015 Policy: Adoption of Open-Source Software.

Government
- Aarogya Setu App: Android version made open-source.
Initiatives
- GovTech 3.0: Focus on Open Digital Ecosystems (ODEs) and promoting OSS.
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Aspect Details

Used by courts, IRCTC, LIC, and State Bank of India for scaling operations and
Institutional Use
providing efficient services.

Overview of 5G Technology
Category Details

5G is the next-generation cellular technology that provides faster and more reliable
Definition
communication with ultra-low latency.

Peak Data
2-20 Gigabit per second (Gbps).
Speeds

Global
2019: South Korea and the U.S. were the first to commercially launch 5G services.
Adoption

India Launch October 2022; 5G subscriptions in India crossed 165 million in March 2024.

Economic
Expected to create a cumulative economic impact of $1 trillion in India by 2035.
Impact

Capabilities of 5G

Aspect Details

Delivers blazing speeds and ultra-low latency for near real-time

Speed & Latency
communication between devices.

Enables creation of thousands of new products, technologies, and services, and

New Industries
supports emerging industries.

Internet of Things
Facilitates a global 5G network that connects devices, people, and systems.
(IoT)

Advanced Supports driverless vehicles, tele-surgery, real-time data analytics, and smart
Applications infrastructure.

Communication Enables vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure communication.

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4th Industrial
Drives disruptive technologies like IoT, robotics, VR, and AI.
Revolution
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Issues with 5G Deployment

Issue Details

Infrastructure Changes Requires a fundamental shift in core communication architecture.

Cost Industry needs an additional $60-70 billion for seamless implementation.

Suggestions:

Aspect Recommendations

Build indigenous industrial and R&D capacity, especially for design and Intellectual
Technology
Property.

Expand manufacturing base for 5G technologies, including semiconductor fabrication

Manufacturing
and equipment assembly.

Telecom
Address financial challenges of debt-ridden telecom service providers.
Sector

Enhance optical fiber penetration. Bharat Net program aims to connect 2.5 lakh gram
Infrastructure
panchayats (2.07 lakh completed by June 2024).

Applications of 5G

Sector Applications

Enhances infrastructure with vehicle platooning to double vehicle density and

Transportation
improve road safety.

Manufacturing Supports robotics for precision manufacturing.

Logistics Tracks goods from raw material to product delivery.

Enables precision farming, smart irrigation, soil and crop monitoring, and
Agriculture
livestock management.

Powers smart grids and smart metering, promoting alternative energy

Energy
technologies.
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Sector Applications

Facilitates tele-medicine delivery, tele-control of surgical robotics, and wireless

Healthcare
monitoring of vital stats.

Government
Integral to Smart Cities and Digital India initiatives.
Projects

Internet of Things (IoT)

Aspect Details

IoT is a connected network system of embedded objects/devices with identifiers,

Definition
enabling communication without human intervention using standard protocols.

Extension IoT extends Internet connectivity to physical devices and everyday objects.

Embedded with electronics, sensors, and Internet connectivity, allowing devices to

Features
communicate, interact, and be remotely controlled.

Smart Cities: Smart bins send alerts for emptying.

Agriculture: Sensing soil moisture, nutrients, water usage, custom fertilizers.
Energy Utilization: Smart grids detect outages, integrate solar panels, enable
distributed energy.
Healthcare: Personalized health analysis, enhanced patient monitoring.
Applications Manufacturing: Real-time optimization of production and supply chains.
Environmental Monitoring: Monitoring air, water quality, soil conditions, wildlife
movements.
Supply Chain: RFID tags enable precise tracking, reducing search time and costs.
Elderly/Disabled Care: Greater care for vulnerable populations.
Overall Benefits: Boost efficiency, economic growth, and employment.

1. Centres of Excellence: Established in Bengaluru, Gurugram, Gandhi Nagar for IoT

innovation.
Government
2. Standard Development: Creating IoT standards.
Steps
3. Higher R&D: Investment in IoT research.
4. Skill Development: Training human resources in IoT.

1. Lack of openness in IoT technology and R&D.

Challenges 2. Privacy issues due to data gathering.
3. IoT becoming indispensable for consumers.
4. Government monitoring risks, civil rights violations.
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Aspect Details

5. Lack of widely accepted standards and protocols.

6. Cyber-security threats and hacking risks.

Semiconductor Fab
Topic Details

World’s largest and fastest-growing industry with applications in all

Electronics Industry sectors. Semiconductors are a key enabler for new technologies like
IoT, AI, 5G, smart cars, etc.

Global Semiconductor
Microchip Shortage

1. Concentration of Microchips are designed by companies like Samsung, Intel, NVIDIA,

Manufacturing Qualcomm, but manufacturing is outsourced to TSMC and Samsung.

Work-from-home technology, automotive sector fluctuations, 5G

2. Increase in Demand
infrastructure, and AI hardware push.

Supply chain issues due to closed shipping lines and container

3. COVID-19 Disruptions
shortages.

Shortages of microchips impacted industries like telecom, automotive,

Impact
and electronics.

Challenges in Setting Up
Semiconductor FABs in India

1. Complex Sector Research-intensive and requires advanced expertise.

2. Capital Intensive High investment costs required.

3. Rapid Technology Changes Constant evolution in technology.

4. Key Role in BOM Significant value in the Bill of Material (BOM) for electronic products.

Development of
Semiconductor FABs in India

India moving from Semi-Knocked Down (SKD) to Completely Knocked

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1. Manufacturing Growth
Down (CKD) manufacturing stages.
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Topic Details

2. National Policy of Aims to make India a global hub for Electronics System Design and
Electronics 2019 Manufacturing (ESDM).

3. India’s Semiconductor Launched in 2021 by MeitY with a financial outlay of ₹76,000 crore to
Mission boost electronics manufacturing and design.

Way Forward

1. Attract Investments Provide incentives for FAB setups.

2. Ease of Doing Business Simplify processes for semiconductor manufacturing.

3. Research and
Focus on semiconductor design and fabrication technologies.
Development

4. Public Sector Involvement Mandate a public sector firm for FAB manufacturing.

Quantum Computing
Aspect Details

Quantum computers use principles of quantum mechanics to handle

Working Principle computational problems that are challenging for classical computers with large
inputs.

Unlike traditional computers, quantum computers resemble air-conditioned server

Appearance
rooms or stacks of processing units with tangled wires in freezing rooms.

Conventional Classical computers process information in bits (1s and 0s) and rely on classical
Computing physics. Even the most powerful supercomputers juggle operations sequentially.

Quantum computers process information in qubits (quantum bits), which can

Quantum
represent 1 and 0 simultaneously (quantum superposition). This allows parallel
Computing
computation.

Power of A quantum computer with less than 100 qubits can solve data-heavy problems
Quantum beyond the capabilities of classical supercomputers.

Ideas have existed since the 1990s; the first actual machines appeared in 2011,
History
notably from D-Wave Systems (Canada).
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Aspect Details

Quantum computers are extremely fast due to parallel processing, enabling rapid
Key Benefit
solutions to problems unsolvable by classical computers.

Classical supercomputers require high energy and physical space, whereas

Energy Efficiency
quantum computers offer higher processing power with reduced energy needs.

They can tackle complex problems like cracking encryption systems used in
Applications
banking and security, which classical computers cannot solve efficiently.

Applications, Challenges, and Initiatives in Quantum Technology

Applications of Quantum Technology

Area Details

Advancement of Physics: Solving questions on Einstein's relativity, gravity, black holes.

Science Boosting the Genome India Project.

Integral to Industrial Revolution 4.0, enhances IoT, AI, ML, and robotics.
Technological
Improves machine learning and manages traffic logistics for autonomous
Advancements
vehicles.

Haber Process Reduces energy consumption and GHG emissions.

Financial Modeling Faster risk calculations for investments.

Logistics & Scheduling Optimizes airline service efficiency and cost reduction.

Entrepreneurship Encourages start-ups and ecosystem growth.

Pharmaceuticals Speeds up drug discovery and protein modeling (quantum simulation).

Weather Prediction Enhanced through quantum modeling.

Electric Vehicles Improves battery cell chemistry.

Streamlines climate data collection, benefiting agriculture and food tech

Climate Change
chains.

Secure
Enables fast and unhackable satellite communication.
Communication
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Internal Security Secures communication and financial transactions.

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Area Details

Disaster Management Predicts tsunamis, earthquakes, and other natural calamities.

Challenges in Quantum Technology

Challenge Details

Maintaining superposition and entanglement is challenging due to

Technological Issues
environmental disturbances. Scaling up qubits in processors is difficult.

Material & Design Requires careful material selection, design, and engineering.

Algorithm
Challenge of creating algorithms and applications for quantum computers.
Development

Private Sector
Limited engagement in NM-QTA initiatives.
Involvement

Small professional pool, low international collaboration, and industry-

Research Ecosystem
academia gap.

Lack of indigenous quantum component development, including

Supply Chain
superconducting materials and semiconductor chips.

Security Risks Potential threats to cryptographic encryption and government data if misused.

Funding & Patents Issues in funding, research quality, and patent applications.

Initiatives to Promote Quantum Technology

Initiative Details

QuEST Program Rs. 80 crore investment by DST for quantum research.

National Mission on Launched in 2023, focusing on quantum systems with defined milestones for 8
Quantum years.

Quantum
C-DOT inaugurated lab with QKD solutions in 2021.
Communication Lab
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Initiative Details

QSIM Quantum computer simulator for research training.

AWS Collaboration MeitY partnered with AWS to accelerate QC-led R&D.

TIFR Mumbai developed a 3-qubit quantum computer and plans to scale to 7-

TIFR Development
qubit with DRDO and TCS collaboration.

National Quantum Rs. 6,003.65 crore allocated for: Satellite secure communication, quantum
Mission materials, atomic clocks, and multi-node quantum networks.

Thematic Hubs (T- Focus on quantum computing, quantum communication, quantum sensing &
Hubs) metrology, and quantum materials & devices in top academic institutions.

National Supercomputing Mission

Category Details

Launch Year 2015

Provide supercomputing infrastructure to academia, researchers, MSMEs, and

Objective
start-ups; develop indigenous supercomputers.

- Make India a leader in Supercomputing.

- Enable cutting-edge research for scientists & researchers.
Key Objectives
- Minimise redundancies.
- Achieve self-reliance in supercomputing technology.

Establish a network of supercomputers:

Target - From Teraflops (TF) to hundreds of TFs.
- Three systems ≥ 3 Petaflops (PF) in key institutions by 2022.

Compute Power - Initially approved for 15-20 PF (2015).

Revision - Revised to 45 PF (45000 TFs) for enhanced computational capacity.

- AIRAWAT: AI supercomputer, speed of 13,170 TFs.

Current - PARAM Siddhi-AI: At C-DAC, Pune.
Supercomputers - Pratyush: At Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology.
- Mihir: At National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting.

Global Ranking Four supercomputers ranked in Top 500 fastest supercomputers globally.
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Category Details

- Climate Modelling
- Weather Prediction
- Aerospace Engineering
- Computational Biology
- Molecular Dynamics
- Atomic Energy Simulations
- National Security/Defence
- Seismic Analysis
Application Areas
- Disaster Management
- Computational Chemistry
- Material Science & Nanomaterials
- Astrophysics
- Large Systems Simulations
- Big Data Analytics
- Finance
- Government Information Systems.

Space
Space Science
Aspect Details

Benefits of Space Science

E-visit to museums, remote sensing to monitor conditions of ancient

Art & Culture
architectures.

Society Fulfils curiosity about the universe, removes superstitions.

Polity & Governance High-resolution data aids in urban planning.

Village Resource Centers by ISRO provide tele-medicine and tele-

Social Issues
education services to rural areas. EDUSAT connects schools and colleges.

International Relations Enhances cooperation and trust-building among nations.

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Economy
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Aspect Details

Remote sensing improves agricultural productivity. Space mining

Infrastructure &
promises infinite supply of resources like He-3, cobalt, and rare earth
Agriculture
metals.

Manufacturing & Attracts youth to careers in Science, Astronomy, Mathematics, and

Employment Physics.

Technological Innovations

Study of Martian surface aids in understanding climate change. Earth

Environment & Ecology
Observation Satellites help in resource management.

Security International preparedness against catastrophic events.

BHUVAN aids in natural disaster management, desertification and land

Disaster Management
degradation mapping.

Challenges of Space
Science

Technological Challenge Increased space debris.

R&D expenditure is less than 1% of GDP. Limited semiconductor

Economic Challenge
manufacturing and related equipment production.

Obsolete space laws, state-centric governance, and misalignment with

Governance Challenge
international laws. Space oligopoly due to privatization.

Vulnerability to cyber-attacks and concerns over militarization and

Security
weaponization of space.

International Cooperation Promotes cooperation and trust-building.

Concerns over space-based data collection (dual-use satellites). Uneven

Ethical Challenge
distribution of space exploration benefits.

Way Forward

Strengthen IN-Space, resolve conflict of ISRO’s roles as promoter and

Institutions
regulator.

Develop a clear space policy, set up an independent space regulator,

Governance/Regulation
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implement the Drone Policy.

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Aspect Details

Technological Recognize Intellectual Property Rights in space to encourage private

Advancements participation.

Work on an International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities and

International Cooperation
Prevention of Arms Race in Outer Space.

Address concerns over space data collection and ensure fair distribution
Ethical Challenge
of exploration benefits.

Applications of Space Technology

Category Applications

- Cost-effective means of obtaining reliable data.

- Planning and managing: Land & water resources, urban & rural
Earth Observation
infrastructure.
- Weather & climate monitoring, disaster risk reduction.

- Crop estimation: Seasonal (Kharif, Rabi, Summer) space images for acreage
and production.
Agriculture - Drought assessment & monitoring.
- Crop Insurance assessment and relief.
- Soil Health Card Applications.

- Mapping plantation crops (Tea, Coffee, Spices, Rubber) for inventory &
management.
- In-season fertiliser demand management.
- Monitoring optimal produce for aquaculture activities.

- Potential solar energy harvesting.

Energy - Rooftop energy harvesting.
- Monitoring night-lights.

- SATCOM technology for remote education, improving rural literacy.

Education - Tele-education and Distance learning programs, integrated with Digital
India network.

- Vulnerability assessment of disaster-prone areas.

- Disaster response planning: Using satellite phones, judging disaster extent,
Disaster Management
directing resources.
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- Making settlements disaster-resilient.

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Category Applications

- Mapping & monitoring forests, biodiversity, reserved forests, national parks,

Environment and sanctuaries.
Management - Forest biomass estimation.
- Monitoring desertification, land degradation, coral reefs, and mangroves.

- Monitoring snow, glaciers, and glacial lakes.

- Detecting forest fires using thermal satellites.
- Monitoring stubble burning and burnt areas.
- Air, water, and climate environmental monitoring.

- Satellite communication for large geographical coverage, high data rates,

Strategic & Military and remote control.
- Used in guided missiles and missile defence systems.

- Reconnaissance and surveillance systems (e.g., India’s AWACS).

- Space warfare and satellite destruction affecting communication networks.

Gaganyaan Mission
Category Details

Demonstration of human spaceflight by launching a crew of 3 members to a Low

Objective
Earth Orbit (400 km) for 3 days.

Planned Crew
2025 using the Human Rated LVM3 launch vehicle.
Flight

Coordinating
Human Space Flight Centre, responsible for implementation of the program.
Body

India will become the 4th nation to conduct independent human spaceflight after
Global Standing
Russia, USA, and China.

Components of Gaganyaan Mission

Component Details

Contains crew module and service module, constituting the orbital

Crew Module
module.
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Component Details

Weight: ~7 tons; Microgravity experiments will be conducted by

crew.

Crew shortlisted by IAF and ISRO.

CARE (Atmospheric Reentry Designed to withstand high temperatures during atmospheric re-
Experiment) entry. Experiment successfully tested in 2014.

Emergency accident avoidance system; Pad Abort Test conducted

Crew Escape System - PAT
in July 2018.

ECLSS (Environmental Control & Maintains cabin pressure, air composition, temperature, and
Life Support System) manages fire detection and suppression.

ISRO’s humanoid robot for test-flights, built by Inertial Systems

Vyom Mitra
Unit, Thiruvananthapuram.

SAKHI App Integrated digital platform for astronauts:

- Assists in technical documents and training manuals.

- Monitors vitals (e.g., BP, oxygen saturation) and maintains

mission logs.

Technical Challenges

Challenge Details

Pressure Maintenance Create and maintain Earth-like atmosphere in a small volume.

Crew Escape System Reliability during emergencies from launch phase onwards.

Re-entry and Recovery Precision required; even slight deviations can lead to disasters.

Radiation-proof Module Protect astronauts from radiation, over 10 times Earth exposure.

Coping with Gravity Changes Impacts coordination during gravity transitions.

Psychological Preparedness Address issues like isolation, depression, sleep disorders.

Threat from Space Debris Avoid cabin depressurization from potential debris collisions.
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Benefits of Gaganyaan Program

Aspect Details

Science & Technology - Promotes low gravity experiments.

- Develops advanced materials and systems for astronauts.

Polity & Governance - Establishes IN-SPACe for private sector participation.

- Framework for collaboration between ISRO, academia, and industry.

Social Issues - Inspires youth and enhances S&T levels in India.

- Develops additional human resources.

International
- ISRO’s collaboration with Glavkosmos (Russia) for astronaut training.
Cooperation

- Ground monitoring stations developed with Australia.

Economy - Sources 60% equipment from Indian private sector.

- Creates 15,000 jobs.

Technological - Boost to frontier fields like materials processing, astro-biology, and

Enhancement planetary sciences.

- Supports future missions like Shukrayaan and Chandrayaan-4.

- Studies on solar radiation, climate change modelling, and forest

Environment & Ecology
monitoring.

- Quantum mechanics experiments aiding quantum computing and QKD

Security
techniques.

- Enhances national dignity and honour, positioning India as a global leader

Ethical Considerations
in space exploration.

Aditya-L1 Mission
Category Details
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Launch - India's first space-based observatory to study the Sun.

Details - Launched in September 2023 from SHAR.
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Category Details

- Reached its destination at Lagrangian Point L1 after 126 days through multiple orbital
maneuvers.
- Launch vehicle: PSLV.

- Study solar upper atmospheric dynamics (Photosphere, Chromosphere, and Corona).

Objectives - Investigate the coronal heating mechanism.
- Understand the origin of coronal mass ejections and flares.

- Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT): Images the Sun in 200-400 nm UV band to
study its atmosphere.
- Visible Line Emission Coronagraph (VELC): Corona imaging and spectroscopy.
Payloads - SoLEXS & HEL1OS: Study X-ray flares over various energy ranges.
- ASPEX: In-situ measurement of solar particles and ions.
- PAPA: Studies solar wind and energetic ions.
- Magnetometer (MAG): Measures interplanetary magnetic fields.

- Deeper understanding of the Sun's behavior and its impact on Earth.

- Generates space weather alerts to safeguard satellite-based operations
Significance (telecommunications, internet services, power grids).
- Studies the solar corona heating mechanism, resolving temperature differences
between the Sun's upper atmosphere (1-3 million °C) and surface (5500 °C).

- Definition: Positions where gravitational forces of two large bodies balance a third
body.
Lagrange - L1 Point: 1.5 million km from Earth, offering an uninterrupted view of the Sun.
Points - L2 Point: Ideal for observing the Universe (e.g., James Webb Telescope).
- L3 Point: Behind the Sun, useful for observing the Sun's far side.
- L4 & L5 Points: Stable positions farther from Earth, potential for future missions.

Satellite Internet
Topic Details

Wireless internet from satellites (Low Earth Orbit (LEO) or Geostationary (GEO))
Satellite Internet
instead of optical fiber or mobile networks.

India’s Space Policy Permits foreign entities to set up satellite-based services after obtaining
2023 permission from INSpace.

Key Providers SpaceX Starlink, OneWeb, Amazon Project Kuiper, JioSpaceFiber.

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Topic Details

Applications High-speed internet in remote areas like the Himalayas and aspirational districts.

Internet from Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites

Aspect Details

Positioning Positioned 500-2000 km from Earth; lower than GEO satellites (~36,000 km).

Low latency (20-40 ms) due to proximity, providing stronger signals and faster speeds
Latency
compared to GEO. Competes with terrestrial networks in limited infrastructure areas.

Requires massive fleets of satellites due to short contact time with land transmitters. High
Investment
capital investment makes it costliest among fibre, spectrum, and satellite.

Speed Travels at 27,000 kph, completing a full orbit in 90-120 minutes.

Space Internet from Geostationary (GEO) Satellites

Aspect Details

Orbiting at 35,786 km above the equator. Appears stationary to ground observers due to
Positioning
synchronized rotation with Earth.

Coverage Covers one-third of the planet; requires 3-4 satellites for global coverage.

Connectivity Easier to link due to the stationary appearance of satellites.

Latency Higher latency (~600 ms) compared to LEO due to greater distance.

Key Satellite Internet Initiatives

Initiative Details

OneWeb’s ‘Five to Over 600 LEO satellites launched, offering internet connectivity in regions North
50’ of 50 degrees latitude.

Operates over 4,000 satellites in LEO for global coverage. Requires a larger fleet
Starlink (SpaceX)
than OneWeb due to lower orbits.
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Initiative Details

Project Kuiper
Announced in 2019; currently developing a satellite constellation.
(Amazon)

Loon Project
Used high-altitude balloons for connectivity but discontinued in 2021.
(Google)

Advantages of Space-Based Internet

Advantage Details

High Bandwidth Handles large user traffic without speed degradation.

Obstacle-Free Signals Overcomes challenges faced by fibre-optic cables or wireless networks.

Quick Disaster Recovery Enables rapid restoration of services post-disasters.

No Phone Line Needed Operates without reliance on landlines.

Challenges Associated with Satellite Internet

Challenge Details

Limited Coverage Requires clear line-of-sight, challenging in dense urban or obstructed areas.

GEO satellites have greater latency, unsuitable for real-time applications like
Higher Latency
gaming or video calls.

High equipment costs make adoption challenging compared to cheaper

Affordability
alternatives like broadband.

Logistical Challenges Launching thousands of satellites poses logistical hurdles.

Space Observation
Satellite reflections disrupt astronomical observations.
Issues

Interruptions LEO satellites can interrupt frequencies of higher-orbit satellites.

Satellite launches contribute to space debris, risking collisions and damage to

Space Junk
spacecraft.
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Cybersecurity Risks Satellites are prone to jamming and cyber-attacks.

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Challenge Details

Unclear regulatory frameworks, especially for private companies operating

Regulatory Issues
globally.

India’s TRAI lacks clarity on regulating access to space-based internet, needing

Telecom Regulations
updated policies.

Scramjet and Hypersonic Technology

Topic Details

Hypersonic Demonstrated By: DRDO with Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle

Technology (HSTDV).

Speed: Mach 5 and above.

Applications: Development of hypersonic cruise missiles, vehicles, and low-cost

satellite launches.

Scramjet Engine Type: Air-breathing jet engine.

Key Features: Uses atmospheric oxygen, no need for oxygen tanks, simpler design,
eco-friendly exhaust (H2O).

Speed Range: Operates at speeds up to Mach 15.

No oxygen tank, less weight, simple design, uses hydrogen as propellant, eco-
Advantages
friendly emissions.

Reduces oxidizer dependence for launch vehicles, decreases launch costs, and
Need for Scramjet
improves efficiency.

Operation: Uses forward motion for air compression, no rotating compressor,

Ramjet Engine
operates at Mach 3-6.

Limitation: Efficiency drops at hypersonic speeds.

Scramjet vs. Scramjet Advantage: Airflow remains supersonic; operates at speeds above Mach
Ramjet 6.

Hypersonic
Key Features: Speeds > Mach 5, manoeuvrability, hard to intercept.
Missiles
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Topic Details

Types Hypersonic Cruise Missiles: Use jet/rocket propellants.

Hypersonic Glide Vehicles (HGV): Launched into atmosphere on rockets.

Notable Missiles Avangard (Russia): Mach 20, >6000 km range.

Kinzhal (Russia): Mach 10, >2000 km range.

Starry Sky 2 (China): Hypersonic aircraft with waverider technology.

India's Progress HSTDV: Mach 6 capability.

Hypersonic Wind Tunnel: Simulates Mach 5-12, developed by DRDO in Hyderabad.

Mission Shakti: Demonstrated space-based capabilities.

Combines ballistic missile speed and cruise missile manoeuvrability, penetrates

Significance
modern anti-missile defense systems.

Suggestions for Develop indigenous hypersonic technology; upgrade missile defense systems;
India explore technology transfer with friendly nations.

IN-SPACe, NSIL, and the Role of the Private Sector in Space Industry
Category Details

Boost private sector participation in space activities, leading to accelerated

IN-SPACe Objectives growth of the space sector and enabling India to become a global technology
powerhouse.

- Provide level playing field for private companies to use Indian space
infrastructure.
- Handhold, promote, and guide private industries in space activities through
Role of IN-SPACe
encouraging policies and friendly regulations.
- Allow and oversee space activities by non-government private entities
(NGPEs).

- Building of launch vehicles, satellites, and space-based services.

IN-SPACe Activities - Sharing ISRO infrastructure with private players.
- Establishing new space infrastructure and temporary facilities under ISRO
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Category Details

- Supporting launch campaigns, spacecraft operations, and registration.

- Providing space-based services like data usage and associated infrastructure.

- Owning satellites for Earth Observation and Communication.

- Providing launch services and building launch vehicles through Indian
industry.
NSIL Mandate
- Commercialising space services related to Earth Observation and
Communication satellites.
- Facilitating technology transfer to Indian industry.

- Address increasing demand for space-based services.

- Ensure overall growth of the space sector.
Need for Private Sector - Increase India's contribution to the global space economy.
- Deepen the role of private industries in Assembly, Integration, and Testing
(AIT).

Estimated at $570 billion in 2023, projected to reach $1.8 trillion by 2035.

Global Space Economy
India’s current share: $8.4 billion (2-3%).

- Greater resources: Additional funding and talent.

- Human capital utilisation: Exploit India’s demographic dividend.
Benefits of Private - Free up ISRO for path-breaking innovations.
Sector Participation - Promote technological advancements like AI and eco-friendly fuels.
- Risk-sharing: Mitigate financial risks through shared costs.
- Address commercial demand for internet connectivity and asteroid mining.

- Data risk: Misuse or improper utilisation of sensitive ISRO data.

- Regulation challenges: Lengthy clearance processes and political instability.
Concerns in Private
- Revenue loss: Decreased government income from space activities.
Participation
- Unfair practices: Lobbying, leakage of sensitive information, and profit-
driven motives.

NavIC
Category Details

NavIC (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System) is an indigenous satellite

Definition
navigation system developed by ISRO.
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Category Details

- Consists of 7 satellites.
Constellation - 3 satellites in geostationary orbit.
- 4 satellites in geosynchronous orbits.

Coverage - Provides services across India and up to 1,500 km around the country.

- Position accuracy: better than 20 metres.

Accuracy
- Timing accuracy: better than 50 nanoseconds.

- Standard Positioning Service (SPS): Available to all users, accuracy of ~20

Services metres in the Indian region.
- Restricted Service (RS): Encrypted, for authorized users (e.g., military).

- Use in low-power, portable devices due to advancements in ASIC technology.

Applications
- Supports initiatives like Make in India, Smart Cities, Digital India.

- Railways: Wagon tracking.

- Public transport: Vehicle tracking for buses and public vehicles.
Use Cases - Fisheries: Tracking fishing vessels.
- Geo-fencing: Mechanized vehicles.
- Disaster Management: Timely response and relief.

- Ensures strategic autonomy, reducing reliance on foreign GNSS (e.g., GPS).

Strategic
- Supports military capabilities like weapon guidance and fleet management.
Advantages
- Promotes domestic applications and reduces dependence on foreign tech.

- Helps in land surveying, infrastructure planning (roads, railways, urban

planning).
Socio-Economic
- Applications in agriculture, transportation, aviation, and telecommunications.
Impacts
- Critical in disaster management for rescue and relief.
- Potential for export and international collaboration with neighboring countries.

- Limited global reach compared to GPS.

Challenges
- Low adoption due to GPS dominance in devices.

Geospatial Data and National Geospatial Policy 2022

Topic Details

Definition of Data representing features or objects on the Earth’s surface, whether man-
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Geospatial Data made or natural, associated with specific locations on the globe.
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Topic Details

- Used in GIS (Geographic Information System) to understand spatial

Uses and
relationships and create maps.
Representation
- Helps regulate, customize, and analyze geospatial data.

- Vectors and Attributes: Points, lines, polygons, and descriptive data about
locations.
Examples of Geospatial
- Point Clouds: 3D models created using LiDAR systems.
Data
- Raster and Satellite Imagery: High-resolution imagery providing a bird’s eye
view of the Earth.

- Notified by: Government of India.

National Geospatial
- Uses tools like GIS, GPS, and Remote Sensing for mapping and analysis.
Policy 2022
- Records spatial data indexed to objects' geographical location (geotagging).

- Aim: High-resolution surveys, Geospatial Knowledge Infrastructure, and a

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) by 2030.
- Treat Survey of India’s (SOI) geospatial data as common good.
Key Highlights of the - Private agencies can create high-resolution maps but SOI governs maps of
Policy state borders and national boundaries.
- Establishment of a Geospatial Data Promotion and Development
Committee.
- Department of Science and Technology is the nodal department.

- Governance, Services, and Planning: Foundational for smart city projects

and infrastructure development.
Applications of - Private Companies: Useful for specific mapping, such as local delivery or
Geospatial Data agricultural efficiencies.
- Privatisation Benefits: Boosts agriculture, facilitates new-age industries, and
promotes innovation in technologies and platforms.

Drone Rules, 2021 and Applications

Category Details

Benefits of Sectors impacted: Agriculture, mining, infrastructure, surveillance, emergency

Drones response, transportation, geo-spatial mapping, defence, law enforcement.

Economic impact: Employment generation, economic growth, especially in remote

areas.
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Vision: India to become a global drone hub by 2030.

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Category Details

Salient Features Trust-based framework: Self-certification, non-intrusive monitoring.

Approvals abolished: Unique authorization number, prototype ID, airworthiness

certificates, operator permits, etc.

Digital sky platform: User-friendly, minimal human interface.

Interactive airspace maps: Green, yellow, red zones. No permissions needed for
green zones.

Green zone: Up to 400 ft (120 m) not designated as red/yellow zone; up to 200 ft

(60 m) within 8–12 km of airports.

No foreign ownership restrictions in Indian drone companies.

Import regulations: By DGFT.

Increased weight coverage: Drones up to 500 kg, including drone taxis.

Pilot training: DGCA to oversee training, schools, and licenses.

Drone classification: Nano (<250 gm), Micro (250 gm–2 kg), Small (2–25 kg),
Medium (25–150 kg), Large (>150 kg).

Unique identification number: Mandatory for all operational drones.

Airspace map: Segregates Indian airspace into red, yellow, and green zones.

Exemptions: Drones >500 kg regulated by Aircraft Rules, 1937. Army, navy, and air
force drones excluded.

Applications of
Meteorology: Atmospheric data collection.
Drones

Defence: Reconnaissance, intelligence, border management, attack weapons.

Economy: Driverless delivery, land and field surveys, commercial aviation.

Healthcare: Vaccine delivery to remote areas.

Environment: Monitoring forest fires, wildlife, poaching, forest health.

Disaster management: Relief, surveys, emergency services.

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Category Details

Entertainment: Cinematography, video recording, hobbies.

Drones in Applications: Seed planting, fertiliser spraying, crop health monitoring, soil
Agriculture assessment, damage assessment, yield estimation, livestock management.

Benefits:

- Reduced pesticide wastage (30% saving).

- Water saving (90%).

- High efficiency (20–40 ha/day).

- Lower spraying costs, easy maintenance, promotes local entrepreneurship.

Challenges in conventional methods:

- Excessive chemical use, labour shortages, environmental pollution, higher costs,

uneven spraying, limited coverage.

Challenges in drone use:

- Limited flight range, high initial costs, lack of certified pilots, dependency on
weather, knowledge gaps, regulatory issues.

Government
- PLI Scheme for Drones, 2021
Initiatives

- Drone Rules, 2021

- Digital sky platform

- Agriculture drone finance schemes

- SOPs for agrochemical spraying and soil nutrient application

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Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology
Aspect Details

Understanding and control of matter at nanoscale (1-100 nanometers),

Definition
enabling novel applications through unique phenomena.

Quantum Effects: Change in properties like melting point, fluorescence,

conductivity, reactivity.
Tunability: Adjusting particle size for desired properties.
Special Features at Tunneling: Penetrating barriers using less energy (used in Scanning Tunneling
Nanoscale Microscopes).
Surface Area: Higher reactivity due to increased surface area.
Biological Processes: Many occur at nanoscale, e.g., DNA strand diameter is 2
nm.

- Gold Nanoparticles: Detect nucleic acid sequences; potential cancer

treatments.
- Diagnostics: Advanced imaging and personalized treatments.
Applications in
- Drug Delivery: Direct delivery to cancer cells, minimizing chemotherapy
Healthcare
side effects.
- Regenerative Medicine: Mimic bone structure or use as dental restorative
resin.

- Transistors: Smaller, faster, more efficient with lower power consumption.

- MRAM: Magnetic memory for instant booting using nanoscale junctions.
Applications in
- Quantum Dots: Vibrant, energy-efficient displays.
Electronics
- Flexible Electronics: Wearables, medical tools, aerospace use.
- Nanoparticle Copper: Safer, cheaper solder alternative.

- Nano Fertilizers: Improved assimilation and efficiency.

- Nano Pesticides: Target-specific, reducing broad-spectrum pesticide use.
Applications in
- Nano Sensors: Monitor soil, detect pathogens.
Agriculture
- Nano Carriers: Direct delivery of nutrients/pesticides.
- Smart Packaging: Enhances shelf life of products.

- Efficient Solar Panels: Cheaper, more efficient.

- Energy Storage: Improved systems.
Environmental Benefits - Nanocapsules: Targeted release of fertilizers and herbicides with minimal
pollution.
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- Harmful Agent Detection: Identify, filter, and neutralize pollutants.

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Aspect Details

- Defense Equipment: Enhanced efficiency.

Security & Disaster
- Nanobots: Intelligence gathering.
Management
- Nuclear Shielding: Protection through nano-composites.

- Nanotoxicology: Toxic effects on humans and the environment.

- Bioaccumulation: Contamination in food chains and ecosystems.
Challenges - Weaponization: Misuse by terrorists or insurgent groups.
- Nano Pollution: Ultrafine particles causing air and food contamination.
- Lack of Standards: No global rules or guidelines for development.

Nanotechnology in Agriculture
Category Applications/Concerns

Enables study of plant hormones like auxin (responsible for root growth and
Nanofabrication
seedling establishment). Helps in adapting plant roots to marginal soils.

Crop Disease Devices like nanocapsules, nanoparticles, and viral capsids can detect and
Detection treat plant diseases.

Enhances nutrient absorption, delivers active ingredients to specific sites, and

Nutrient Management
improves water treatment processes.

Target-specific nanoparticles reduce damage to non-target plant tissues and

Pest Management
minimize environmental chemical release.

Nanostructures like carbon nanotubes, nanofibers, and fullerene assist in soil

Farm Management
analysis, biochemical sensing, water management, and pesticide delivery.

Smart Dust Monitors parameters like temperature, humidity, and pest/disease

Technology infestations, creating distributed intelligence in vineyards and orchards.

Precision Farming Enables precision farming, essential for adapting to climate change.

Aids in smart packaging to monitor freshness, integrity of packages, and

Food Management
quality management during transport, storage, and display.

Nano-scale additives improve food and nutrition, nano-sensors assess animal

Livestock Upkeep
physiology, and nanoparticles enhance nutrient uptake for milk production.
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Concerns with
Nanotech
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Category Applications/Concerns

Phytotoxicity Reactivity of nanomaterials may harm the environment and workers.

Decline in bacterial diversity, especially Rhizobia, due to nanoparticle

Loss of Biodiversity
treatments.

Cytotoxic/Genotoxic Cellular nanomaterials in nano-agri products pose risks. Nanoparticles can

Risks translocate within plants, causing toxicity.

Insufficient regulations and lack of public awareness about nanotechnology in

Regulatory Issues
agriculture.

Limited methods for risk assessment and life-cycle evaluation of

Knowledge Gaps
nanotechnology in agriculture.

Graphene, Carbon Nanotubes, and Liquid Nano Urea

Topic Details

Graphene

● Allotrope of carbon with a sheet-like structure.

Structure
● One molecule thick (monolayer).

● Lightest material known.

● Tougher than diamond, harder than steel, yet flexible.
● Best conductor of heat and electricity.
Properties
● Impermeable to gases.
● Antibacterial properties.
● Nanomaterial with unique properties.

● Energy storage and solar cells.

● Lubrication.
Uses ● Graphene ink.
● Flexible electronics.
● Photodetectors, face masks, etc.

● Antibacterial and effective against COVID-19.

Graphene Mask
● Reusable and derived from carbon materials like paper.

● Electronic: High-speed electron movement without energy loss.

Properties of Graphene
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● Mechanical: Strong sp2 bonds resisting deformation.

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Topic Details

Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)

● Cylindrical molecules formed by rolling single/multiple sheets of

Structure Graphene.
● Types: Single-walled and Multi-walled.

● Strongest materials (tensile strength, elastic modulus).

Properties ● Excellent thermal conductors (ballistic conduction).
● High surface area to mass ratio.

● Transparent electrodes for solar cells and LEDs.

● Electrodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries.
Applications ● Capacitors (Metal, Polymer-based).
● Sensors, biomedical, and mechanical uses.
● Catalysts and bio-molecule immobilization.

● Impuri es (residual metal par cles).

Challenges
● Difficult processing and manufacturing.

Single-Walled vs Multi-Walled
See the comparative table below.
CNTs

Liquid Nano Urea

● Developed by IFFCO, making India the first country for commercial

Development
production.

● Higher uptake efficiency (>80%).

● Cheaper and requires less quantity.
Benefits ● Reduces transport and input costs.
● Boosts farmers' income.
● Easy to apply (sprayed on leaves).

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Biotechnology & Health

National Biotechnology Development Strategy (2021-25)
Category Details

NBDS 2021-25 aims to make India a global leader in biotechnology research,

innovation, and industrial growth with a target of USD 150 billion bioeconomy by
About
2025. Implemented by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in collaboration
with industry, academia, and stakeholders.

- Building Capacities: Focus on human capital and infrastructure.

- UNaTI Biotech Missions: Strategically aligned missions for national priorities.
- Atmanirbhar Bharat: Promote self-reliance in biotech products and
technologies.
Key Strategies
- Strategic Partnerships: Collaborations for knowledge and tech transfer.
- Future Preparedness: Build knowledge for future challenges.
- Taking Science to Society: Empower rural areas via biotechnology.
- Global Benchmarking: Performance evaluation against global standards.

- Healthcare: Affordable solutions like vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics.

- Agriculture: Enhanced productivity, sustainability, and food security.
Focus Areas
- Environment: Bioremediation, biofuels, and clean technologies.
- Industrial Biotechnology: Promote bio-based industries and employment.

1. Scientific Human Resources: Large pool of scientists and engineers.

2. Cost-effective Manufacturing: Competitive production capabilities.
3. Start-ups: Emerging biotechnology-related enterprises.
4. Research Labs and Academic Centers: Numerous institutions excelling in
biosciences.
India's Key
5. Educational Infrastructure: Universities offering degrees/diplomas in
Strengths in
biotechnology and bioinformatics.
Biotechnology
6. Pharmaceutical Industry: Strong and dynamic presence in drugs and
pharmaceuticals.
7. Biodiversity: Rich human gene pools for genomics research.
8. Clinical Capabilities: Rapidly growing clinical trial and contract research
opportunities.
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Status of Bioeconomy in India: Tabular Summary

Aspect Details

- Sunrise sector
Introduction - Growth potential
- Growing relevance

- Among the top 12 destinations for biotechnology globally (3% global share).
Size - Bioeconomy size: $80 Billion.
- Target: $150B by 2025, $300B by 2030 (India BioEconomy Report 2022, BIRAC).

Includes 5 sub-sectors:
1. Bio-pharma
2. Bio-agriculture
Components
3. Bio-industries
4. Bio-services
5. Bioinformatics

- 64% of India's bioeconomy.

Bio-pharma - Covers diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines.
- India is the pharmacy of the developing world.

- Development of kits for malaria, TB, typhoid, etc.

Diagnostics - Use of monoclonal/polyclonal antibodies for HIV-ELISA.
- Cost-effective solutions developed domestically.

- From biosimilars to biologics.

Therapeutics - Leader in generic drug manufacturing.
- Emerging expertise in pharmacogenomics and new drug targets.

- India supplies vaccines to 150+ countries.

Vaccines - Leaders in DPT, BCG, measles, and Hep-B vaccines.
- Recent advances include pneumococcal, rotavirus, and COVID vaccines.

- Development of nutritious, high-yielding, and resilient crops.

Bio-agriculture - Use of genetic engineering, genomics, and gene editing.
- Focus on fortification and climate-smart agriculture.

- Production using enzymes and microbes.

Bio-industry - Examples: Biofuels, industry-grade enzymes, and eco-friendly laundry agents.
- Replaces polluting chemicals in industrial processes.
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Aspect Details

- Services for clinical trials, contract manufacturing, and research ecosystem.

Bio-services - Less than 2% participation in global clinical trials.
- Potential due to high disease burden.

- Integration of biological data, data science, and computing.

Bio-informatics - Programs: India Genome Project, Indigen, Human Atlas Project.
- Facilities: CDAC’s Param Biochrome/Blaze.

- Establishment of Indian Biological Data Centre in Faridabad.

Data Infrastructure
- Supports bio start-ups with open access to life sciences data.

Genome Sequencing and Its Applications

Topic Details

Genome Sequencing reveals the order of bases (Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine,

Definition
Thymine) in the genome, the complete genetic code.

- DNA is the genome's chemical code guiding growth, development, and

health.
Key Facts
- Chromosomes store coiled DNA strands in cell nuclei.
- Genes "read" DNA sections and determine traits (e.g., eye color).

- Comprises 23 chromosome pairs with ~3 billion base pairs.

Human Genome
- Some genome parts are stored in mitochondria.

- Genotype: Genes for a trait.

- Phenotype: Physical manifestation of traits.
Gene Functions - Genes work via:
1. Transcription: Copying base sequence to messenger RNA (mRNA).
2. Translation: mRNA directs protein production.

- Definition: Determining the linear order of nucleotide bases in DNA.

Genome Sequencing - Involves mapping the full genetic code (3 billion base pairs).
- Detects mutations linked to genetic disorders.

- Determines the complete DNA sequence of an organism's genome

Whole Genome
(chromosomal DNA, mitochondria, and chloroplast for plants).
Sequencing
- Includes non-exome portions affecting gene functions.
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Applications - Disease Diagnosis: Identify mutations, evaluate rare disorders, e.g., MYBPC3
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- Agriculture: Selective breeding for desirable traits.

- Prenatal Screening: Detect genetic disorders in foetuses.
- Forensics: Identify suspects, establish paternity.
- Evolution: Trace species' evolutionary history.

1. IndiGen Program (2019):

- Funded by CSIR, Ministry of Science and Technology.
- Mapped Indian genomes, finding 32% unique variations compared to global
genomes.
2. Human Genome Project (1990-2003):
- First international effort to sequence the human genome.
Programs for Genome - Revealed ~20,000 genes; humans share 99.9% genes.
Sequencing 3. Genome India Project (2020-2023):
- Led by Department of Biotechnology, aims to map Indian genomes and
store data at Indian Biological Data Centre.
4. Genome Mapping in Indian Ocean (2021):
- By CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography.
- Focused on DNA/RNA mapping in microbes to study nutrient cycles,
productivity, and climate change effects.

Gene Therapy
Topic Details

Gene therapy modifies or manipulates gene expression or alters biological

Definition
properties of cells for therapeutic use.

- Replacing disease-causing genes with healthy ones

Mechanisms - Inactivating non-functional disease-causing genes
- Introducing new or modified genes to treat disease

- Germline Gene Therapy: Alters reproductive cells (sperm/egg); affects future

Types of Gene generations; raises ethical concerns; banned in many countries.
Therapy - Somatic Gene Therapy: Targets non-reproductive cells; affects only the treated
individual; primary focus of current research.

- Therapeutic Gene: Genetic material treating the disease.

Gene Therapy - Vector: Carries therapeutic genes (viral or non-viral).
Products - Other Components: Promoters, enhancers, or markers for optimizing gene
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- Plasmid DNA: Circular DNA carrying therapeutic genes.

- Viral Vectors: Modified viruses as delivery vehicles.
Types of GTP - Bacterial Vectors: Modified bacteria for genetic delivery.
- Gene Editing Technologies: Disrupt or repair genes.
- Patient-Derived Cellular Therapy: Cells genetically modified and reintroduced.

- Cardiovascular Diseases: Heart failure, coronary artery disease.

- Cancer: CAR T-cell therapy, tumor suppressor gene therapy.
- Genetic Disorders: Cystic fibrosis, hemophilia.
Applications
- Neurological Disorders: Parkinson's, Alzheimer's.
- Infectious Diseases: HIV/AIDS.
- Others: Rare diseases, metabolic disorders.

- Gene Delivery: Difficulty in reaching target cells.

Challenges - Immune Response: Potential rejection.
- Long-Term Effects: Uncertain consequences.

- Released by ICMR (2019).

- Ensures ethical, scientific, and safe conduct of trials.
National - Covers preclinical, clinical, and post-market aspects.
Guidelines - Emphasizes patient safety, informed consent, and ethics.
- GTAEC oversees gene therapy activities.
- Focuses on rare genetic disorders.

- Defines GTP as any entity with a nucleic acid component for therapy.
- GTAEC guides all GTP research under ICMR.
- Includes considerations for Chemistry, Manufacturing, Quality, and
Salient Features
infrastructure.
- GTP is classified as a new drug under New Drugs and Clinical Trials Rules, 2019
(CDSCO).

- Addresses genetic disease burden in India.

Need for - Encourages innovation and accelerates research.
Guidelines - Tackles issues like diagnosis, costs, and insurance coverage.
- Ensures alignment with global practices for rare diseases.

- Prime Editing: Writes new genetic info at targeted DNA sites.

Gene Editing - CRISPR-Cas9: Cut-paste DNA technology; uses Cas9 enzyme for targeted gene
Techniques editing.
- Mega Nucleases: Molecular DNA scissors for highly targeted modifications.
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CAR T-Cell Therapy

Aspect Details

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is a cell-based gene therapy

Definition
involving the genetic modification of T-cells to target and attack cancer cells.

T-cells (a type of WBC) perform cytotoxic functions to attack and kill

T-Cells Role
pathogens and foreign cells.

B-cells (another type of WBC) identify pathogens and signal the immune
B-Cells Role system. However, since cancer cells are not foreign cells, B-cells cannot
recognize them as enemies.

Genetically altered T-cells can recognize and attack cancer cells, overcoming
Function of CAR T-Cells
the limitation of B-cells in identifying cancer cells.

1. Harvesting: T-cells are collected from the patient’s blood.

2. Genetic Modification: CRISPR system is used to modify T-cells, enabling
them to express chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) on their surface.
3. Multiplication: The modified T-cells are multiplied in a laboratory.
Mechanism
4. Reintroduction: The modified T-cells are inserted back into the patient’s
body.
5. Action: CAR T-cells bind to cancer cells, identify them, and destroy them by
activating the immune system.

1. Precision Targeting: CAR-T cells specifically target cancer cells, minimizing

damage to healthy tissues and reducing side effects compared to
chemotherapy.
Advantages Over
2. Long-lasting Effect: Activates the immune system for long-term remission
Other Treatments
in patients.
3. Treatment for Refractory Cases: Effective for patients unresponsive to
standard treatments or those with cancer relapse.

1. Side Effects: Cytokine release syndrome (immune overactivation) can cause

fever, low blood pressure, organ damage, and neurological symptoms like
confusion, seizures, and speech impairment.
Limitations 2. Complexity & Cost: Preparing CAR T-cells requires skilled resources,
technical expertise, and is costly.
3. Cancer Type Specificity: Best suited for blood cancers like leukemia and
lymphoma but may not work for all cancers.

NexCAR19: India’s 1. Approval: Granted market authorization by the Central Drugs Standard
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Indigenous CAR-T Control Organisation (CDSCO).

Therapy 2. Developer: Developed by ImmunoACT, a company incubated at IIT
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Aspect Details

Bombay.
3. Target: Targets cancer cells carrying the CD19 protein, which acts as a flag
for CAR-T cells to identify and attack.
4. Use Case: Designed for patients with B-cell lymphomas unresponsive to
standard treatments like chemotherapy.

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)

Category Details

AMR is a global health threat requiring urgent multisectoral action to achieve

Definition of AMR Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Declared by WHO as one of the top 10
global public health threats.

What Are Medicines including antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, and ant parasitic used to
Antimicrobials? prevent and treat infections in humans, animals, and plants.

Occurs when microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites) change over time
What Is AMR? and no longer respond to medicines. Results in harder-to-treat infections and
increased risk of disease spread, severe illness, and death.

- Over-prescription of antibiotics
- Patients not completing courses
- Overuse in livestock/fish farming
- Poor infection control in healthcare
- Poor hygiene and sanitation
Major Causes of - Lack of new antibiotics
AMR - Self-medication
- Environmental pathways:
- Manufacturing waste
- Food systems
- Health facility discharges
- Socio-economic factors like limited WASH facilities and high population density.

- Higher medical costs

- Prolonged hospital stays
Global - Increased mortality
Implications - Risk of community transmission
- Multidrug-resistant microbes are life-threatening
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- New antibiotics needed

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Category Details

- Economic impact due to prolonged care and loss of productivity.

- Riskier medical procedures (surgery, chemotherapy, organ transplantation).

- Global Action Plan on AMR (2015): Framework for national plans.

- GLASS: Tracks resistance spread across countries.
WHO Initiatives
- One Health Approach: Collaboration across human, animal, and environmental
sectors.

1. Counter-sale Prevention:
- Antibiotics under Schedule H/H1 of Drugs Rules, 1945.
- 24 high-end antimicrobials under Schedule H1.
2. National Action Plan (NAP-AMR) (2017):
- Focus on One Health Approach.
- Delhi Declaration for inter-ministerial AMR containment.
3. Red Line Campaign (2016):
Indian Initiatives - Awareness to avoid self-medication.
- Red line on packaging of restricted antibiotics.
4. National Centre for Disease Control:
- Coordinates AMR activities.
- Provides technical assistance and monitors progress.
5. AMR Surveillance Network:
- Established by ICMR.
- Monitors drug-resistant infection trends.

Biotechnology in Agriculture
Category Details

Agricultural biotechnology involves tools that alter living organisms or their parts to
Definition
improve products, plants, animals, or microorganisms for agricultural uses.

Includes Traditional breeding techniques and modern genetic engineering tools.

Benefits For Producers

- Safe pest control and weed management (e.g., BT Brinjal).

- Enhanced crop yields and productivity.

- Weather-resilient crops, e.g., Flood-tolerant "Scuba Rice".

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- Improved quality traits, e.g., Golden Rice enriched with Vitamin A.

For Consumers

- Longer shelf life foods, e.g., FlavrSavr Tomato.

- Enhanced nutrition through fortification, e.g., Iodized Salt.

- Reduced toxicants in food.

- Healthier options, e.g., low saturated fats in cooking oils.

For Researchers

- Insight into basic biology of organisms.

- Development of potent antibiotics.

- Creation of new vaccines for crop diseases.

For Environment

- Herbicide-tolerant crops, compatible with no-till/reduced-till systems (e.g., HT Mustard)

help reduce soil erosion.

- Phyto-remediation: e.g., Poplar trees for handling heavy metal pollution.

Risks - Potential health effects:

- Risk of new diseases.

- Trigger allergies.

- Environmental impact: Uncertain effects on organisms and ecosystems.

- Antimicrobial resistance, e.g., BT Cotton resisting pink bollworms.

- Patent rights: Monopolization risks (e.g., Terminator Seeds).

- Debt for farmers due to reliance on GM crops.

Way Biotechnology offers revolutionary potential but requires safeguards and awareness
Forward programs to address stakeholders' concerns.
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HTBt Cotton and Associated Issues

Category Details

Herbicide-tolerant (HT) BT cotton cultivation has increased significantly

Illegal Cultivation
this year. Sale of illegal seed packets has doubled.

Domestic seed industry demands strict action to stop illegal sales and
Concerns Raised punish offenders. Environmental and economic consequences
highlighted.

Definition: Insect-resistant transgenic crop designed to combat cotton

bollworm.
Creation: Genetically altered to express a microbial protein from Bacillus
thuringiensis.
BT Cotton
Mechanism: Produces toxin crystals that dissolve the gut lining of
bollworms, leading to their death.
Approval: Only transgenic crop approved for commercial cultivation in
India.

Modification: Resistant to the herbicide glyphosate.

Concerns: Glyphosate may have carcinogenic effects; spread of herbicide
resistance may create superweeds.
HTBt Cotton
Legal Status: Not approved for cultivation by the government.
Activist Movement: Shetkari Sangathan encourages farmers to plant
HTBt seeds in defiance of government regulations.

- No accountability for seed quality.

- Environmental pollution.
Risks of Illegal Seeds - Loss of legitimate seed sales for the industry.
- Revenue loss for the government.
- Threatens the legal cotton seed market and small seed companies.

Cost Savings: Reduces labour requirement for weeding; one round of

glyphosate spraying suffices.
Need for HTBt Cotton
Scientific Support: Scientists and WHO endorse HTBt cotton, stating no
cancer risk.

- Not approved by Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC).

- Risks for farmers due to poor-quality seeds.
Issues from Illegal Sales
- Losses for industry and government revenue.
- Threat to small seed companies and the legal cotton market.
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Category Details

Ministry: Functions under MoEF&CC.

Role: Appraises large-scale use of hazardous microorganisms and
Genetic Engineering recombinants in research and production.
Appraisal Committee Appraises proposals for releasing genetically engineered organisms and
(GEAC) products, including field trials.
Leadership: Chaired by Special/Additional Secretary of MoEF&CC, co-
chaired by a representative from DBT.

Food Fortification:
Aspect Details

Addition of key vitamins and minerals (e.g., iron, iodine, zinc, Vitamin A & D) to
Definition
staple foods (e.g., rice, milk, salt) to improve nutritional content.

Technologies Dusting, coating, extrusion for adding micronutrients to rice.

Promoted Foods Rice, wheat, salt, edible oil, milk.

- High malnutrition levels (NFHS-5: Stunting 35.5%, Wasting 19.3%, Underweight

32.1%)
Need for
- 50% of women anaemic
Fortification
- Micronutrient malnutrition ("hidden hunger")
- India ranks 111/125 on GHI 2023.

- Wider coverage of the population

- Quick results in health improvement
- Cost-effective (e.g., ~10 paisa to fortify 1 litre of oil)
Benefits
- Culturally sustainable (no change in food habits)
- No alteration in food taste, aroma, or texture
- Economic benefits: 1 Rupee spent = 9 Rupees in economic gains.

- Fragmented approach: Malnutrition includes calorie and protein deficiencies, not

just micronutrient deficiency.
- Hypervitaminosis: Excess iron can lead to high ferritin, diabetes, and worsen
infections.
Issues - Loss of protective substances like phytochemicals during fortification.
- No 100% link between anaemia and iron deficiency.
- High cost of subsidies burdening government finances.
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- Negative impact on small industries due to high costs (e.g., Rs. 3.2 crore for a
medium-sized rice mill).
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Trans Fat
Category Details

- TFA Limit: 3% in oils and fats for 2021, 2% by 2022 (from 5%).
- Amended Food Safety and Standards (Prohibition and Restriction on Sales)
FSSAI Regulations.
Regulations - Applies to refined oils, vanaspati, margarine, bakery shortenings, vegetable fat
spreads, mixed fat spreads.
- Suggested extension to all foods to eliminate chemical trans fats.

Past - 2011: TFA limit set at 10% in oils and fats.

Regulations - 2015: Reduced to 5%.

- Naturally Occurring: Found in animal products (e.g., milk, meat).

Types of Trans
- Artificial Trans Fats: Industrially produced by hydrogenating vegetable oils. Easy to
Fat
use, inexpensive, long shelf life, but harmful effects.

- Heart Disease: Raises total cholesterol and reduces good cholesterol.

- Foetal Development: Leads to compromised development in unborn babies.
- Cancer: Linked to increased cancer risk.
- Liver Dysfunction: Disrupts normal liver functions.
Associated - Diabetes: Increases risk of type 2 diabetes.
Risks - Weight Gain: Enhances fat deposition even without excess calories.
- Insulin Resistance: Poses risks for diabetics.
- Infertility: Greater risk in women.
- Mental Health: Higher risk of depression, irritability, aggression.
- Feasible to replace TFAs with healthier oils without affecting taste or cost.

- Heart Attack Rewind: PSA supporting elimination of TFAs in India by 2022 (ahead of
WHO's 2023 target).
- Eat Right Campaign: Edible oil industry pledged to reduce salt, sugar, saturated fat,
Steps by FSSAI and trans fat by 2% by 2022.
- Swasth Bharat Yatra: Pan-India cyclotron promoting food safety and healthy diets.
- Trans Fat Free Logo: Display allowed for establishments using oils/fats with <0.2g
industrial TFA per 100g.

- WHO REPLACE: Action package launched in 2018 to eliminate industrially produced

Global TFA by 2023. Annual deaths: 5.4 lakh globally due to industrial TFAs.
Initiatives - SDG Target: Reduce premature deaths from NCDs by one-third by 2030; eliminating
industrial TFAs can contribute significantly.
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Miscellaneous
National Hydrogen Mission
Category Details

Launch and
Announced during Budget 2021 by the Finance Minister.
Announcement

- Blue Hydrogen: Produced using conventional energy with carbon capture

Types of Hydrogen
and storage.

- Green Hydrogen: Produced using green energy sources, eco-friendly.

- Grey Hydrogen: Produced using natural gas via steam reforming (96% of
hydrogen today).

- Brown Hydrogen: Produced using coal gasification, causing carbon

emissions.

- Hydrogen CNG (HCNG): Mix of hydrogen and CNG; used in transportation,

Hydrogen as Fuel
increases combustion efficiency and is less polluting.

- Hydrogen Fuel Cell: Combines hydrogen and oxygen, producing water as a

by-product.

Major Activities - Creating volumes and infrastructure for hydrogen.

- Demonstrations in niche applications (e.g., transport, industry).

- Facilitating R&D and policy support.

- Developing standards and regulations for hydrogen technologies.

- Generating hydrogen from green power sources.

- Establishing India as a global hub for hydrogen manufacturing and fuel cell
technology.

- Facilitating demand in industries like fertilizer, steel, and petrochemicals.

Uses of Hydrogen - Hydrogen is fuel of stars, highly energetic but requires storage.

- By-product is water.
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Category Details

- Currently used in refining, ammonia, methanol, and steel-making

industries.

Hydrogen’s Disruptive - Fuel Uses: Transportation (fuel cell EVs, HCNG), energy storage,
Potential engines/turbines.

- Chemical Uses: Decarbonization in industries like steel, fertilizers; refining,

electronics, and chemical production (e.g., methanol, ammonia).

- Industrial Uses: High-grade heat for metals refining, building heat

decarbonization, replacing fossil hydrogen.

Drivers of Interest 1. Low renewable energy costs: Solar and wind energy costs are low in India.

2. Technologies ready to scale: Electrolysis and fuel cell costs have

significantly decreased.

3. Power system benefits: Green hydrogen enables flexibility in integrating

renewable energy.

4. Climate goals: Green hydrogen aids in achieving net-zero emissions for

sectors like steel, cement, and aviation.

Challenges - Storage capacity: Limited storage infrastructure in India.

- Infrastructure: Requires heavy investment in piping, caves, and filling

stations.

- Safety issues: Hydrogen is highly flammable, colorless, and odorless.

- Purity requirements: Ultra-high purity hydrogen needed for fuel cells.

- Environmental concerns: Hydrogen production from fossil fuels leads to

higher carbon emissions. Clean energy production is costly.

Fuel Cells
Aspect Details

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy of fuel (e.g.,
Definition hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (e.g., oxygen) into electricity through redox
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- Requires a continuous supply of fuel and oxygen to sustain reactions.

Key
- Produces electricity, water, and heat without harmful byproducts.
Characteristics
- Does not require recharging.

- Anode: Negative post; conducts electrons and disperses hydrogen gas evenly.
- Cathode: Positive post; distributes oxygen and facilitates recombination of
hydrogen ions and oxygen.
Components - Electrolyte: Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM); conducts positively charged ions
but blocks electrons.
- Catalyst: Facilitates reactions, usually made of platinum nanoparticles on carbon
paper or cloth.

- Environmental Performance: Produces only heat and water; no pollutants or

greenhouse gases.
- Energy Efficiency: 2-3 times more efficient than combustion engines; up to 80%
efficiency in co-generation.
Benefits - Fuel Flexibility: Can use hydrogen, natural gas, methanol, ethanol, or biogas.
- Versatility: Scalable; used in devices ranging from cell phones to cars.
- Complementary: Can be combined with other technologies (e.g., batteries, solar
panels).
- Quick Start-Up: Operates at relatively lower temperatures (60-80°C).

- Infrastructure: Limited for hydrogen production, storage, and distribution.

- High Cost: Platinum-based catalysts increase expense.
Challenges - Environmental Concerns: Hydrogen extraction is energy-intensive and polluting.
- Water Management: PEM fuel cells require effective water removal to prevent
flooding.

Lithium-Ion Batteries and Battery Swapping

Topic Details

Rechargeable, lightweight batteries that have revolutionized safe energy

storage. Ideal for Electric Vehicles (EVs) due to high efficiency compared to
Lithium-Ion Batteries
internal combustion engines. Manufacturing Li-ion batteries is crucial for
India's EV revolution.

Advantages of Li-Ion - Lightweight: Lithium is the lightest metal.

Batteries - High Energy Density: Weighs 6 times less than lead-acid batteries for the
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Topic Details

- Low Maintenance: Low self-discharge enables recharging before full

discharge.

- Nascent Industry: India imports from China, South Korea, and Taiwan.
- High Manufacturing Cost: 40% costlier than lead-acid batteries.
Challenges to Li-Ion - Resource Crunch: Requires lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese, scarce
Battery Manufacturing and limited to Bolivia and Chile.
- Difficult Switch: MSMEs dependent on internal combustion engine parts
hinder the transition to EVs.

ISRO has announced technology transfer packages to competent industries

ISRO Initiative
for setting up local Li-ion battery production units.

An alternative EV recharging method where depleted batteries are replaced

Battery Swapping
with fully charged ones. Tested for e-2Ws, e-3Ws, e-cars, and e-buses.

1. Quick recharge in minutes.

2. Batteries can be charged remotely, enabling flexible setup of swap
Advantages of Battery
facilities.
Swapping
3. Reduces upfront EV cost by replacing ownership with leasing.
4. Increases predictability of battery life due to controlled conditions.

1. Lack of standardization among EV batteries.

2. Unsuitable battery pack designs (weight, dimensions, ergonomics).
3. Requires more batteries for the same number of EVs.
Challenges to Mass
4. Shorter commercial life of battery packs due to preference for new
Adoption of Battery
batteries.
Swapping
5. Slow adoption by OEMs.
6. Higher costs of battery leasing over an EV's lifespan.
7. Higher GST (18%) on separate batteries vs. batteries sold with EVs (5%).

Deep Ocean Mission

Category Details

Explore the Deep Ocean for resources and develop technologies for
Mission Objective sustainable utilization of ocean resources under the Ministry of Earth
Sciences.

Major Components
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Category Details

Development of manned submersible to carry 3 people to 6,000 m depth

1. Deep Sea Mining &
with scientific tools. Creation of Integrated Mining System for Polymetallic
Manned Submersible
Nodules from 6,000 m depth in the Central Indian Ocean.

2. Ocean Climate Creation of models for future climate projections on seasonal to decadal
Change Advisory scales. Supports Blue Economy via coastal tourism.

Bioprospecting of deep-sea flora and fauna, including microbes. Focus on

3. Biodiversity
sustainable bio-resource utilization. Supports marine fisheries and allied
Exploration
services.

4. Survey and Identifying potential sites for multi-metal Hydrothermal Sulphides in the
Exploration Indian Ocean mid-oceanic ridges.

5. Energy and Engineering studies for Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) powered
Freshwater desalination plant. Focus on offshore energy development.

Focus on developing ocean biology enterprises and translating research into

6. Marine Station for
industrial applications through business incubators. Supports marine biology
Ocean Biology
and blue trade.

Polymetallic Nodules
(PMN)

Found at 5,000 m–6,000 m depths, rich in nickel, copper, cobalt, and traces
Definition
of Rare Earth Elements.

1. Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) (Central Pacific Ocean).

2. Peru Basin (Southern Eastern Pacific Ocean).
Key Regions
3. Penrhyn Basin (South-Western Pacific Ocean).
4. Central Indian Ocean Basin.

Significance

95% of Deep Ocean remains unexplored; storehouse of food, energy,

1. Unexplored Potential
minerals, medicines, modulates weather and climate.

Rising need for metals and minerals (nickel, cobalt, rare-earth) for green
2. Increasing Demand
technologies.

3. Gas Hydrates Deposits contain twice the carbon of all terrestrial reserves combined.
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Category Details

Development of indigenous technologies due to lack of commercial

4. Strategic Importance
availability.

Challenges

1. Limited Tech Access Technologies are not shared by countries or commercially available.

2. Environmental
Concerns

Mining disturbs the ocean floor, causing loss of species and ecosystem
(a) Habitat Loss
fragmentation.

(b) Sediment Plumes Sediments stirred up can affect filter feeders like krill and whale sharks.

(c) Pollution Noise, vibrations, light, and fuel spills impact marine biodiversity.

Rare Earth Metals and India's Policy

Topic Details

Collection of 17 metal elements, including 15 lanthanides, scandium, and yttrium.

Definition
Their physical and chemical properties resemble lanthanides.

- Available in trace amounts on Earth.

Why Rare?
- Difficult to extract from oxides.

Cerium (Ce), Dysprosium (Dy), Erbium (Er), Europium (Eu), Gadolinium (Gd),
List of Rare Earth Holmium (Ho), Lanthanum (La), Lutetium (Lu), Neodymium (Nd), Praseodymium
Elements (REE) (Pr), Promethium (Pm), Samarium (Sm), Scandium (Sc), Terbium (Tb), Thulium
(Tm), Ytterbium (Yb), Yttrium (Y).

- Unique magnetic, luminescent, and electrochemical properties.

Applications - Used in consumer electronics, computers, communications, medical care,
national defense, and future technologies.

- Temperature superconductivity, safe hydrogen storage, energy efficiency.

Future Uses - Critical for transition after hydrocarbon economy and addressing global
warming.
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Topic Details

- China dominates global production, contributing 60% of the world's output.

Global Scenario - Concerns over supply chain disruptions due to tensions between China and the
West.

India's Rare Earth - India has the 5th largest reserves globally but relies on imports from China.
Reserves - Most resources are in Monazite sands in coastal areas.

- Geological surveys by Bureau of Mines.

Key Organizations - Production overseen by Ministry of Atomic Energy.
- Mining and processing managed by IREL (India) Limited (Public Sector).

- Exploitation of Monazite sands to extract Thorium.

IREL's Focus - Produces rare earth oxides (low-cost process) but sells to foreign firms for high-
end downstream manufacturing.

- Regulatory relaxation for private sector involvement in REE mining and

Policy Changes processing.
- Limited participation from private companies despite policy changes.

National Science Technology & Innovation Policy (STIP)

Section Details

- Aim: Encourage individual initiative for acquiring and disseminating knowledge in

Draft Policy an atmosphere of academic freedom.
Overview - Draft policy has undergone several stakeholder consultations but not yet formally
adopted.

- 1958: Science Policy Resolution - Promote cultivation of science and research.

- 1983: Technology Policy Statement - Integrate R&D with socio-economic sectors
S&T Policies in
and attain technological self-reliance.
India
- 2003: Focused on investment in R&D and national innovation system.
- 2013: Addressed demographic dividend and emphasized STI for people.

Philosophy of - Decentralized, evidence-informed, bottom-up, and inclusive approach.

Draft STIP - Dynamic with periodic reviews, evaluations, and feedback mechanisms.

- Position India among the top three scientific superpowers.

Vision of STIP - Double FTE researchers, GERD, and private-sector GERD contributions every five
years.
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Section Details

- Achieve global recognition in STI excellence.

- Strengthen STI for Atmanirbhar Bharat.

- Open Science Framework for universal access to scientific data.

- Free access to journals under One Nation, One Subscription.
Highlights of STIP - Inclusive participation of women and LGBTQ community with provisions like 30%
representation in committees and addressing career breaks.
- Establish an Office of Equity and Inclusion.

- Expand STI funding at central and state levels.

- Introduce Advanced Missions in Innovative Research Ecosystem (ADMIRE) for
Funding in R&D
collaborative projects.
- Propose a National STI Financing Authority and an STI Development Bank.

- Science's role in solving societal challenges like health and energy.

Lessons from
- Focus on adopting synergies and efficiencies from COVID-19 responses for future
COVID-19
preparedness.

- Similar goals as 2013 STIP but lacks assessment of achievements.

- Fails to meet the target of 2% R&D investment in GDP (remains at 0.5%-0.6%).
Issues with STIP - Proposes new authorities but lacks focus on autonomy for research institutions.
- Silent on achieving proportional representation for marginalized groups.
- Lacks clarity on tackling pseudoscience promoted as traditional science.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)

Section Details

Definition of Creations of the mind, including inventions, literary and artistic works,
Intellectual Property symbols, names, and images used in commerce. Divided into:

- Industrial Property: Includes patents, trademarks, industrial designs,

geographical indications.

- Copyright: Covers literary works (novels, poems, plays), films, music, artistic
works (drawings, paintings, photographs, sculptures), architectural designs.

Related Rights Rights of performing artists, producers of phonograms, and broadcasters.

- Encourages creativity: Legal protection fosters innovation and additional

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Importance of IPR
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Section Details

- Economic growth: Creates jobs, industries, and attracts FDI in developing

countries.

- Balances interests: Protects innovators' rights while ensuring public access.

Challenges in India’s
- Low patent grants: Compared to China/USA.
IPR Regime

- Foreign dominance: 64% of patents filed by non-residents.

- Low R&D expenditure: Only 0.7% of GDP; mainly public/educational sector;

private sector contribution is minimal.

- Patent Office vacancies: Insufficient staff affects operations.

- Abolition of IPAB: Jurisdiction transferred to High Courts under 2021

ordinance, causing uncertainty in adjudication.

- Weak enforcement: Poor awareness, piracy, and lax implementation of

Copyright Act; India on USTR Priority Watch List.

- IP financing: Neglected ecosystem for funding IP-related activities.

Types of IPR

Patents (Patents Act, Protects inventions; exclusive rights to prevent others from using/selling for
1970) 20 years from filing date.

Copyright (Copyright Protects literary/artistic expression; exclusive rights for reproduction and
Act, 1957) adaptation.

Trademarks
(Trademarks Act, Distinctive signs identifying products/services; linked to branding.
1999)

Designs (Designs Act,

Protects aesthetic appearance, not functionality or internal elements.
2000)

Database Right Prevents copying substantial parts of a database; protects information itself.

Protects confidential business information giving a competitive edge; not

Trade Secrets
disclosed publicly.
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National IPR Policy and Traditional Knowledge Protection

Heading Details

Aims to stimulate innovation and creativity across sectors and address

National IPR Policy (2016)
IPR issues with clarity.

1. IPR Awareness, Outreach & Promotion: Public awareness about

economic, social, and cultural benefits of IPRs.
2. Stimulate IPR generation.
3. Legal Framework: Strong laws balancing rights’ owners and public
interest.
Objectives 4. Administration: Modernize and strengthen IPR administration.
5. Commercialisation: Derive value from IPRs.
6. Enforcement: Strengthen adjudication and enforcement against
infringements.
7. Human Resources: Enhance teaching, training, research, and skill-
building capacities.

1. Vulnerability: Traditional knowledge (TK) is valuable for livelihood

and healthcare but vulnerable to exploitation.
2. Medicine Development: TK has inspired biologically active
molecules for disease treatment.
Biopiracy: Need to Protect
3. Language Barrier: Indian TK exists in ancient dialects inaccessible to
Traditional Knowledge
international patent examiners.
4. Examples of Biopiracy: Turmeric and Basmati rice patents highlight
risks.
5. Revocation Issues: Revoking patents is costly and time-intensive.

1. Objective: Protect Indian TK from misappropriation at international

patent offices.
2. Collaboration: Joint initiative by CSIR and AYUSH Ministry.
3. Language & Format: Converts ancient texts into 5 languages: English,
Japanese, French, German, and Spanish.
4. Classification: Uses Traditional Knowledge Resource Classification
Traditional Knowledge Digital
(TKRC) for structuring Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and Yoga.
Library (TKDL)
5. International Access: TKDL database with 3.6 lakh formulations
accessible to 13 international patent offices.
6. Deterrence: TKDL has prevented over 230 wrongful patents using
prior art evidence.
7. Recognition: A global benchmark for TK protection, adopted by
WIPO.
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Nuclear Technology
Basics of Nuclear Energy
Topic Key Points

Nuclear
- Nucleus of an atom splits into two daughter nuclei.
Fission

- Decay can be natural (spontaneous) or simulated in a lab by bombarding with neutrons,

alpha particles, etc.

- Mass of fragments is less than the original; the missing mass converts into nuclear
energy.

- All commercial nuclear reactors operate on nuclear fission.

Nuclear
- Combining of two lighter nuclei into a heavier nucleus.
Fusion

- Source of energy in the Sun and stars.

- Requires extreme conditions: millions of degrees temperature and Pascals of pressure.

- Advantages of nuclear fusion:

- Raw materials (deuterium and tritium) are abundant in oceans.

- Produces huge energy—several times greater than fission.

- Produces no harmful radioactive waste; environment-friendly.

- Hydrogen bomb works on thermonuclear fusion but requires a fission bomb at its core
(using uranium or plutonium) to provide the initial energy.

Applications of Nuclear Technology

Application Description

- Applied in oncology, cardiology, neurology, pneumology, and pediatrics.

- Techniques include radiopharmaceuticals, radioisotopes, and radiotherapy (X-
Nuclear Medicine rays, radiation from radioactive elements, accelerators).
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- Used for sterilizing medical equipment, studying biological processes using

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Application Description

- BARC is developing a research reactor for radioisotope production for nuclear

medicines.

- Isotope hydrology uses stable and radioactive isotopes to study water movement
Applications in in the hydrologic cycle.
Hydrology - Helps research subterranean freshwater resources, determine their origin,
recharge, and risk of contamination by saltwater.

- Used in sustainable waste management.

Sewage
- BARC has set up a Sewage Sludge Hygienisation Plant in Ahmedabad, Gujarat,
Treatment
using Cobalt-60, which has been operational continuously.

- Radioisotope and radiation techniques improve food quality by inducing

mutations in plants/seeds for desired crop varieties.
Food and - Used for pest control, increasing food production, and reducing fertilizer usage.
Agriculture - Food irradiation reduces post-harvest losses, extends shelf life, and reduces use
of additives and fumigants (e.g., shelf life extension of onions in Nashik,
Maharashtra).

- Used in process improvement, measurement, automation, and quality control.

Applications in
- Enables analysis to extend operative life of components and obtain X-rays of
Industry
internal structures to ensure quality.

- X-ray radiography examines artwork to understand technique, composition

Art
changes, authenticity, and age of art pieces.

- Nuclear batteries power space missions for centuries, enabling long-term space
Space Exploration
exploration.

- Nuclear-powered submarines remain operational for extended periods without

Strategic Uses
surfacing for energy supplies.

Nuclear Energy in India

Aspect Details

- 3rd largest energy consumer globally (after USA & China).

India's Energy Profile - Major energy source: Thermal power (73%, ~210 GW coal capacity).
- Coal: Non-renewable, causes greenhouse gas emissions.
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Aspect Details

- Hydropower: Limited growth due to biodiversity concerns, rehabilitation

Challenges in Energy costs, and Himalayan seismology.
Mix - Solar & Wind: Variable energy generation, high cost of solar photovoltaic
cells and storage batteries.

- NDC of UNFCCC: Scale up clean energy capacity.

Clean Energy - Target: Cut carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030, achieve net-zero
Commitments by 2070.
- Nuclear energy: Only 1.6% of current energy mix, offers potential for growth.

- 22 reactors, combined capacity: 7.3 GW.

- 18 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and 4 Light Water Reactors
Nuclear Power Status (LWRs).
- Civil nuclear strategy developed without foreign assistance for 30+ years due
to 1974 Peaceful Nuclear Explosion.

- Excluded from NPT, leading to trade isolation.

International
- Post NSG India-specific agreement, civil nuclear cooperation agreements
Cooperation
signed with US, Russia, France, Australia, and Kazakhstan.

- Formulated by Homi Bhabha in the 1950s.

Three-Stage Nuclear - Aim: Utilize uranium and thorium reserves in monazite sands of South India
Program for long-term energy independence.
- Supported by Indo-US Nuclear Deal and 2005 NSG waiver.

- Uses natural Uranium (U-238 & U-235).

- U-235 initiates chain reaction; U-238 converts to Plutonium-239 (Pu-239) as
Stage 1: PHWRs
by-product.
- Pu-239 serves as fuel for Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR) in Stage 2.

- Uses MOX fuel (Plutonium-239 + Uranium-238).

- U-238 undergoes transmutation, producing more Pu-239 (Breeder reactor).
Stage 2: FBRs
- Converts Thorium-232 to Uranium-233, aiding Stage 3.
- Reduces nuclear waste, ensures safety.

- Builds Advanced Heavy Water Reactors.

Stage 3: Thorium
- Converts Thorium-232 to Uranium-233 via transmutation.
Reactors
- KAMINI reactor (40 kW) operational in Kalpakkam to showcase Thorium use.

- Reprocesses radioactive waste (Plutonium-239) as fuel.

Significance of FBRs - Inherent passive safety ensures prompt, safe shutdown during emergencies.
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- Economic viability: Comparable capital and per-unit electricity cost to other

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Aspect Details

power plants.
- Stepping stone for the third stage.

Nuclear Fusion
Category Details

59 megajoules of energy generated using nuclear fusion at JET facility near

Nuclear Fusion
Oxford.

- Tokamak: A doughnut-shaped apparatus that confines plasma using

magnetic fields.
- Uses Deuterium and Tritium (hydrogen isotopes) heated to temperatures
Tokamak
10 times hotter than the Sun's core.
- Plasma held using superconducting electromagnets, releasing energy as
heat.

- Combines small nuclei into one large nucleus.

Nuclear Fusion - Releases enormous energy, opposite of nuclear fission.
Reaction - Occurs in plasma state (5th state of matter).
- Plasma: Hot, charged fluid of positive ions and free electrons.

- Energy efficiency: Releases 10 million times more energy than chemical

reactions.
Significance of Nuclear - Environmentally friendly: No greenhouse gas emissions, produces helium
Fusion as a byproduct.
- Sustainable fuel: Deuterium from water; Tritium from lithium interaction.
- No radioactive waste.

- Safety: No fissile material; limited proliferation risk; no meltdown risk.

- Space exploration: Supports mineral mining and He-3 prospecting.
- Innovation: Advances in materials, semiconductors, nanotechnology.
- Social benefits: Promotes rural electrification, regional balance.

- Strengthens ties: India participates in International Thermonuclear

Experimental Reactor (ITER).
International Relations
- Members include China, EU, India, Japan, South Korea, Russia, and the USA.
- India contributes components and R&D for the ITER reactor.

- Historical conviction: Homi J. Bhabha emphasized fusion at the 1955

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Government Initiatives Geneva 'Atoms for Peace' meeting.

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- Institutes like IPR Gandhinagar and SINP Kolkata lead research.

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Category Details

- ADITYA Tokamak (1989): India's first indigenously designed tokamak.

- SST-1: Focuses on steady-state plasma processes.

- Initiated in 1988, India joined in 2005.

- Institute for Plasma Research represents India.
ITER Project - Goals: Demonstrate feasibility of large-scale, carbon-free fusion power.
- India contributes components like cryostats, RF heating systems, and power
supply systems.

Nuclear Triad
Section Details

- India's 1999 Draft Nuclear Doctrine envisioned a triad of aircraft, land-based

missiles, and sea-based assets for its nuclear forces.
Introduction
- The 2003 Nuclear Doctrine emphasized credible minimum deterrence and a
posture of No First Use.

- Components:
1. Strategic Bombers
2. Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs)
3. Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs).
- Purpose: To reduce the risk of total destruction of nuclear forces in a first strike and
About Nuclear
enable swift retaliation.
Triad
- Platforms:
- Land-based: Vertical Launch Systems (VLS), Transporter Erector Launcher (TEL), Rail-
mobile launchers.
- Air-based: Strategic bombers.
- Sea-based: Submarines.

- India previously had nuclear delivery capabilities via aircraft (e.g., Mirage 2000,
Jaguar) and land-based missiles (Agni series with ranges from 700 km to 5500 km).
- Goal: Develop a credible nuclear deterrent capable of launching from land, air, and
sea against China and Pakistan.
Significance - SSBN (Ship Submersible Ballistic Nuclear - ARIHANT):
- Advantage: Undetected for long periods, capable of firing long-range ballistic
missiles from the ocean.
- Strengthens second-strike capability and ensures massive retaliation in case of a
nuclear attack.
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Section Details

- Command Structure: Authority lies with the Prime Minister and the Cabinet
Committee on Security.
- Challenges:
Governance - Ministry of Defence’s traditional structure is considered outdated.
Issues - Previously, the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (COSC) had a short
tenure, limiting expertise in Strategic Nuclear Command.
- Post-2020, the establishment of the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS), overseeing
Nuclear Strategic Forces Command, has addressed some of these concerns.

India’s No First Use Policy

Heading Details

1. Credible Minimum Deterrence: Maintain sufficient nuclear forces to deter

India’s Nuclear Doctrine
adversaries.

2. No First Use (NFU): Use nuclear weapons only in retaliation against a

nuclear attack on Indian territory or forces.

3. Massive Retaliation: A first strike will be met with massive retaliation

causing unacceptable damage.

4. Civilian Control: Only the civilian political leadership via Nuclear Command
Authority (NCA) can authorize nuclear retaliation.

NCA Structure 1. Political Council: Chaired by the Prime Minister, has ultimate authority.

2. Executive Council: Headed by the National Security Advisor, provides

inputs and executes directives but lacks decision-making authority.

Non-Use Against Non- India will not use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear states but retains the
Nuclear States right to respond with nuclear weapons to biological or chemical attacks.

Strict controls on nuclear/missile-related materials, participation in Fissile

Export Controls
Material Cut-off Treaty negotiations, and adherence to moratorium on tests.

Disarmament Continued commitment to a nuclear-weapon-free world through verifiable

Commitment and non-discriminatory disarmament.

Advantages of NFU 1. Cost-Effective: Reduces infrastructure expenses for a first-use doctrine.

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Heading Details

2. Escalation Onus: Places responsibility of nuclear war escalation on the

adversary.

3. Moral High Ground: Prevents India from initiating nuclear war, avoiding
moral responsibility.

4. Safety Measures: Allows disassembled weapons storage, avoiding complex

control systems like Permissive Action Links.

1. Crisis Management Weakness: India’s crisis management (e.g., 26/11

Critique of NFU
attacks) is inadequate for handling nuclear emergencies.

2. Pakistan’s Leverage: Frees Pakistan to deploy tactical nuclear weapons

without fear of Indian first use.

3. Lack of Trust: NFU pledges (by India, China) are often not trusted by
adversaries like Pakistan.

4. Deployment Parity: NFU countries (India, China) and non-NFU countries

(Pakistan) have similar weapon deployment patterns.

5. Perceived Weakness: Critics view NFU as a limitation on India’s decision-

making capabilities during crises.

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