Vector Space

Rings:
Let R be a nonempty set with two binary operations, an operation of addition and an operation of
multiplication. Then R is called a ring if the following axioms are satisfied:
[R1] For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅, we have 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐).
[R2] There exists an element 0 ∈ 𝑅, called the zero element, such that 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 for every 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
[R3] For each a ∈ 𝑅 there exists an element −𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, called the negative of 𝑎, such that
𝑎 + −𝑎 = −𝑎 + 𝑎 = 0
[R4] For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, we have 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
[R5] For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅, we have 𝑎𝑏 𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐).
[R6] For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅, we have (i) a(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐, and (ii) 𝑏 + 𝑐 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑎 + 𝑐𝑎.

Field: A commutative ring R with a unit element is called a field if every nonzero 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 has a multiplicative
inverse; that is, there exists an element 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 𝑎 = 1
 Vector Space
Vector Space:
Let F be a field and suppose V is a set with a binary operation + called addition assigning to any two elements a
and b of V a unique sum a + b ∈ V . Suppose also that there is a second operation, called scalar multiplication,
assigning to every r ∈ F and a ∈ V a unique scalar multiple ra ∈ V . Addition and scalar multiplication have the
following properties.
(1) Addition is commutative: a + b = b + a for all a, b ∈ V .
(2) Addition is also associative: (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) for all a, b, c ∈ V .
(3) V contains an additive identity 0: that is, 0 + a = a for all a ∈ V .
(4) For every element v of V , there is an element −v such that v + (−v) = 0.
Thus −v is an additive inverse of v.
(5) For all a ∈ V , 1a = a, where 1 is the multiplicative identity of F.
(6) Scalar multiplication is associative: if r, s ∈ F and a ∈ V , then (rs)a = r(sa).
(7) Scalar multiplication is distributive: if r, s ∈ F and a, b ∈ V , then r(a + b) = ra + rb and (r + s)a = ra + sa.
Then V is called a vector space over F.
 Vector Space
Linearly Combination:
Let 𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 be in V with 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑘 ∈ F. Then the expression 𝑎1 𝑣1 + 𝑎2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑛 is called the linear
combination of the vectors 𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 .

Linearly Independent and Dependent:

Let 𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 be in V . Then we say that 𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 are linearly independent (or simply independent) if the
equation 𝑎1 𝑣1 + 𝑎2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0, with 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑘 ∈ F, is satisfied only when 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = ⋯ = 𝑎𝑘 = 0.
If the above equation has a nontrivial solution (i.e., some𝑎𝑖 ≠ 0), we say that 𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 are linearly
dependent (or simply dependent)

Spanning Sets:
Let 𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 be arbitrary elements of V. The span of 𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 is by definition the subset of V consisting of all
𝑘
linear combinations 𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑣𝑖

where 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑘 are arbitrary elements of F. The span of 𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 is denoted by span {𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 }.

 Vector Space
Example1: Express 𝑣 = 3, 3, −4 in ℝ3 as a linear combination of the vectors 𝑢1 = 1, 2, 3 , 𝑢2 = 2, 3, 7 , 𝑢3 =
(3, 5, 6)
Solution:
 Vector Space
Example1:

Solution:
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Example: Show that the space 𝑈 generated by the vector 𝑢1 = 1, 2, −1, 3 , 𝑢2 = 2, 4, 1, −2 , and
𝑢3 = (3, 6, 3, −7) and the space 𝑉 generated by the vectors 𝑣1 = 1, 2, −4, 11 , and 𝑣2 = (2, 4, −5, 14) are
equal; that is 𝑈 = 𝑉.

Solution: Form the matrix 𝐴 whose rows are the 𝑢𝑖 , and row reduce 𝐴 to row canonical form:
1
1 2 −1 3 𝐻21 (−2)
1 2 −1 3 1 2 −1 3 1 1 2 −1 3 1 2 0
𝐻31 (−3) 𝐻32 (−2) 𝐻2 (3) 𝐻12 (1) 3
8
𝐴 = 2 4 1 −2 0 0 3 −8 0 0 3 −8 0 0 1 −3 0 0 1 −3
8
3 6 3 −7 0 0 6 −16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Now form the matrix 𝐵 whose rows are the 𝑉𝑖 , and row reduce 𝐵 to row canonical form:

1 2 −4 11 𝐻21 (−2) 1 2 −4 11 𝐻2 (1/3) 1 2 −4 11 𝐻12 (4) 1 2 0 1/3

𝐵=
2 4 −5 14 0 0 3 −8 0 0 1 −8/3 0 0 1 −8/3

Since the nonzero rows of the reduced matrices are identical, the row spaces 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal and so 𝑈 = 𝑉
 Vector Space
Example: Let 𝑉 be the set of ordered pairs of real numbers: 𝑉 = { 𝑎, 𝑏 : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ}. Show that 𝑉 is not a
vector space over ℝ with respect to each of the following operations of addition in 𝑉 and scalar multiplication
on 𝑉 :
(i) 𝑎, 𝑏 + 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 𝑎, 𝑏 = (𝑘𝑎, 𝑏);
(ii) 𝑎, 𝑏 + 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 𝑎, 𝑏 = (𝑘𝑎, 𝑘𝑏);
(iii) 𝑎, 𝑏 + 𝑐, 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 𝑎, 𝑏 = (𝑘 2 𝑎, 𝑘 2 𝑏);

Solution: In each case we will show one of the axioms of a vector space does not hold.

(i) Let 𝑟 = 1, 𝑠 = 2, 𝑣 = (3, 4). Then 𝑟 + 𝑠 𝑣 = 3 3, 4 = 9, 4

𝑟𝑣 + 𝑠𝑣 = 1 3, 4 + 2 3, 4 = 3, 4 + (6, 4) = 9, 8
Since 𝑟 + 𝑠 𝑣 ≠ 𝑟𝑣 + 𝑠𝑣, axiom [7] does not hold.
(ii) Let 𝑣 = 1, 2 , 𝑤 = (3, 4). Then 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 1, 2 + 3, 4 = 1, 2
𝑤 + 𝑣 = 3, 4 + 1, 2 = 3, 4
Since 𝑣 + 𝑤 ≠ 𝑤 + 𝑣, axiom [1] does not hold.
 Vector Space
(iii) Let 𝑟 = 1, 𝑠 = 2, 𝑣 = (3, 4). Then 𝑟 + 𝑠 𝑣 = 3 3, 4 = 27, 36
𝑟𝑣 + 𝑠𝑣 = 1 3, 4 + 2 3, 4 = 3, 4 + (12, 16) = 15, 20
Since 𝑟 + 𝑠 𝑣 ≠ 𝑟𝑣 + 𝑠𝑣, axiom [7] does not hold.
Subspace: Let 𝑊 be a subset of a vector space 𝑉 over a field 𝐾. 𝑊 is called a subspace of 𝑉 if 𝑊 is itself a
vector space over 𝐾 with respect to the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication on 𝑉.

𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉 if and only if

(i) 𝑊 is nonempty,
(ii) 𝑊 is closed under vector addition: 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊 implies 𝑣 + 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊,
(iii) 𝑊 is closed under scalar multiplication: 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊 implies 𝑘𝑣 ∈ 𝑊 for ever 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾

Example: Let 𝑉 = ℝ3 . Show that 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉 where:

(i) 𝑊 = { 𝑎, 𝑏, 0 : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ}, i.e. 𝑊 is the xy-plane consisting of those vectors whose third component is 0;
(ii) 𝑊 = { 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 : 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0}, i.e. 𝑊 consist of those vectors each with the property that the sum of
its component is zero.
 Vector Space

Solution: (i) 0 = (0, 0, 0) ∈ 𝑊 since the third component of 0 is 0. For any vector 𝑣 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 0 , 𝑤 =
(𝑐, 𝑑, 0) in 𝑊, and any scalars (real numbers) 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘′,
𝑘𝑣 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑤 = 𝑘 𝑎, 𝑏, 0 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑐, 𝑑, 0 = 𝑘𝑎, 𝑘𝑏, 0 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑐, 𝑘 ′ 𝑑, 0 = (𝑘𝑎 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑐, 𝑘𝑏 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑑, 0)
Thus 𝑘𝑣 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊, and so 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉.

(ii) 0 = (0, 0, 0) ∈ 𝑊 since 0 + 0 + 0 = 0. Suppose 𝑣 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 , 𝑤 = (𝑎′, 𝑏′, 𝑐′) belong to 𝑊, i.e.

𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 and 𝑎′ + 𝑏′ + 𝑐′ = 0, Then for any scalars 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘′,
𝑘𝑣 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑤 = 𝑘 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑎′, 𝑏′, 𝑐′ = 𝑘𝑎, 𝑘𝑏, 𝑘𝑐 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑎′, 𝑘 ′ 𝑏′, 𝑘 ′ 𝑐′
= (𝑘𝑎 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑎′ , 𝑘𝑏 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑏 ′ , 𝑘𝑐 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑐′)
And furthermore, 𝑘𝑎 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑎′ + 𝑘𝑏 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑏 ′ + 𝑘𝑐 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑐 ′ = 𝑘 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑎′ + 𝑏 ′ + 𝑐 ′
= 𝑘 ∙ 0 + 𝑘′ ∙ 0 = 0
Thus 𝑘𝑣 + 𝑘 ′ 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊, and so 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉.
 Vector Space
Sum: Let 𝑈 and 𝑊 be a subspaces of a vector space 𝑉. The sum of 𝑈 and 𝑊, written, 𝑈 + 𝑊, consists of all
sums 𝑢 + 𝑤 where 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊 :
𝑈 + 𝑊 = {𝑢 + 𝑤: 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊}
Direct Sum: The vector space 𝑉 is said to be the direct sum of its subspaces 𝑈 and 𝑊, denoted by
𝑉 = 𝑈⊕𝑊
if veery vector 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 can be written in one and only one way as 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑤 where 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊.

Example 1: In the vector space ℝ3 , let 𝑈 be the xy-plane and 𝑊 be the yz-plane:
𝑈 = { 𝑎, 𝑏, 0 : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} and 𝑊 = { 0, 𝑏, 𝑐 : 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ}
Then ℝ3 = 𝑈 + 𝑊 since every vector in ℝ3 is the sum of a vector in 𝑈 and a vector in 𝑊. However, ℝ3 is
not direct sum of 𝑈 and 𝑊 since such sums are not unique; for example
3, 5, 7 = 3, 1, 0 + (0, 4, 7) and also 3, 5, 7 = 3, −4, 0 + (0, 9, 7)
The vector space 𝑉 is the direct sum of its subspaces 𝑈 and 𝑊 if and only if
(i) 𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑊, and (ii) 𝑈 ∩ 𝑊 = {0}

Suppose 𝑉 = 𝑈 ⊕ 𝑊.
Then any 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 can be uniquely written in the form 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑤 where 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊. Thus, in particular,
𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑊.
Now suppose 𝑣 ∈ 𝑈 ∩ 𝑊. Then (a) 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 0 where 𝑣 ∈ 𝑈 and 0 ∈ 𝑊 and (b) 𝑣 = 0 + 𝑣 where 0 ∈ 𝑈 and
𝑣 ∈ 𝑊 . Since such a sum for 𝑣 must be unique, 𝑣 = 0. Accordingly, 𝑈 ∩ 𝑊 = {0}.

On the other hand, suppose 𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑊 and 𝑈 ∩ 𝑊 = {0}

Let 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉. Since 𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑊, there exists 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊 such that 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑤.
We need to show that such a sum is unique. Suppose also that 𝑣 = 𝑢′ + 𝑤′ where 𝑢′ ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑤′ ∈ 𝑊.
Then 𝑢 + 𝑤 = 𝑢′ + 𝑤′ and so 𝑢 − 𝑢′ = 𝑤 ′ − 𝑤. But 𝑢 − 𝑢′ ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑤 ′ − 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊; hence by 𝑈 ∩ 𝑊 = {0},
𝑢 − 𝑢′ = 0, 𝑤 ′ − 𝑤 = 0 and so 𝑢 = 𝑢′ , 𝑤 = 𝑤′. Thus such a sum for 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 is unique and 𝑉 = 𝑈 ⊕ 𝑊.
 Basis and Dimension
Example 2: In ℝ3 , let 𝑈 be the xy-plane and 𝑊 be the z axis:
𝑈 = { 𝑎, 𝑏, 0 : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} and 𝑊 = { 0, 0, 𝑐 : 𝑐 ∈ ℝ}
Now any vector (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ ℝ3 can be written as the sum of a vector in 𝑈 and a vector in 𝑊 in one and only
one way: 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 0 + (0, 0, 𝑐)
Accordingly, ℝ3 is the direct sum of 𝑈 and 𝑊, that is, ℝ3 = 𝑈 ⊕ 𝑊
DEFINITION A: A set 𝑆 = 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 of vectors is a basis of V if it has the following two properties:
(1) 𝑆 is linearly independent. (2) 𝑆 spans V.
DEFINITION B: A set 𝑆 = 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 of vectors is a basis of V if every 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 can be written uniquely as
a linear combination of the basis vectors.
Dimension: A vector space 𝑉 is said to be of finite dimension n or n-dimensional, written dim 𝑉 = 𝑛 if 𝑉 has
a basis with 𝑛 elements.

Example 1: Determine whether or not each of the following form a basis of ℝ3 : (a) (1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1); (b)
(1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 5), (1, 0, 1), (2, 3, 0); (c) (1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3), (2, −1, 1); (d) (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 5), (5, 3, 4).
 Basis and Dimension
Solution: (a and b) No, because a basis of ℝ3 must contain exactly three elements because 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑅 = 3.

(c) The three vectors form a basis if and only if they are linearly independent. Thus, form the matrix whose rows are the
given vectors, and row reduce the matrix to echelon form:

𝐻21 (−1)
1 1 1 𝐻31 (−2)
1 1 1 𝐻32 (3) 1 1 1
1 2 3 0 1 2 0 1 2
2 −1 1 0 −3 −1 0 0 5

The echelon matrix has no zero rows; hence, the three vectors are linearly independent, and so they do form a
basis of ℝ3 .
(d) form the matrix whose rows are the given vectors, and row reduce the matrix to echelon form:

𝐻21 (−1)
1 1 2 𝐻31 (−5)
1 1 1 𝐻32 (2) 1 1 1
1 2 5 0 1 3 0 1 3
5 3 4 0 −2 −6 0 0 0

The echelon matrix has a zero row; hence, the three vectors are linearly dependent, and so they do not form a basis of ℝ3 .
 Basis and Dimension
Example 2: Show that the vectors 𝑣1 = 1, 2, 1 , 𝑣2 = 2, 9, 0 , 𝑣3 = (3, 3, 4)form a basis of ℝ3 .

Solution: Form the matrix whose rows are the given vectors, and row reduce the matrix to echelon form:
𝐻21 (−2)
1 2 1 1 1 1 𝐻32 (3/5)
1 1 1
𝐻31 (−3)
2 9 0 0 5 −2 0 5 −2
3 3 4 0 −3 1 0 0 −1/5

The echelon matrix has no zero rows; hence, the three vectors are linearly independent, and so they do form a
basis of ℝ3 .

Example 3: Let W be a space generated by the polynomials 𝑣1 = 𝑡 3 − 2𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 + 1 𝑣2 = 2𝑡 3 − 3𝑡 2 + 9𝑡 − 1,

𝑣3 = 𝑡 3 + 6𝑡 − 5, 𝑣4 = 2𝑡 3 − 5𝑡 2 + 7𝑡 + 5. Find a basis and the dimension of W.

Solution: The coordinate vectors of the given polynomils relative to the basis 𝑡 3 , 𝑡 2 , 𝑡, 1 are
respectively [𝑣1 ] = 1, −2, 4, 1 , [𝑣2 ] = 2, −3, 9, −1 , [𝑣3 ] = (1, 0, 6, −5), [𝑣4 ] = (2, −5, 7, 5)
 Basis and Dimension
Form the matrix whose rows are the above coordinate vectors, and row reduce to echelon form

𝐻21 (−2)
1 −2 4 1 𝐻31 (−1) 1 −2 4 1 𝐻32 (−2) 1 −2 4 1
2 −3 9 −1 𝐻41 (−2) 0 1 1 −3 𝐻42 (1) 0 1 1 −3
1 0 6 −5 0 2 2 −6 0 0 0 0
2 −5 7 5 0 −1 −1 3 0 0 0 0

The nonzero rows 1, −2, 4, 1 and 0, 1, 1, −3 of the echelon matrix form a basis of the space
generated by the coordinate vectors, and so the corresponding polynomials 𝑡 3 − 2𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 + 1 and 𝑡 2 +
𝑡 − 3 form a basis of W. Thus 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑊 = 2.

Example 4: Find the dimension and a basis of the solution space W of the system
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 𝑠 + 3𝑡 = 0
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 + 𝑠 + 𝑡 = 0
3𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 8𝑧 + 𝑠 + 5𝑡 = 0
 Basis and Dimension
Solution: Reduce the system to echelon form:

𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 𝑠 + 3𝑡 = 0 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 𝑠 + 3𝑡 = 0
𝑧 + 2𝑠 − 2𝑡 = 0 𝑧 + 2𝑠 − 2𝑡 = 0
2𝑧 + 4𝑠 − 4𝑡 = 0

The system in echelon form has 2 (nonzero) equations in 5 unknowns; hence the dimension of the
solution space W is 5 − 2 = 3. the free variables are 𝑦, 𝑠 and 𝑡.
Set 𝑖 𝑦 = 1, 𝑠 = 0, 𝑡 = 0, we obtain 𝑥 = −2, 𝑧 = 0
𝑖𝑖 𝑦 = 0, 𝑠 = 1, 𝑡 = 0, we obtain 𝑥 = 5, 𝑧 = −2
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑦 = 0, 𝑠 = 0, 𝑡 =1, we obtain 𝑥 = −7, 𝑧 = 2
Thus 𝑣1 = −2, 1, 0, 0, 0 , 𝑣2 = 5, 0, −2, 1, 0 , 𝑣3 = (−7, 0, 2, 0, 1)
The set 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 is a basis of the solution space W.
 Basis and Dimension
Problem 5: Let W be the subspace of ℝ4 spanned by the vectors 1, −2, 5, −3 , 2, 3, 1, −4 and 3, 8, −3, −5
(a) Find a basis and dimension of W. (b) Extend the basis of W to a basis of the whole space ℝ4 .
Solution:
(a) Form the matrix whose rows are the given vectors and reduce it to echelon form:

𝐻21 (−2)
1 −2 5 −3 𝐻31 (−3)
1 −2 5 −3 𝐻32 (−2)
1 −2 5 −3
2 3 1 −4 0 7 −9 2 0 7 −9 2
3 8 −3 −5 0 14 −18 4 0 0 0 0
The nonzero rows 1, −2, 5, −3 and 0, 7, −9, 2 of the echelon matrix form a basis of the row space, that is,
of W. Thus, in particular, 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑊 = 2.

(b) We seek four linearly independent vectors, which include the above two vectors. The four vectors
1, −2, 5, −3 , 0, 7, −9, 2 , (0, 0, 1, 0), and (0, 0, 0, 1) are linearly independent (because they form an echelon
matrix), and so they form a basis of ℝ4 , which is an extension of the basis of W.
 Basis and Dimension
Problem 6: Let 𝑈 and W be the following subspaces of ℝ4 : 𝑈 = { 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 : 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0}, 𝑊 =
{ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 : 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = 2𝑑}. Find a basis and the dimension of (i) 𝑈 (ii) W, (iii) 𝑈 ∩ 𝑊.
Solution:
(i) We seek a basis of the set of solutions 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 of the equation
𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0 or 0 ∙ a + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0 . The free variables are 𝑎, 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑. Set
(a) 𝑎 = 1, 𝑐 = 0, 𝑑 = 0 (b) 𝑎 = 0, 𝑐 = 1, 𝑑 = 0 (c) 𝑎 = 0, 𝑐 = 0, 𝑑 = 1 to obtain the respective solutions
𝑣1 = (1,0, 0, 0), 𝑣2 = (0, −1, 1, 0), 𝑣3 = (0, −1, 0, 1)
The set {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 } is a basis of 𝑈, and 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑈 = 3.

(ii) We seek a basis of the set of solutions 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 of the equation

𝑎+𝑏 =0 𝑎+𝑏 =0
The free variables are 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑. Set
𝑐 = 2𝑑 𝑐 − 2𝑑 = 0
(a) 𝑏 = 1, 𝑑 = 0 (b) 𝑏 = 0, 𝑑 = 1 to obtain the respective solutions 𝑣1 = (−1, 1, 0, 0), 𝑣2 = (0, 0, 2, 1),
The set {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 } is a basis of 𝑈, and 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑊 = 2.
 Basis and Dimension
(iii) 𝑈 ∩ 𝑊 consists of those vectors 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 which satisfy the conditions defining 𝑈 and the conditions
defining 𝑊, i.e. the three equations
𝑏+𝑐+𝑑 =0 𝑏+𝑐+𝑑 =0
𝑎+𝑑 =0 𝑎+𝑑 =0
𝑐 = 2𝑑 𝑐 − 2𝑑 = 0

The free variable is 𝑑. Set 𝑑 = 1 to obtain the solution 𝑣 = (−1, −3, 2, 1)

Thus {𝑣} is a basis of 𝑈 ∩ 𝑊, and dim(𝑈 ∩ 𝑊) = 1.
 Linear Mappings
Mappings: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be arbitrary sets. Suppose to each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 there is assigned a unique element of 𝐵; the
collection, 𝑓, of such assignments is called a function or mapping from 𝐴 into 𝐵 and is written 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵.

One to One Mapping: A mapping 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to one-to-one if different elements of 𝐴 have distinct
images; that is, if 𝑎 ≠ 𝑎′ implies 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎′ ) or equivalently 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎′ ) implies 𝑎 ≠ 𝑎′.

Onto Mapping: A mapping 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to onto if ever 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 is the image of at least one 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

Linear Mapping: Let 𝑉 and 𝑈 be vector space over the same field 𝐾. A mapping 𝐹: 𝑉 → 𝑈 is called a linear
mapping if it satisfies the following two conditions:

(i) For any 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝑉, 𝐹 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 𝐹 𝑣 + 𝐹(𝑤).

(ii) For any 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 and any 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉, 𝐹 𝑘𝑣 = 𝑘𝐹(𝑣).

Kernel and Image of a linear mapping: Let 𝐹: 𝑉 → 𝑈 be a linear mapping. The image of 𝐹, written Im𝐹, is
the set of image points in 𝑈: Im𝐹 = {𝑢 ∈ 𝑈: 𝐹 𝑣 = 𝑢 for some 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉}
 Linear Mappings
Kernel and Image of a linear mapping: Let 𝐹: 𝑉 → 𝑈 be a linear mapping. The image of 𝐹, written Im𝐹, is
the set of image points in 𝑈:

Im𝐹 = {𝑢 ∈ 𝑈: 𝐹 𝑣 = 𝑢 for some 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉}

The kernel of 𝐹, written Ker𝐹, is the set of elements in 𝑉 which map into 0 ∈ 𝑈:

Ker𝐹 = {𝑣 ∈ 𝑉: 𝐹 𝑣 = 0}

Show that the following mappings 𝐹 are linear:

(i) 𝐹: ℝ2 → ℝ2 defined by 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥) (ii) 𝐹: ℝ3 → ℝ defined by 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 4𝑧

Solution: (i) Let 𝑣 = (𝑎, 𝑏) and 𝑤 = (𝑎′, 𝑏′); hence 𝑣 + 𝑤 = (𝑎 + 𝑎′ , 𝑏 + 𝑏 ′ ) and 𝑘𝑣 = (𝑘𝑎, 𝑘𝑏), 𝑘 ∈ ℝ

We have 𝐹 𝑣 = 𝐹(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎) and 𝐹 𝑤 = 𝐹(𝑎′ , 𝑏′ ) = (𝑎′ + 𝑏′, 𝑎′)

Thus, 𝐹 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 𝐹 𝑎 + 𝑎′ , 𝑏 + 𝑏′ = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎′ + 𝑏′, 𝑎 + 𝑎′ = 𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎 + 𝑎′ + 𝑏′, 𝑎′ = 𝐹 𝑣 + 𝐹 𝑤

 Linear Mappings
and 𝐹 𝑘𝑣 = 𝐹 𝑘𝑎, 𝑘𝑏 = 𝑘𝑎 + 𝑘𝑏, 𝑘𝑎 = 𝑘 𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎 = 𝑘𝐹(𝑣)

Since 𝑣 , 𝑤 and 𝑘 were arbitrary, 𝐹 is linear

(ii) Let 𝑣 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) and 𝑤 = (𝑎′ , 𝑏′ , 𝑐′); hence 𝑣 + 𝑤 = (𝑎 + 𝑎′ , 𝑏 + 𝑏′ , 𝑐 + 𝑐′) and 𝑘𝑣 = (𝑘𝑎, 𝑘𝑏, 𝑘𝑐), 𝑘 ∈ ℝ

We have 𝐹 𝑣 = 2𝑎 − 3𝑏 + 4𝑐 and 𝐹 𝑤 = 2𝑎′ − 3𝑏′ + 4𝑐′

Thus, 𝐹 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 𝐹 𝑎 + 𝑎′ , 𝑏 + 𝑏′ , 𝑐 + 𝑐′ = 2 𝑎 + 𝑎′ ) − 3 𝑏 + 𝑏′ + 4(𝑐 + 𝑐 ′
= 2𝑎 − 3𝑏 + 4𝑐 + 2𝑎′ − 3𝑏 ′ + 4𝑐′ = 𝐹 𝑣 + 𝐹 𝑤

and 𝐹 𝑘𝑣 = 𝐹 𝑘𝑎, 𝑘𝑏, 𝑘𝑐 = 2𝑘𝑎 − 3𝑘𝑏 + 4𝑘𝑐 = 𝑘 2𝑎 − 3𝑏 + 4𝑐 = 𝑘𝐹(𝑣)

Accordingly, 𝐹 is linear
 Linear Mappings
Show that the following mappings 𝐹 are not linear:
(i) 𝐹: ℝ2 → ℝ defined by 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 (ii) 𝐹: ℝ2 → ℝ3 defined by 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1, 2𝑦, 𝑥 + 𝑦)
(iii) 𝐹: ℝ3 → ℝ2 defined by 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = (|𝑥|, 0)

Solution: (i) Let 𝑣 = (1, 2) and 𝑤 = (3, 4); hence 𝑣 + 𝑤 = (4, 6)

We have 𝐹 𝑣 = 1 ∙ 2 = 2 and 𝐹 𝑤 = 3 ∙ 4 = 12

Hence, 𝐹 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 𝐹 4, 6 = 4 ∙ 6 = 24 ≠ 𝐹 𝑣 + 𝐹(𝑤)

Accordingly, 𝐹 is not linear

(ii) Since 𝐹(0, 0) = (1, 0, 0) ≠ (0, 0, 0), 𝐹 cannot be linear

(iii) Let 𝑣 = (1, 2, 3) and 𝑘 = −3; hence 𝑘𝑣 = (−3, −6, −9)
We have 𝐹 𝑣 = (1, 0) and so 𝑘𝐹 𝑣 = −3 ∙ (1, 0) = (−3, 0)
𝐹 𝑘𝑣 = 𝐹(−3, −6, −9) = (3, 0) ≠ 𝑘𝐹 𝑣
Hence, 𝐹 is not linear
 Linear Mappings
Let 𝐹: ℝ4 → ℝ3 be the linear mapping defined by 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑠, 𝑡 = (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑠 + 𝑡, 𝑥 + 2𝑠 − 𝑡, 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑠 − 3𝑡)
Find a basis and the dimension of the (i) image 𝑈 of 𝐹, (ii) kernel 𝑊 of 𝐹.

Solution: (i) The images of the following generators of ℝ4 generate the image 𝑈 of 𝐹

𝐹 1, 0, 0, 0 = (1, 1, 1) 𝐹 0, 1, 0, 0 = (−1, 0, 1)
𝐹 0, 0, 1, 0 = (1, 2, 3) 𝐹 0, 0, 0, 1 = (1, −1, −3)

Form the matrix whose rows are the generators of 𝑈 and row reduce to the echelon form
𝐻21 (1)
1 1 1 𝐻31 (−1) 1 1 1 𝐻32 (−1) 1 1 1
−1 0 1 𝐻41 (−1) 0 1 2 𝐻42 (2) 0 1 2
1 2 3 0 1 2 0 0 0
1 −1 −3 0 −2 −4 0 0 0

Thus { 1, 1, 1 , (0, 1, 2)} is a basis of 𝑈; hence 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑈 = 2

 Linear Mappings
(ii) we seek the set of (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑠, 𝑡) such that 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑠, 𝑡 = (0, 0, 0), i.e.
𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑠, 𝑡 = (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑠 + 𝑡, 𝑥 + 2𝑠 − 𝑡, 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑠 − 3𝑡) = (0, 0, 0)
Set corresponding components equal to each other to form the following homogeneous system whose
solution space is the kernel 𝑊 of 𝐹:

𝑥−𝑦+𝑠+𝑡 =0 𝑥−𝑦+𝑠+𝑡 =0 𝑥−𝑦+𝑠+𝑡 =0

𝑥 + 2𝑠 − 𝑡 = 0 𝑦 + 𝑠 − 2𝑡 = 0 𝑦 + 𝑠 − 2𝑡 = 0
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑠 − 3𝑡 = 0 2𝑦 + 2𝑠 − 4𝑡 = 0

The free variables are 𝑠 and 𝑡; hence 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑊 = 2. Set

(a) 𝑠 = −1, 𝑡 = 0 to obtain the solution (2, 1, −1, 0)
(b) 𝑠 = 0, 𝑡 = 1 to obtain the solution (1, 2, 0, 1)

Thus {(2, 1, −1, 0), (1, 2, 0, 1)} is a basis of 𝑊.

 Linear Mappings
Let 𝐹: ℝ3 → ℝ3 be the linear mapping defined by 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = (𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧, 𝑦 + 𝑧, 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧)
Find a basis and the dimension of the (i) image 𝑈 of 𝑇, (ii) kernel 𝑊 of 𝑇.

Solution: (i) The images of the following generators of ℝ3 generate the image 𝑈 of 𝑇

𝑇 1, 0, 0 = (1, 0, 1) 𝑇 0, 1, 0 = (2, 1, 1) 𝑇 0, 0, 1 = (−1, 1, −2)

Form the matrix whose rows are the generators of 𝑈 and row reduce to the echelon form

𝐻21 (−2)
1 0 1 𝐻31 (1)
1 0 1 𝐻32 (−1) 1 0 1
2 1 1 0 1 −1 0 1 −1
−1 1 −2 0 1 −1 0 0 0

Thus { 1, 0, 1 , (0, 1, −1)} is a basis of 𝑈, and so 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑈 = 2

 Linear Mappings
(ii) we seek the set of (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) such that 𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = (0, 0, 0), i.e.
𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = (𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧, 𝑦 + 𝑧, 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧) = (0, 0, 0)
Set corresponding components equal to each other to form the following homogeneous system whose
solution space is the kernel 𝑊 of 𝑇:

𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
𝑦+𝑧 =0 𝑦+𝑧 =0
−𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0 −𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0

The only free variable is 𝑧; hence 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑊 = 1. Let 𝑧 = 1; then 𝑦 = −1 and 𝑥 = 3.

Thus {(3, −1, 1)} is a basis of 𝑊.