TRANSISTORS (BJT)

The invention of the transistor was the beginning

of a technological revolution that is still
continuing. All of the complex electronic devices
and systems today are an outgrowth of early
developments in semiconductor transistors.

Two basic types of transistors are:

1. bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
2. field-effect transistor (FET)

The BJT is used in two broad areas:

• as a linear amplifier to boost or amplify an BJT Operation
electrical signal and
• as an electronic switch Biasing

Bipolar Junction transistor (BJT) structure

• The BJT is constructed with three doped

semiconductor regions separated by two pn
junctions, as shown.

• Free electrons easily diffuse through the

forward-based BE junction into the lightly doped
and very thin p-type base region, as indicated by
the wide arrow.

• The base has a low density of holes, which are

the majority carriers, as represented by the white
circles.

• The three regions are called emitter, base, and

collector.

• The pn junction joining the base region and the

emitter region is called the base-emitter
junction.

• The pn junction joining the base region and the

collector region is called the base-collector
junction.

• The base region is lightly doped and very thin

compared to the heavily doped emitter and the
moderately doped collector regions
• A small percentage of the total number of free DC Beta (βDC) and DC Alpha (αDC)
electrons injected into the base region recombine
with holes and move as valence electrons • The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of
through the base region and into the emitter the dc collector current (IC) to the dc base
region as hole current, indicated by the red current (IB) and is designated dc beta (βDC)
arrows.

• When the electrons that have recombined with

holes as valence electrons leave the crystalline
structure of the base, they become free electrons • Typical values of βDC range from less than 20
in the metallic base lead and produce the to 200 or higher.
external base current.
• βDC is usually designated as an equivalent
• Most of the free electrons that have entered the hybrid (hFE) parameter, hFE, on transistor
base do not recombine with holes because the datasheets.
base is very thin.
• The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the
• As the free electrons move toward the reverse- dc emitter current (IE) is the dc alpha (α𝐷𝐶). The
biased BC junction, they are swept across into alpha is a less-used parameter than beta in
the collector region by the attraction of the transistor circuits.
positive collector supply voltage.

• The free electrons move through the collector

region, into the external circuit, and then return
into the emitter region along with the base • Typical values of α𝐷𝐶 range 0.95 to 0.99 or
current, as indicated. greater, but α𝐷𝐶 is always less than 1.

• The emitter current is slightly greater than the Example 1

collector current because of the small base
current that splits off from the total current Determine the dc current gain βDC and the
injected into the base region from the emitter. emitter current IE for a transistor where IB = 50
μA and IC = 3.65 mA.
Transistor Currents

• VBB forward-biases the base-emitter junction

• VCC reverse-biases the basecollector junction.
Transistor DC Model of an npn transistor • The base-bias voltage source, VBB, forward-
biases the base-emitter junction, and the
• Unsaturated BJT as a device with a current collector-bias voltage source, VCC, reverse-
input and a dependent current source in the biases the base-collector junction.
output circuit, is shown in the figure.
• When the base-emitter junction is forward-
• The input circuit is a forward-biased diode biased, it is like a forward-biased diode and has a
through which there is base current. nominal forward voltage drop of VBE ≅ 0.7

• The output circuit is a dependent current source • Since the emitter is at ground (0 V), by
(diamond-shaped element) with a value that is Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the voltage across RB is
dependent on the base current, IB , and equal to
βDC(IB).

Also, by Ohm’s law,

Substituting for VRB yields

Solving for IB,

BJT Circuit Analysis

• IB: dc base current

• IE: dc emitter current The voltage at the collector with respect to the
• IC: dc collector current grounded emitter is
• VBE: dc voltage at base with respect to emitter
• VCB: dc voltage at collector with respect to
base
• VCE: dc voltage at collector with respect to Since the drop across RC is
emitter

the voltage at the collector with respect to the

emitter can be written as

where IC = βDC.IB

The voltage across the reverse-biased collector-

base junction is
Example 2 Try to Solve

Determine IB , IC, IE , VBE, VCE, and VCB in the Determine IB , IC, IE , VBE, VCE, and VCB in the
circuit shown. The transistor has a β𝐷𝐶 = 150. circuit shown. The transistor has a β𝐷𝐶 = 90.
Try to solve

A base current of 50 μA is applied to the

transistor in figure shown, and a voltage of 5 V is
dropped across RC.

a) Determine the β𝐷𝐶 of the transistor.

b) Calculate α𝐷𝐶 of the transistor
c) Assume that the transistor in the circuit shown
is replaced with one having a β𝐷𝐶 of 200.
Determine IB , IC, IE , and VCE given that VCC =
10 V and VBB = 3 V
BJT (PART 2)

Collector Characteristic Curves

• A set of collector characteristic curves can be

generated that show how the collector current,
IC, varies with the collector-to-emitter voltage,
VCE, for specified values of base current, IB.

• When VCE reaches a sufficiently high voltage,

the reverse-biased base-collector junction goes
into breakdown
• Assume that VBB is set to produce a certain
value of IB and VCC is zero.

• For this condition, both the BE junction and the

BC junction are forward-biased.

• Base current is primarily towards the ground

due to less impedance therefore IC is
approximately zero.

• When both junctions are forwardbiased, the

transistor is in the saturation region of its
operation.

• Saturation is the state of a BJT in which the

collector current has reached a maximum and is
independent of the base current.
• Cutoff is the nonconducting state of a
transistor.

CUT-OFF

• As previously mentioned, when I B = 0, the

transistor is in the cutoff region of its operation.

• Collector leakage current (ICEO) is extremely

small and is usually neglected.

• VCE ≅ VCC • Base -emitter and base -collector

junctions are reverse -biased.
• As VCC is increased, VCE increases as the
collector current increases.
• The subscript CEO represents collectorto-
emitter with the base open.
Example 3.
• As I B increases due to increasing VBB, IC also
increases and VCE decreases due to the
Determine whether or not the transistor in figure
increased voltage drop across RC.
shown is in saturation. Assume VCE(sat) = 0.2 V
• When the transistor reaches saturation, I C can
increase no further regardless of further increase
in IB .

• Base -emitter and base -collector junctions are

forward -biased.

DC Load Line

• A load line is a straight line that represents the

voltage and current in the linear portion of the
circuit that is connected to a device.

• The bottom of the load line is at ideal cutoff

where IC = 0 and VCE = VCC.

• The top of the load line is at saturation where IC

= IC(sat) and VCE = VCE(sat).
Try to Solve The BJT as an Amplifier

Determine whether or not the transistor in figure DC and AC Quantities

shown is in saturation. Assume VCE(sat) = 0.2 V
• Italic capital letters are used for both dc and ac
currents (I) and voltages (V).

• This rule applies to rms, average, peak, and

peak-to-peak ac values.

• AC current and voltage values are always rms

unless stated otherwise.

DC and AC Quantities

• DC quantities always carry an uppercase roman

(nonitalic) subscript.

For example, IB , IC, and IE are the dc

transistor currents. VBE, VCB, and VCE are the
dc voltages from one transistor terminal to
another.

• AC and all time-varying quantities always carry

a lowercase italic subscript.

For example, Ib , Ic , and Ie are the ac

transistor currents. Vbe, Vcb, and Vce are the ac
voltages from one transistor terminal to another.

DC and AC Quantities

• The rule is different for internal transistor

resistances.

• Transistors have internal ac resistances that are

designated by lowercase r’ with an appropriate
subscript.

For example, the internal ac emitter

resistance is designated as r’e .

• Circuit resistances external to the transistor

itself use the standard italic capital R with a
subscript that identifies the resistance as dc or ac
(when applicable), just as for current and voltage.

For example RE is an external dc emitter

resistance and Re is an external ac emitter
resistance.
Voltage Amplification

This internal ac emitter resistance is designated

r’e in Figure shown and appears in series with
RB.

The ac base voltage is

Vb = Ier’e

The ac collector voltage, Vc , equals the ac Example

voltage drop across RC.
Determine the voltage gain and the ac output
Vc = Ic RC voltage if r ’ e = 50 Ω.

Since Ic ≅ Ie , the ac collector voltage is

Vc ≅ IeRC

The BJT as a Switch

• In the figure, the transistor is in the cutoff region

Voltage Amplification because the base - emitter junction is not forward
- biased.
• Since voltage gain is defined as the ratio of the
output voltage to the input voltage, the ratio of Vc • In this condition, there is, ideally, an open
to Vb is the ac voltage gain, Av. of the transistor. between collector and emitter, as indicated by the
switch equivalent.

Substituting IeR C for Vc and Ie r ’ e for Vb yields

Therefore,
The BJT as a Switch Conditions in Saturation

• In the figure, the transistor is in the saturation • Since VCE(sat) is very small compared to VCC,
region because the BE junction and the BC it can usually be neglected.
junction are forward -biased and the base current
is made large enough to cause the collector • The minimum value of base current needed to
current to reach its saturation value. produce saturation is

• In this condition, there is, ideally, a short

between collector and emitter, as indicated by the
switch equivalent.

• Normally, IB should be significantly greater than

IB(min) to ensure that the transistor is saturated.

Conditions in Cutoff

• As mentioned before, a transistor is in the cutoff

region when the BE junction is not forward-
biased.

• Neglecting leakage current, all of the currents

are zero, and VCE is equal to VCC.

VCE(cutoff) = VCC

Conditions in Saturation

• As you have learned, when the BE junction is

forward-biased and there is enough base current
to produce a maximum collector current, the
transistor is saturated.

• The formula for collector saturation current is

Example:

(a) For the transistor circuit in figure shown, what

is VCE when VIN = 0 V?

(b) What minimum value of IB is required to

saturate this transistor if β𝐷𝐶 is 200? Neglect
VCE(sat).

c) Calculate the maximum value of RB that will

put the transistor in saturation assuming β𝐷𝐶 =
200 when VIN = 5 V.