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CAT theory notes

Compute Applications Technology (Sir John Adamson High School)

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CAT theory notes

Question 3
Computer Hardware: Refers to the physical components of a computer
system, including devices like the central processing unit (CPU), memory
(RAM), storage devices (hard drives, SSDs), input devices (keyboard,
mouse), and output devices (monitors, printers). These are the tangible
parts that work together to run programs and execute tasks.

Computer Software: Refers to the programs and operating systems that

run on a computer, enabling it to perform tasks. Software can be system
software (like operating systems and device drivers) or application
software (like word processors, web browsers, and games). It provides
instructions for the hardware to follow to perform specific functions.

Types of Computer Systems:

Personal Computers (PCs): These are general-purpose computers

designed for individual use, typically consisting of a desktop or laptop.
They are used for tasks like browsing the web, word processing, and
gaming.

Mainframe Computers: Large, powerful computers used by

organizations for bulk data processing and handling large volumes of
transactions. Mainframes are highly reliable and support many users
simultaneously.

Supercomputers: Extremely powerful computers used for complex

scientific and engineering calculations, such as weather forecasting,
molecular modeling, and simulations. They are among the fastest
computers in the world.

Minicomputers (Mid-range Computers): These are smaller than

mainframes but still powerful. They are used in mid-sized businesses for
tasks like managing databases or running enterprise applications.

Embedded Systems: Specialized computers designed to perform

dedicated functions within larger systems. Examples include microwave
ovens, cars, medical devices, and smartphones.

Workstations: High-performance computers used for tasks requiring

more power than personal computers, like 3D design, video editing, or
scientific simulations. They often feature advanced processors and
specialized graphics cards.

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Servers: Computers that provide services or resources to other

computers over a network. Servers manage data, applications, and
network trafÏc for multiple users or devices. Examples include web
servers, database servers, and file servers.

Basic Troubleshooting Steps:

Identify the Problem: Understand the issue by asking questions like:

What’s happening? When did it start? Does it happen every time or
sporadically?

Check Connections: Ensure all cables, hardware, and peripherals (like

monitors, keyboards, and mice) are properly connected. Loose or
disconnected cables are a common issue.

Restart the System: Sometimes simply restarting the device (computer,

router, etc.) can resolve the issue by resetting the system and clearing
temporary glitches.

Check for Error Messages: Look for any error messages or warning
indicators. They can provide valuable clues about the cause of the
problem.

Update Software and Drivers: Ensure that the operating system,

software, and drivers are up to date. Outdated software can cause
compatibility or performance issues.

Test Hardware: If a hardware component (like RAM, hard drive, or

printer) is malfunctioning, try testing with another known working device
to isolate the issue.

Run Diagnostics: Many systems have built-in diagnostic tools (like

Windows Memory Diagnostic or Apple Diagnostics) that can check for
hardware problems.

Check for Viruses or Malware: Run a security scan with up-to-date

antivirus software to rule out malware or viruses causing the problem.

Clear Cache or Temporary Files: Sometimes performance issues are

caused by corrupted or overloaded caches. Clearing browser history,
application cache, or temporary files can help.

Consult Documentation or Support: If the issue persists, consult the

user manual, online forums, or contact technical support for further
assistance.

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System Performance Factors:

Processor (CPU): The speed and efÏciency of the CPU directly impact
how fast a system can execute instructions. A faster processor with more
cores can handle tasks simultaneously, improving overall performance.

Memory (RAM): SufÏcient RAM allows a computer to run multiple

programs at once without slowing down. Low RAM can lead to slowdowns,
especially when handling large applications or files.

Storage (HDD/SSD): Storage speed influences system performance.

SSDs (Solid-State Drives) are much faster than traditional HDDs (Hard
Disk Drives), leading to quicker boot times and faster file access.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): The GPU handles graphics-related

tasks, such as rendering images and videos. A powerful GPU is critical for
gaming, video editing, and graphic design. For general computing,
integrated GPUs can sufÏce.

Network Speed: A fast internet connection is vital for cloud computing,

streaming, and accessing online resources. Slow network speeds can
cause lag, buffering, and delays in accessing web-based applications.

Operating System (OS): The efÏciency of the operating system affects

overall performance. Well-optimized OSes manage resources efÏciently,
while bloated or outdated systems can slow down performance.

Software Optimization: Programs that are well-optimized (use minimal

resources and are bug-free) will run more smoothly, while poorly designed
software can lead to high CPU usage, memory consumption, and system
lag.

Background Processes: Programs running in the background can

consume system resources. Too many active processes can slow down
performance. Regularly managing startup and background applications
can help improve speed.

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Temperature and Cooling: Excessive heat can cause a system to

throttle performance to prevent damage. Adequate cooling (fans,
heatsinks, etc.) is necessary to maintain optimal performance, especially
during intensive tasks.

External Peripherals: Devices like printers, USB drives, and external

monitors can affect system performance, especially if they are
malfunctioning or drawing too much power from the system.

File management: File management is a critical function of the

operating system that organizes, tracks, and protects data on the
computer. It enables users and programs to create, modify, retrieve, and
delete files efÏciently while ensuring that data remains secure, organized,
and accessible.

Backup Strategies:

1. Full Backup: Backs up all selected data, creating a complete copy

each time.

2. Incremental Backup: Backs up only the data changed since the

last backup (full or incremental).

3. Differential Backup: Backs up data changed since the last full

backup, regardless of previous differential backups.

4. Mirror Backup: Creates an exact copy of the source data, mirroring

changes and deletions.

5. Cloud Backup: Stores data on remote servers, typically via third-

party providers, for offsite protection.

6. Local Backup: Stores backups on local devices like external hard

drives, USB drives, or network-attached storage (NAS).

7. Hybrid Backup: Combines both local and cloud backups, ensuring

redundancy and protection.

8. Snapshot Backup: Captures the system or storage state at a

specific point in time, often used for virtual environments or
databases.

9. Continuous Data Protection (CDP): Automatically backs up data

in real-time or near real-time as changes occur.

Information processing cycle

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Input Processing Output

Communiacti
Storage
on

Types of memory

1. Primary Memory (Volatile Memory)

 Definition: Memory directly accessible by the CPU, used for

temporarily storing data and instructions actively being used.

 Types:

o RAM: Stores data for running programs; it’s fast but volatile
(loses data when power is off).

 DRAM: Slower but cheaper, needs refreshing.

 SRAM: Faster, more reliable, but more expensive.

o Cache Memory: Very fast, small memory close to the CPU,

stores frequently accessed data to speed up processing (L1,
L2, L3 levels).

o Registers: Small, ultra-fast memory inside the CPU for

immediate data handling during operations.

 Characteristic: Volatile – loses its content when the system is

turned off.

2. Secondary Memory (Non-Volatile Memory)

 Definition: Long-term storage used to store data and programs

permanently, even when the power is off.

 Types:

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o HDD (Hard Disk Drive): Magnetic storage, slower but offers

large capacity.

o SSD (Solid-State Drive): Faster than HDD, uses flash

memory, more durable.

o Optical Discs (CDs, DVDs): Used for media storage, slower

and less common.

o USB Flash Drives: Portable storage, fast and durable.

o Cloud Storage: Remote, internet-based storage that allows

easy access and sharing.

 Characteristic: Non-volatile – retains data when power is off.

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Open Source Software (OSS)

 Definition: Software with accessible source code that anyone can

view, modify, and distribute.

 Key Features:

o Free (usually), community-driven development.

o Customizable and transparent.

o Distributed under licenses like GPL or MIT.

 Examples: Linux, Mozilla Firefox, Apache, VLC.

 Advantages: Free, flexible, no vendor lock-in, community support.

 Disadvantages: Limited ofÏcial support, may be less user-friendly,

compatibility issues.

Proprietary Software

 Definition: Software owned by a company, with closed source code

and usage restricted by the vendor.

 Key Features:

o Paid, licensed, and controlled by the software vendor.

o Users cannot modify or redistribute the software.

 Examples: Microsoft Windows, Adobe Photoshop, Microsoft OfÏce.

 Advantages: Dedicated support, polished user experience,

seamless integration.

 Disadvantages: Expensive, lack of customization, vendor lock-in.

Key Differences:

 Source Code: OSS is open and modifiable; proprietary is closed and

controlled.

 Cost: OSS is generally free; proprietary is paid.

 Support: OSS relies on community support; proprietary offers

vendor support.

 Customization: OSS is highly customizable; proprietary is not.

Internet concepts

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Anti-malware software functions

 Scanning and Detection: It examines files, programs, and system

activities to identify malware signatures (known malicious code patterns)
or suspicious behaviors.

 Real-Time Protection: It monitors system activities and files in real-

time to prevent malware from infecting the system.

 Threat Removal: It isolates or deletes detected malware, often

quarantining suspicious files to prevent harm while they are analyzed.

 Updates and Patching: Regularly updates its database with the

latest malware signatures and patches vulnerabilities to stay effective
against new threats.

 Heuristic Analysis: Uses behavior analysis to identify new or

unknown malware based on how a program behaves, even if it lacks a
known signature.

 System Optimization and Cleanup: Removes temporary or

redundant files and repairs settings altered by malware to restore system
functionality.

Software compatibility

 Platform Compatibility: Ensures the software works on specific

operating systems (Windows, macOS, Linux) and device types (PC,
mobile).

 Hardware Compatibility: Checks if the software can run efÏciently

with a device's CPU, GPU, RAM, and other hardware components.

 Backward Compatibility: Allows newer software to work with older

versions of an OS or with legacy software components.

 Cross-Software Compatibility: Ensures the software can interact

seamlessly with other programs, such as plug-ins, databases, and file
formats.

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volatile

vs non-volatile vs non-volatile memory

Feature Volatile Memory Non-Volatile

Memory
Definition Memory that requires Memory that retains
power to retain data data without power
Examples RAM (Random Access ROM (Read-Only
Memory), Cache Memory), SSD, HDD,
Flash Storage
Data Retention Loses data when power Keeps data even
is turned off when power is off
Speed Faster, allowing quick Generally slower
data access than volatile
memory
Use Cases Temporary data storage Long-term data
for active processes storage and system
files
Cost Typically more Usually more cost-
expensive per GB effective per GB
Power Dependency Requires constant Independent of
power to maintain data power for data
retention
SSD vs HDD

SSD (Solid State HDD (Hard Disk

Feature
Drive) Drive)
Flash memory, no Magnetic platters with
Technology
moving parts a mechanical arm
Much faster; quick
Slower due to
Speed boot times, file
mechanical parts
transfers
Prone to mechanical
More durable, resistant
Durability failure, sensitive to
to physical shock
shock
Typically 256GB - Commonly 500GB -
Capacity
several TBs 10TB
Cost Higher cost per GB Lower cost per GB
Lower power usage,
Power Consumption good for Higher power usage
laptops/mobile devices
Best Use Cases Boot drives, gaming, Large storage, backup,

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professional
and archival storage
applications

Internet concepts

 IP Addressing and Domain Names: Each device on the internet is

assigned a unique IP address for identification. Domain names (like
example.com) are used as human-friendly addresses mapped to IP
addresses by DNS (Domain Name System).

 HTTP/HTTPS: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and its secure

version HTTPS are protocols for data communication between web
browsers and servers, facilitating the loading of web pages.

 TCP/IP Protocol Suite: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and

Internet Protocol (IP) govern how data packets are sent, routed, and
reassembled, ensuring reliable data transfer.

 Routing and Switching: Routers and switches direct data across

interconnected networks, ensuring information reaches its correct
destination efÏciently.

 Web Browsers and Servers: Web browsers display information from

the internet, while servers store and deliver content upon request.

 Email Protocols: Protocols like SMTP, IMAP, and POP3 facilitate

sending, receiving, and storing email messages.

 Cloud Computing: Provides on-demand access to shared resources

and services over the internet, including storage, applications, and
processing power.

 Cybersecurity: Practices and protocols like firewalls, encryption, and

authentication protect data and devices from threats on the internet.

Web browser

 Rendering Engine: Converts HTML, CSS, and JavaScript code into

visual web pages for display.

 User Interface (UI): Provides navigation tools like address bars,

back/forward buttons, bookmarks, and tabs for an easy browsing
experience.

 Security Features: Protect users with tools like HTTPS, sandboxing,

pop-up blockers, and built-in malware/phishing protection.

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 Extensions and Plugins: Allow users to add functionality, like ad

blockers, password managers, or customization tools.

 Cookies and Cache: Store small pieces of website data and images
locally to improve page load speed and remember user preferences.

 Cross-Device Syncing: Some browsers offer synchronization of

bookmarks, history, and settings across devices using a user account.

Email management

 Inbox Organization: Sort emails into folders or labels based on

categories (work, personal, urgent, etc.), helping locate messages faster
and keep the inbox clutter-free.

 Filtering and Sorting: Use filters to automatically sort incoming

emails into specific folders or labels based on criteria like sender,
keywords, or importance.

 Email Prioritization: Flag or highlight important emails for quick

access and set low-priority emails aside to focus on what’s urgent.

 Unsubscribe and Block: Regularly unsubscribe from unnecessary

newsletters or promotions and block unwanted senders to reduce
distractions.

 Scheduled Checking: Limit email checking to specific times each

day, preventing constant interruptions and enhancing focus on other
tasks.

 Archiving and Deleting: Archive emails that need to be saved for

reference but don’t require immediate attention, and delete emails that
are irrelevant.

 Email Automation and Templates: Use pre-written templates for

repetitive responses, and consider automation tools for repetitive tasks
like confirmations and follow-ups.

 Search Functionality: Use advanced search features to locate

specific emails quickly, especially in high-volume inboxes.

Types of digital communication

 Email: Formal and widely used for professional and personal

correspondence.

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 Instant Messaging (IM): Real-time text-based communication, often

used for quick, informal chats (e.g., WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger).

 Social Media: Platforms for sharing information and engaging in

public or semi-public conversations (e.g., Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn).

 Video Conferencing: Face-to-face digital meetings through platforms

like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Google Meet.

 Text Messaging (SMS/MMS): Short text-based messages,

sometimes including multimedia, sent via mobile networks.

 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP): Voice and video calls over the
internet, used for real-time communication (e.g., Skype, FaceTime).

 Collaborative Workspaces: Tools for team communication, file

sharing, and collaboration, often within organizations (e.g., Slack,
Microsoft Teams).

 Forums and Online Communities: Platforms for discussion and Q&A

on shared interests (e.g., Reddit, Quora).

 Blogs and Microblogging: Web-based platforms for sharing longer

written content or short posts (e.g., WordPress, Tumblr).

 Email Newsletters: Regular updates sent via email for marketing,

news, or informational purposes.

Types of networks

 LAN (Local Area Network):

 Range: Covers a small, localized area such as a home, ofÏce, or

school.

 Purpose: Connects devices like computers, printers, and servers

within a close range for resource sharing (e.g., files, printers).

 Speed: Typically fast, as it’s limited to a small area.

 Example: OfÏce network connecting computers and printers.

 WAN (Wide Area Network):

 Range: Covers large geographic areas, even spanning countries or

continents.

 Purpose: Connects multiple LANs and smaller networks, enabling

communication across distant locations.

 Speed: Can vary widely, generally slower than LANs due to the
large distances covered.

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 Example: The internet itself, or a corporate network connecting

ofÏces across different cities.

Data transmission

 Modes of Transmission: Simplex (one-way), Half-Duplex (two-way,

one at a time), and Full-Duplex (two-way simultaneously).

 Transmission Medium: Wired (e.g., Ethernet, fiber optics) for stable

connections; Wireless (e.g., Wi-Fi, cellular) for flexibility.

 Transmission Types: Serial (one bit at a time) for long distances;

Parallel (multiple bits simultaneously) for short distances.

 Protocols: Rules governing data transfer, like TCP/IP and HTTP.

 Error Detection and Correction: Ensures data integrity using

techniques to detect and correct errors.

Security issues

 Malware: Malicious software like viruses, ransomware, and spyware

can disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized access to systems and data.

 Phishing: Social engineering attacks that deceive users into revealing

sensitive information, such as passwords or financial details.

 Data Breaches: Unauthorized access to secure information, resulting

in exposure of personal, financial, or confidential data.

 Denial of Service (DoS/DDoS): Attacks that overwhelm a system

with requests, causing it to slow down or crash, disrupting service
availability.

 Weak Passwords: Easily guessable or reused passwords make

accounts vulnerable to unauthorized access.

 Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) Attacks: Intercepted communication

between two parties allows attackers to access or alter transmitted
information.

 Unpatched Software: Outdated software with known vulnerabilities

can be exploited by attackers if not regularly updated.

 Insider Threats: Employees or individuals with authorized access

may misuse data or systems for personal gain or malicious intent.

 SQL Injection and Cross-Site Scripting (XSS): Web-based attacks

that exploit vulnerabilities in applications to gain unauthorized access or
manipulate data.

WWW

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 Web Pages: Documents written in HTML that can contain text,

images, videos, and interactive elements. They are displayed by web
browsers.

 URLs (Uniform Resource Locators): Addresses used to locate web

pages and resources on the web. A URL typically includes the protocol
(e.g., http, https) and the domain name.

 HTTP/HTTPS: Protocols that define how data is transferred between a

web browser and a web server. HTTPS is the secure version of HTTP,
encrypting data to protect user information.

 Hyperlinks: Clickable links within a web page that allow users to

navigate to other pages or resources, creating a network of connected
information.

 Web Browsers: Software applications (like Chrome, Firefox, Safari)

that enable users to access, display, and interact with web pages and
online content.

WLAN advantages

 Mobility: WLANs allow users to connect to the network from various

locations within the coverage area, enhancing flexibility and mobility.

 Ease of Installation: Setting up a WLAN is often simpler than running

physical cables, making it easier to expand or modify the network.

 Scalability: WLANs can easily accommodate more devices, making it

convenient to add new users without complex wiring.

 Reduced Cable Clutter: WLANs eliminate the need for extensive

cabling, creating a cleaner and more organized environment.

 Cost-Effectiveness: Although initial setup costs for wireless access

points can be high, WLANs can reduce long-term costs by minimizing the
need for cables and ongoing maintenance.

 Enhanced Collaboration: Wireless networks support mobile devices,

allowing team members to collaborate and access shared resources from
anywhere within the network range.

 Guest Access: WLANs make it easier to provide temporary network

access to guests or clients without altering existing infrastructure.

ISP Roles

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 Internet Access: ISPs provide the infrastructure and technology (such

as fiber, cable, DSL, or satellite) to connect users to the internet, enabling
browsing, streaming, and other online activities.

 IP Address Assignment: ISPs assign unique IP addresses to devices

on their network, allowing them to connect to and communicate over the
internet.

 Email and Web Hosting: Many ISPs offer additional services like
email accounts, web hosting, and domain registration for personal or
business use.

 Security Services: ISPs often provide security solutions, such as

firewalls, anti-malware, and parental control options, to help protect users
from online threats.

 Technical Support: ISPs offer customer service and technical support

to assist users with connectivity issues, equipment setup, and
troubleshooting.

 Bandwidth and Speed Management: ISPs monitor and manage

network trafÏc to ensure fair usage and maintain connection quality
across their user base.

 Content Delivery: Some ISPs act as content providers, offering

access to streaming services, online games, and other digital media.

E-communications misuse

 Cyberbullying: Using digital platforms to harass, threaten, or harm

others, often involving offensive messages, social media posts, or stalking.

 Phishing: Fraudulent attempts to obtain sensitive information, such as

passwords or financial details, by pretending to be a legitimate entity via
email or messages.

 Spam: Sending unsolicited and often irrelevant messages, typically for

advertising purposes, clogging inboxes or networks with unnecessary
content.

 Identity Theft: Stealing personal information through e-

communication methods to impersonate someone for fraudulent
activities.

 Hacking and Data Breaches: Unauthorized access to systems or

networks to steal, alter, or destroy data, often using communication
platforms to spread malware.

 Inappropriate Content Sharing: Distributing offensive, explicit, or

illegal content via email, messaging, or social media platforms.

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 Defamation: Spreading false or harmful information about individuals

or organizations via digital communication, damaging reputations.

 Privacy Violations: Sharing personal or sensitive information without

consent, leading to potential harm or exploitation.

 Excessive Use: Misusing digital communication for personal gain or

excessive entertainment, impacting productivity or creating distractions.

Information vs management

Feature Data Information

Raw, unprocessed Processed data that is
Nature
facts and figures meaningful and useful
Has context,
Lacks context and
Context relevance, and
meaning by itself
interpretation
Provides insight and
Used as input for
Purpose helps with decision-
analysis or processing
making
"Sales increased by
100, 200, 300
Example 25% last quarter"
(numbers)
(analyzed data)

Search engine vs web browser

Web Browser:

 Function: A web browser is software that allows users to access,

view, and interact with content on the internet. It retrieves and
displays web pages.

 Examples: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, Microsoft Edge.

 Key Features:

o Displays web pages and resources.

o Manages internet connections, including HTTP requests.

o Allows navigation through URLs (web addresses).

o Supports web applications, extensions, and plugins.

o Handles security features like encryption (HTTPS) and cookies.

Search Engine:

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 Function: A search engine is an online tool that helps users find

specific information on the internet by indexing web pages and
returning relevant results based on search queries.

 Examples: Google, Bing, Yahoo!, DuckDuckGo.

 Key Features:

o Allows users to enter keywords or phrases to find information.

o Indexes web content to provide search results.

o Ranks results based on relevance, page quality, and

algorithms.

o Provides additional services like images, maps, news, and

videos.

Information gathering techniques

 Surveys and Questionnaires:

 Description: Collecting structured data through predefined

questions, either online, in person, or over the phone.

 Use: Popular in market research, customer satisfaction studies, and

academic research.

 Interviews:

 Description: One-on-one or group discussions to gather qualitative

data and insights.

 Use: Common in job recruitment, qualitative research, and

investigative fields.

 Observations:

 Description: Collecting information by directly observing behaviors,

events, or phenomena in natural settings.

 Use: Applied in ethnographic studies, usability testing, and quality

control.

 Focus Groups:

 Description: A moderated discussion with a small group of

participants to gather feedback on a product, service, or concept.

 Use: Frequently used in marketing, product development, and social

research.

 Internet Research:

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 Description: Gathering information from publicly available online

sources such as websites, social media, blogs, and online databases.

 Use: Used in competitive analysis, market research, and general

information gathering.

 Case Studies:

 Description: In-depth investigations of a single case (such as a

business, event, or individual) to gather detailed information.

 Use: Used in academic research, business analysis, and problem-

solving scenarios.

 Document Review:

 Description: Examining existing records, reports, publications, or

documents for relevant information.

 Use: Common in legal research, audits, and historical studies.

 Public Records and Databases:

 Description: Accessing ofÏcial records, government databases, or

industry reports to gather factual information.

 Use: Used in legal, business, and governmental research.

 Experiments:

 Description: Conducting controlled tests or experiments to gather

data under specific conditions.

 Use: Often used in scientific research, product testing, and social

experiments.

 Social Media Monitoring:

 Description: Collecting information from social media platforms to

monitor trends, customer opinions, or public sentiment.

 Use: Applied in marketing, public relations, and brand management.

 Networking and Collaboration:

 Description: Collecting information through discussions,

partnerships, or collaborations with others in a specific field or
industry.

 Use: Common in business development, research, and academic

collaboration.

Quality criteria

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Authority:

 Definition: Ensuring that the information comes from a credible

and qualified source.

 How to Ensure:

o Verify the credentials, expertise, and background of the author

or organization providing the information.

o Use reputable sources, such as academic institutions,

government publications, or recognized industry leaders.

2. Objectivity:

 Definition: Information should be free from bias or personal

opinion, presenting facts fairly.

 How to Ensure:

o Evaluate the source for impartiality, ensuring there is no

hidden agenda or conflicts of interest.

o Check if multiple perspectives are provided, especially in

controversial or complex topics.

3. Accuracy:

 Definition: The information must be correct and verifiable.

 How to Ensure:

o Cross-check facts and data with other reliable sources.

o Use data validation tools to identify and correct errors.

o Ensure that details such as dates, names, and figures are

accurate.

4. Currency:

 Definition: Information must be up-to-date and relevant to current

trends or developments.

 How to Ensure:

o Check publication dates and ensure the information reflects

the latest research, data, or updates.

o Regularly review and refresh the information to avoid using

outdated or obsolete data.

5. Coverage:

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 Definition: Information should be comprehensive and cover all

necessary aspects of the topic.

 How to Ensure:

o Ensure the content addresses all key points and provides a

well-rounded perspective.

o Review whether the information sufÏciently covers the subject

matter without leaving critical gaps.

Role of databases and spreadsheets

Role of Spreadsheets:

A spreadsheet is a tool for organizing, analyzing, and storing data in

tabular form, typically used for simpler data management and
calculations.

1. Data Organization:

o Spreadsheets are used to store data in rows and columns,

allowing users to easily organize and manipulate information.

o Commonly used for tasks like budgeting, project tracking, and

personal data management.

2. Data Analysis:

o Spreadsheets support built-in functions and formulas for

performing mathematical, statistical, and financial
calculations.

o Pivot tables, charts, and graphs are used for data visualization
and deeper analysis.

3. Flexibility:

o They allow for quick, ad-hoc analysis and data manipulation

without the need for complex database management systems.

o Often used for small-scale data storage and when users need
to work with data interactively.

4. Collaboration:

o Cloud-based spreadsheet tools (like Google Sheets or

Microsoft Excel Online) enable real-time collaboration among
teams.

5. Reporting:

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o Used to generate reports or summaries, often combining data

from multiple sources and creating easily understandable
outputs.

Common Uses: Financial planning, inventory management, small

databases, data analysis, and reporting tasks.

Role of Databases:

A database is a more structured, sophisticated system used to store,

manage, and retrieve large amounts of data in a systematic way, often
involving multiple relationships between data.

1. Data Storage:

o Databases are designed to handle large volumes of data and

store it in a highly organized way using tables, relationships,
and keys.

o Ideal for applications requiring efÏcient data storage and

retrieval, such as customer records, product catalogs, or
transactional data.

2. Data Integrity and Security:

o Databases support data integrity through constraints, data

validation, and security features, ensuring that data is
accurate and protected from unauthorized access.

o They offer backup, encryption, and access control, which are

critical for maintaining data reliability.

3. Data Retrieval:

o Databases support advanced querying languages, such as

SQL (Structured Query Language), allowing users to extract
complex data sets and perform sophisticated searches.

o Queries can filter, sort, and aggregate data to generate

specific reports or insights.

4. Scalability:

o Databases can scale to handle growing data volumes

efÏciently, making them suitable for large-scale applications
like enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems or customer
relationship management (CRM) tools.

5. Data Relationships:

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o Databases support relationships between different sets of

data, using relational models or more advanced approaches
(e.g., NoSQL databases), which is not typically possible in
spreadsheets.

o They are highly useful when you need to work with

interconnected data, such as linking customer data to sales
data or tracking transactions.

Closed ended vs open ended questions

Feature Open-ended Closed-ended

Questions Questions
Response Type Detailed, free-form Predefined, limited
answers responses
Use Exploring opinions, Gathering specific,
experiences, and ideas quantitative data
Analysis More time-consuming, Easier to analyze,
qualitative analysis quantitative analysis
Flexibility High flexibility for Limited flexibility,
respondent expression structured answers
Time Takes more time to Quick to answer and
answer and analyze analyze

Impact of ICT on Society:

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has profoundly

transformed various aspects of society, offering numerous benefits while
also posing challenges.

1. Communication: ICT has enhanced global connectivity through

instant messaging, social media, and video calls, but it can reduce
face-to-face interaction and contribute to online issues like
harassment.

2. Education: ICT enables accessible e-learning, online courses, and

personalized learning, though the digital divide may limit
opportunities for some.

3. Business & Economy: ICT boosts business efÏciency, global reach,

and automation. However, it may lead to job displacement due to
automation and raise data privacy concerns.

4. Healthcare: ICT has improved access to medical care through

telemedicine and health information systems, but data privacy
remains a challenge.

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5. Governance: E-Government and online platforms promote

transparency and citizen engagement, though cybersecurity and
surveillance concerns persist.

6. Social & Cultural Impact: ICT facilitates cultural exchange and

creativity but can lead to online polarization and mental health
issues due to excessive screen time.

7. Work Environment: ICT has made remote work possible, increased

productivity, and created new industries. However, it has also
contributed to job insecurity in some sectors.

8. Environmental Impact: ICT aids sustainability through energy-

efÏcient tools, though it also contributes to e-waste and energy
consumption in data centers.

9. Social Inequality: ICT can reduce inequality by providing access to

education and services, but the digital divide still marginalizes
underserved populations.

Advantages of Online Surveys:

1. Cost-Effective: No printing or postage costs.

2. Convenient: Respondents can complete surveys at their own time

and pace.

3. Fast: Quick distribution and real-time results.

4. Wide Reach: Access to a global audience.

5. Accurate: Automatic data recording reduces human error.

6. Easy Analysis: Data is automatically compiled for easy analysis.

7. Anonymity: Encourages honest responses with anonymous

participation.

8. Customizable: Flexible question formats and adaptive survey flow.

9. Eco-Friendly: Reduces paper usage.

10. Easy Sharing: Simple distribution via email, social media, or

websites.

11. Real-Time Monitoring: Track responses and adjust as

needed.

Ethical and Legal Issues in Information Technology:

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1. Privacy: Ensuring responsible use of personal data and compliance

with privacy laws (e.g., GDPR).

2. Data Security: Protecting sensitive data from breaches and

following data protection laws.

3. Intellectual Property: Respecting copyrights, patents, and

trademarks to avoid infringement.

4. Digital Divide: Ensuring equitable access to technology for all

groups.

5. Online Misinformation: Preventing the spread of false information

and harmful content.

6. Cyberbullying and Harassment: Promoting safe online spaces

and complying with anti-harassment laws.

7. Informed Consent: Ensuring users understand and agree to data

collection practices.

8. Surveillance and Monitoring: Balancing security with individual

privacy rights.

9. AI Ethics: Ensuring fair, transparent, and unbiased AI systems.

10. Workplace Ethics: Addressing concerns of automation and

its impact on employment.

Quality control of information

Accuracy

 Definition: The information must be correct and free from errors.

 How to Ensure:

o Cross-check data from multiple sources.

o Use verification tools or validation processes.

o Ensure proper data entry procedures and eliminate human

errors.

2. Reliability

 Definition: The information should come from trusted, credible

sources.

 How to Ensure:

o Rely on reputable, authoritative sources or databases.

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o Conduct regular audits of information sources and processes.

o Use peer-reviewed or verified data when possible.

3. Consistency

 Definition: Information should be consistent across all sources and

formats.

 How to Ensure:

o Standardize data formats and categories across systems.

o Regularly update and synchronize data sources.

o Use version control to track changes and ensure consistency

in documentation.

4. Relevance

 Definition: The information must be pertinent to the task or

decision at hand.

 How to Ensure:

o Define clear criteria for what qualifies as relevant information.

o Regularly review and filter data to eliminate outdated or

irrelevant information.

o Align data collection with organizational goals and objectives.

5. Completeness

 Definition: Information should be comprehensive and cover all

necessary aspects without gaps.

 How to Ensure:

o Develop comprehensive data collection protocols to avoid

missing important details.

o Regularly audit information to ensure it meets the required

scope.

o Use checklists to verify that all necessary data is included.

6. Timeliness

 Definition: Information should be up-to-date and available when

needed.

 How to Ensure:

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o Regularly update databases and systems to reflect the most

recent data.

o Use real-time data collection tools where possible.

o Set up review cycles to ensure that outdated or obsolete

information is flagged and updated.

7. Clarity

 Definition: Information should be clear, understandable, and easy

to interpret.

 How to Ensure:

o Use plain language and avoid jargon unless necessary.

o Organize information logically with clear headings, categories,

and explanations.

o Visualize data using charts, graphs, or tables when applicable

for easier comprehension.

8. Verification and Validation

 Definition: The process of confirming that the information is correct

and meets the required standards.

 How to Ensure:

o Conduct regular audits and reviews to verify data accuracy.

o Use automated validation tools to check for inconsistencies,

duplicates, or errors.

o Cross-check information with multiple trusted sources.

9. Accountability

 Definition: Assigning responsibility for the accuracy and quality of

the information.

 How to Ensure:

o Designate responsible individuals or teams for data quality.

o Implement review and approval workflows before information

is shared or used.

o Keep detailed logs and records of data updates and changes.

Methods of Quality Control:

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 Automated Tools: Use of software for data validation, error

checking, and consistency analysis.

 Regular Audits: Periodic reviews of data and information processes

to identify errors or areas for improvement.

 Training: Educating team members on best practices for

information gathering, data entry, and reporting.

 Peer Review: Having colleagues or experts review data and

information for accuracy and quality.

Cyber security

 Network Security: Safeguarding networks using firewalls, VPNs, and

intrusion detection systems.

 Information Security: Ensuring data confidentiality, integrity, and

availability through encryption and access controls.

 Endpoint Security: Protecting devices from malware and

unauthorized access.

 Application Security: Securing software applications from

vulnerabilities.

 Identity and Access Management: Managing user access through

multi-factor authentication and access controls.

 Incident Response: Preparing for and responding to security

breaches.

 Cloud Security: Protecting data and services in cloud environments.

 Cyber Threat Intelligence: Identifying and responding to potential

threats.

 Security Awareness: Training users to recognize and avoid security

risks.

 Compliance: Adhering to security laws and regulations (e.g., GDPR,

HIPAA).

Environmental issues

1. E-Waste: Growing electronic waste from outdated devices, which

can contain hazardous materials and contribute to pollution if not
properly disposed of.

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2. Energy Consumption: High energy demands from devices, data

centers, and digital services, often powered by non-renewable
sources, contribute to carbon emissions.

3. Resource Depletion: The extraction of rare earth metals and other

materials for manufacturing computer hardware leads to
environmental degradation and resource scarcity.

4. Carbon Footprint: The energy used by digital services like cloud

computing and streaming increases carbon emissions.

5. Obsolescence: Devices designed for limited lifespans lead to

increased consumption, waste, and resource depletion.

6. Pollution from Manufacturing: Technology production generates

pollution, including toxic emissions and waste.

7. Data Storage: Storing large amounts of digital data consumes

significant energy, contributing to environmental harm.

Solutions:

 Recycling and Circular Economy: Encourage device recycling

and reuse.

 Energy EfÏciency: Improve the energy efÏciency of hardware,

software, and data centers.

 Green IT: Promote sustainable manufacturing, eco-friendly designs,

and renewable energy sources.

Health issues

 Eye Strain: Prolonged screen time can cause dry eyes, blurred vision,
and headaches. Solutions include the 20-20-20 rule and blue light filters.

 Musculoskeletal Issues: Poor posture from long computer use can

lead to neck, back, and wrist pain. Ergonomic setups and regular breaks
can help.

 Sleep Disruption: Blue light from screens affects sleep quality.

Reducing screen time before bed and using night mode can help.

 Mental Health Effects: Excessive social media use may lead to

anxiety and depression. Limiting screen time and taking ofÒine breaks are
beneficial.

 Hearing Loss: High headphone volumes can damage hearing.

Lowering volume and taking breaks are recommended.

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 Sedentary Lifestyle: Long sitting hours are linked to obesity and

cardiovascular issues. Regular movement breaks and exercise can reduce
these risks.

1. ICT
Data Communication: ICT enables fast data transfer across
networks (e.g., internet, LAN, WAN), supporting real-time
communication and collaboration.

2. Internet and Web Technologies: The internet provides a platform

for accessing and sharing information worldwide, using web
browsers, search engines, and websites.

3. Digital Communication Tools: Email, video conferencing,

messaging apps, and social media facilitate remote communication
and information sharing.

4. Computing Devices and Hardware: Computers, servers,

smartphones, and tablets are core ICT tools that support data
processing and communication.

5. Software Applications: Productivity software (e.g., Microsoft

OfÏce), data analysis tools, and enterprise systems enable efÏcient
information management and automation.

6. Data Storage and Management: ICT involves storing and

managing data, both locally and on cloud platforms, ensuring data
accessibility and security.

Benefits of ICT:

 Improved EfÏciency: Automates and streamlines tasks across

industries.

 Enhanced Communication: Supports remote and real-time

communication.

 Access to Information: Provides global access to information and

educational resources.

 Economic Growth: Drives innovation, supports digital businesses,

and creates jobs.

Challenges of ICT:

 Cybersecurity Risks: Increased threats like hacking, data

breaches, and malware.

 Digital Divide: Inequality in access to ICT resources in different

regions.

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 Environmental Impact: E-waste and energy consumption in ICT

infrastructure.

 Privacy Concerns: Data collection and surveillance issues.

Digital footprint

1. Active Footprint: Data intentionally shared by the user, like social

media posts, comments, and uploaded content.

2. Passive Footprint: Data collected without direct input, such as

browsing history, IP addresses, and location tracking.

Implications:

 Privacy and Security: Digital footprints can expose personal

information to companies or cybercriminals.

 Reputation: Online activity can affect public image and future

opportunities.

 Data Collection: Companies use digital footprints to analyze user

behavior.

Managing Digital Footprints:

 Adjust privacy settings, review online content, and be mindful of

what’s shared to protect personal information and manage one’s
online presence effectively.

Cybercriminal methods

 Phishing: Fraudulent messages, often via email or text, trick users

into revealing sensitive information, such as passwords or credit card
numbers, by posing as legitimate entities.

 Malware: Malicious software like viruses, trojans, ransomware, and

spyware is installed on devices to harm or gain unauthorized access to
data and systems.

 Social Engineering: Manipulating individuals through deception to

gain confidential information, often by impersonating trusted figures or
exploiting human behavior.

 Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service

(DDoS) Attacks: Overloading a system or network with trafÏc to render it
unavailable, typically by using a large network of infected devices
(botnets).

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 SQL Injection: Exploiting vulnerabilities in web applications to

manipulate databases, allowing attackers to gain access to, modify, or
delete data.

 Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) Attacks: Intercepting communication

between two parties to eavesdrop or alter the data exchanged, often done
through unsecured Wi-Fi networks.

 Brute Force Attacks: Repeatedly guessing passwords or

cryptographic keys to gain access to accounts or encrypted data.

 Credential StufÏng: Using stolen login credentials from one site to

access accounts on other sites where users have reused passwords.

 Zero-Day Exploits: Attacking newly discovered vulnerabilities in

software before developers can release patches to fix them.

 Malicious Insider Activity: Employees or individuals with authorized

access who misuse their privileges to steal or leak information.

Digital divide

 Access to Technology: Urban, developed areas have better internet

and devices, while rural or less developed regions often lack access.

 Digital Literacy: Knowledge of how to use technology varies by age,

education, and socioeconomic status, affecting job and learning
opportunities.

 Economic Barriers: The high cost of devices and internet can prevent
lower-income individuals from accessing technology.

 Educational Divide: Underfunded schools lack digital resources,

affecting students’ academic progress.

 Geographic Differences: Remote areas have limited internet

infrastructure, impacting regional growth and connectivity.

Piracy

 Types of Piracy: Software piracy, media piracy, and game piracy.

 Methods: File-sharing networks (e.g., torrents), unauthorized

streaming, and counterfeit copies.

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 Impact: Economic losses, security risks (e.g., malware), and poor-

quality content.

 Legal Consequences: Piracy violates copyright laws and can lead to

fines or legal action.

 Combating Piracy: Education, affordable legal access, and anti-piracy

measures like DRM.

Software tools

 Productivity Tools: Help with documents, data, and presentations

(e.g., Microsoft OfÏce).

 Development Tools: Assist developers in coding and debugging (e.g.,

Visual Studio).

 Design Tools: Used for graphic design and media editing (e.g., Adobe
Photoshop).

 Database Tools: Manage and retrieve data (e.g., SQL Server).

 Security Tools: Provide protection from cyber threats (e.g., antivirus

software).

 Communication Tools: Enable real-time messaging and collaboration

(e.g., Slack, Zoom).

 Project Management Tools: Help plan and track projects (e.g.,

Trello).

 Data Analysis Tools: Analyze and visualize data (e.g., Tableau).

 Backup and Recovery Tools: Help store and recover data (e.g.,
Google Drive).

 Utility Tools: Perform maintenance tasks (e.g., disk cleanup).

Document layout formatting

 Page Setup: Adjust margins, orientation, and page size.

 Text Formatting: Choose appropriate fonts, sizes, colors, and

alignment.

 Paragraph Formatting: Set line spacing, indentation, and use bullets

or numbering for lists.

 Headers/Footers: Add titles, page numbers, and document details.

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 Tables and Lists: Organize data and content clearly.

 Images/Graphics: Insert and align images, adjusting text flow around

them.

 Spacing: Maintain proper spacing for readability.

 Styles and Themes: Use consistent styles for uniformity.

 Sections and Breaks: Use to create distinct parts and adjust

formatting.

File sharing techniques

 Cloud Storage Services (e.g., Google Drive, Dropbox) for easy

access and collaboration.

 FTP for transferring large files securely.

 P2P Sharing (e.g., BitTorrent) for direct sharing between users.

 Email Attachments for simple sharing of small files.

 Secure File Sharing (e.g., WeTransfer) with added encryption for

sensitive files.

 Shared Network Drives for collaborative work in controlled

environments.

 File Compression (e.g., ZIP) to reduce file size.

 Collaboration Platforms (e.g., Google Docs) for real-time editing and

sharing.

 USB Drives/External Hard Drives for ofÒine, large file transfers.

 Automated File Syncing for continuous file updates across devices.

Roles of firewalls

 Filtering TrafÏc: Blocking or allowing trafÏc based on security rules.

 Network Segmentation: Isolating sensitive areas of the network.

 Intrusion Detection/Prevention: Detecting and blocking suspicious

activities.

 Access Control: Managing user and device access to network

resources.

 Monitoring and Logging: Recording trafÏc and security events for

analysis.

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 VPN Support: Enabling secure remote access via VPNs.

 TrafÏc Logging/Reporting: Generating reports to track network

activity.

 Stateful Inspection: Ensuring trafÏc matches active connections.

 Application Layer Filtering: Blocking risky applications or services

Factors to consider when buying wifi

 Speed and Bandwidth: Ensure it supports your internet speed.

 Wi-Fi Standards: Opt for newer standards like Wi-Fi 6 for better
performance.

 Coverage Area: Choose equipment that covers your entire space.

 Security Features: Look for strong encryption (WPA3) and security

tools.

 Device Compatibility: Ensure it works with your devices.

 Number of Ports: Check for sufÏcient Ethernet and USB ports.

 Ease of Setup: Choose user-friendly systems with easy management

tools.

 Brand Reputation: Research reviews and brand reliability.

 Cost: Balance features with your budget.

 Future-Proofing: Choose equipment capable of handling future

technology needs.

Survey tools

1. Survey Creation: Easy-to-use templates and question types (e.g.,

multiple choice, open-ended, Likert scale).

2. Customization: Allows customization of surveys with logos,

themes, and personalized settings.

3. Distribution: Options for sending surveys via email, social media,

or embedding them on websites.

4. Data Collection: Automatically collects responses, often in real-

time.

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5. Analysis: Provides analytics, graphs, and reports to interpret survey

data.

6. Integration: Can integrate with other software (e.g., CRM systems)

for better data management.

7. Security: Offers secure data collection and storage, often with

options for anonymous responses.

8. Collaboration: Allows team collaboration for survey creation and

analysis.

Examples:

 Google Forms: Simple and free survey tool.

 SurveyMonkey: Offers advanced survey features with analytics.

 Typeform: Known for interactive and visually appealing surveys.

Malware protection

 Antivirus Software: Scans and removes known malware, providing

real-time protection.

 Firewalls: Monitors network trafÏc and blocks potentially harmful

connections.

 Regular Updates: Keeps software, including operating systems and

applications, up to date to fix security vulnerabilities.

 Safe Browsing Practices: Avoids suspicious websites and links that

may contain malware.

 Email Filtering: Identifies and blocks malicious attachments or links

in emails.

 Behavioral Analysis: Detects suspicious behavior on the system to

identify new or unknown malware.

 Backup Systems: Ensures data is regularly backed up in case of

malware attacks like ransomware.

 User Education: Trains users to recognize phishing attempts,

suspicious downloads, and other threats.

Backup Importance

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 Data Recovery: Ensures you can restore lost or corrupted files,

minimizing downtime.

 Protection Against Hardware Failure: Safeguards data if your

device breaks, crashes, or is stolen.

 Cyberattack Defense: Helps recover data from ransomware or

malware attacks.

 Accidental Deletion: Recovers files accidentally deleted by users.

 Compliance: Meets legal and regulatory requirements for data

protection.

 Peace of Mind: Reduces the risk of data loss, ensuring business

continuity or personal data safety.

Effects of a digital device

Positive Effects:

1. Increased Connectivity: Facilitates communication and

collaboration through social media, messaging apps, and video calls.

2. Access to Information: Provides instant access to vast amounts of

knowledge, enhancing learning and decision-making.

3. Productivity Tools: Digital devices offer apps and software that

improve work efÏciency and organization.

4. Entertainment: Provides access to movies, games, and music,

offering entertainment options.

Negative Effects:

1. Physical Health Issues: Prolonged use can lead to eye strain, poor
posture, and repetitive strain injuries.

2. Mental Health Concerns: Excessive screen time is linked to

stress, anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbances.

3. Addiction: Overuse of devices can lead to addiction, affecting daily

activities and relationships.

4. Privacy Risks: Increased exposure to data theft, cyberbullying, and

online scams.

5. Reduced Social Interaction: Excessive device use may reduce

face-to-face social interactions.

Online safety

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 Password Protection: Use strong, unique passwords for different

accounts and enable two-factor authentication (2FA) for added security.

 Privacy Settings: Adjust social media and online account privacy

settings to control who can view personal information.

 Avoiding Scams: Be cautious of phishing emails, suspicious links, and

online scams designed to steal personal or financial information.

 Secure Websites: Only enter sensitive data on websites with HTTPS

encryption to ensure secure transactions.

 Software Updates: Regularly update software, including antivirus

programs, to protect against vulnerabilities and malware.

 Safe Social Media Use: Limit the amount of personal information

shared online and be mindful of the risks of oversharing.

 Parental Controls: Use parental controls to monitor and restrict

children’s online activity, ensuring they stay safe from inappropriate
content.

 Cyberbullying Awareness: Recognize and report any instances of

online bullying to ensure a safe online environment.

Cloud computing limitations

 Internet Dependence:

 Limitation: Requires a stable internet connection for access to

cloud services.

 Impact: Performance is hindered in areas with poor internet

connectivity or during network outages.

 Security and Privacy Concerns:

 Limitation: Storing sensitive data on third-party servers can pose

security and privacy risks.

 Impact: Potential exposure to cyberattacks, data breaches, and

unauthorized access.

 Downtime and Reliability:

 Limitation: Cloud service providers can experience outages or

downtime.

 Impact: Disrupts access to critical applications or data when

services are unavailable.

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 Limited Control:

 Limitation: Users have less control over the cloud infrastructure

and operations.

 Impact: Dependence on the cloud provider for maintenance,

upgrades, and service quality.

 Cost Over Time:

 Limitation: Ongoing subscription fees can add up over time.

 Impact: While initial costs may be lower, long-term expenses can

be significant compared to on-premises solutions.

 Data Transfer Speed:

 Limitation: Transferring large amounts of data to and from the

cloud can be slow.

 Impact: Time-consuming and costly, especially with large datasets

or limited internet bandwidth.

 Vendor Lock-In:

 Limitation: Moving data or applications from one cloud provider to

another can be difÏcult.

 Impact: Limits flexibility and can increase costs if switching

providers is necessary.

 Compliance and Legal Issues:

 Limitation: Storing data in different regions may conflict with data

protection regulations.

 Impact: Compliance challenges related to jurisdiction and legal

requirements.

Wearable technology benefits

 Health Monitoring: Tracks vital signs and helps manage health

conditions.

 Fitness Tracking: Monitors physical activity, workouts, and sleep

patterns.

 Convenience: Provides hands-free access to notifications and apps.

 Personal Safety: Features like fall detection and emergency SOS for
quick help.

 Productivity: Helps manage tasks, reminders, and calendars.

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 Sleep Quality Monitoring: Offers insights into sleep habits for better
rest.

 Fashion and Personalization: Customizable designs to fit personal

style.

 Reduced Device Dependency: Combines functionality into one

device, reducing reliance on smartphones.

Public Wi-FI risks

 Data Interception: Sensitive data can be stolen over unsecured

networks.

 Man-in-the-Middle Attacks: Hackers intercept communications

between users and networks.

 Malware Distribution: Public Wi-Fi can spread malware through

unsecured connections.

 Fake Hotspots: Attackers can create fake networks to steal data.

 Lack of Encryption: Without encryption, data is vulnerable to

interception.

 Session Hijacking: Attackers can steal session cookies to

impersonate users.

 Privacy Risks: Personal information and browsing history may be

exposed.

QR Code functions

 Storing Information: Links to websites, product info, or contact

details.

 Fast Scanning: Instant access when scanned with a smartphone or

device.

 Marketing: Used for promotions, discounts, and product information.

 Contactless Transactions: Facilitates secure, contactless payments.

 Tracking: Monitors user engagement and interactions.

 Access Control: Used for event entry or building access.

2 Factor Authentication

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Two-factor authentication (2FA) enhances security by requiring two

forms of identification:

1. Something You Know: A password or PIN.

2. Something You Have: A device or code, like a smartphone app or

SMS code.

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