SKILL 3

MATCHING FEATURES

Exercise 1
Although French, German, American and British pioneers have all been credited
with the invention of cinema, the British and the Germans played a relatively
small role in its world-wide exploitation. It was above all the French, followed
closely by the Americans, who were the most passionate exporters of the new
invention, helping to start cinema in China, Japan, Latin America and Russia. In
terms of artistic development it was again the French and the Americans who
took the lead, though in the years before the First World War, Italy, Denmark and
Russia also played a part.

In the end it was the United States that was to become, and remain, the largest
single market for films. By protecting their own market and pursuing a vigorous
export policy, the Americans achieved a dominant position on the world market
by the start of the First World War. The centre of film-making had moved
westwards, to Hollywood, and it was films from these new Hollywood studios that
flooded onto the world’s film markets in the years after the First World War, and
have done so ever since. Faced with total Hollywood domination, few film
industries proved competitive. The Italian industry, which had pioneered the
feature film with spectacular films like ‘Quo Vadis?’ (1913) and ‘Cabiria’ (1914),
almost collapsed. In Scandinavia, the Swedish cinema had a brief period of glory,
notably with powerful epic films and comedies. Even the French cinema found
itself in a difficult position. In Europe, only Germany proved industrially capable,
while in the new Soviet Union and in Japan, the development of the cinema took
place in conditions of commercial isolation.

Hollywood took the lead artistically as well as industrially. Hollywood films

appealed because they had better constructed narratives, their special effects
were more impressive, and the star system added a new dimension to screen
acting. If Hollywood did not have enough of its own resources, it had a great deal
of money to buy up artists and technical innovations from Europe to ensure its
continued dominance over present or future competition.

From early cinema, it was only American slapstick comedy that successfully
developed in both short and feature format. However, during this ‘Silent Film’
era, animation, comedy, serials and dramatic features continued to thrive, along
with factual films or documentaries, which acquired an increasing distinctiveness
as the period progressed. It was also at this time that the avant-garde film first
achieved commercial success, this time thanks almost exclusively to the French
and the occasional German film.

Of the countries which developed and maintained distinctive national cinemas in

the silent period, the most important were France, Germany and the Soviet
Union. Of these, the French displayed the most continuity, in spite of the war and
post-war economic uncertainties. The German cinema, relatively insignificant in
the pre-war years, exploded on to the world scene after 1919. Yet even they
were both overshadowed by the Soviets after the 1917 Revolution. They turned
their back on the past, leaving the style of the pre-war Russian cinema to the
émigrés who fled westwards to escape the Revolution.

The other countries whose cinemas changed dramatically are: Britain, which had
an interesting but undistinguished history in the silent period; Italy, which had a
brief moment of international fame just before the war; the Scandinavian
countries, particularly Denmark, which played a role in the development of silent
cinema quite out of proportion to their small population; and Japan, where a
cinema developed based primarily on traditional theatrical and, to a lesser
extent, other art forms and only gradually adapted to western influence.

Questions 1– 7
Look at the following statements (questions 1- 7) and the list of countries below.
Match each statement with the correct country, A-J.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
1. It helped other countries develop their own film industry.
2. It was the biggest producer of films.
3. It was first to develop the 'feature' film.
4. It was responsible for creating stars.
5. It made the most money from 'avant-garde' films.
6. It made movies based more on its own culture than outside influences.
7. It had a great influence on silent movies, despite its size
List of Countries
A France F Japan
B Germany G Russia
C USA H Italy
D Denmark I Britain
 E Sweden J China
Exercise 2
The invention of rockets is linked inextricably with the invention of 'black
powder'. Most historians of technology credit the Chinese with its discovery. They
base their belief on studies of Chinese writings or on the notebooks of early
Europeans who settled in or made long visits to China to study its history and
civilisation. It is probable that, some time in the tenth century, black powder was
first compounded from its basic ingredients of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur.
But this does not mean that it was immediately used to propel rockets. By the
thirteenth century, powder propelled fire arrows had become rather common.
The Chinese relied on this type of technological development to produce
incendiary projectiles of many sorts, explosive grenades and possibly cannons to
repel their enemies. One such weapon was the 'basket of fire' or, as directly
translated from Chinese, the 'arrows like flying leopards'. The 0.7 metre-long
arrows, each with a long tube of gunpowder attached near the point of each
arrow, could be fired from a long, octagonal-shaped basket at the same time and
had a range of 400 paces. Another weapon was the 'arrow as a flying sabre',
which could be fired from crossbows. The rocket, placed in a similar position to
other rocket-propelled arrows, was designed to increase the range. A small iron
weight was attached to the 1.5m bamboo shaft, just below the feathers, to
increase the arrow's stability by moving the centre of gravity to a position below
the rocket. At a similar time, the Arabs had developed the 'egg which moves and
burns'. This 'egg' was apparently full of gunpowder and stabilised by a 1.5m tail.
It was fired using two rockets attached to either side of this tail.

It was not until the eighteenth century that Europe became seriously interested
in the possibilities of using the rocket itself as a weapon of war and not just to
propel other weapons. Prior to this, rockets were used only in pyrotechnic
displays. The incentive for the more aggressive use of rockets came not from
within the European continent but from far-away India, whose leaders had built
up a corps of rocketeers and used rockets successfully against the British in the
late eighteenth century. The Indian rockets used against the British were
described by a British Captain serving in India as ‘an iron envelope about 200
millimetres long and 40 millimetres in diameter with sharp points at the top and
a 3m-long bamboo guiding stick’. In the early nineteenth century the British
began to experiment with incendiary barrage rockets. The British rocket differed
from the Indian version in that it was completely encased in a stout, iron
cylinder, terminating in a conical head, measuring one metre in diameter and
having a stick almost five metres long and constructed in such a way that it
could be firmly attached to the body of the rocket. The Americans developed a
rocket, complete with its own launcher, to use against the Mexicans in the mid-
nineteenth century. A long cylindrical tube was propped up by two sticks and
fastened to the top of the launcher, thereby allowing the rockets to be inserted
and lit from the other end. However, the results were sometimes not that
impressive as the behaviour of the rockets in flight was less than predictable.

Questions 1 – 4
Look at the following items (Questions 1 - 4) and the list of groups below. Match
each item with the group which first invented or used them.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
1. black powder
2. rocket-propelled arrows for fighting
3. rockets as war weapons
4. the rocket launcher
First invented or used by
A the Chinese
B the Indians
C the British
D the Arabs
E the Americans

Exercise 3
The Science of Yoga
The term yoga comes from the Sanskrit word ‘yuji’ meaning yoke or union. Yoga
is said to unite the mind and body. There are many different forms but all include
physical poses, meditation and breathing exercises intended to bring relaxation
and stress reduction. It’s physical and mental benefits have been lauded for
centuries and now science can back up some of these claims.

A number of studies have looked at the effect of yoga on stress. Research carried
out in 2005 by Andreas Michalsen of the University of Duisberg-Essen in
Germany, followed 24 women suffering from emotional distress on a three-month
yoga programme. Findings showed a significant reduction in their levels of
cortisol which is the primary stress hormone. Their levels of anxiety, stress,
fatigue and depression also dropped considerably.

A comparable study was carried out in 2007 at the University of South Australia
by researcher Caroline Smith, in this case, comparing the effect of yoga and
relaxation on stress and anxiety. Smith’s work with 131 people over a period of
10 weeks showed similar results. In addition, yoga did appear to provide a
comparable improvement in stress, anxiety and health status compared to
relaxation.

Another area of health that has been subject to research is heart health.
Scientists at the Department of Physiology, Government College, Nagpur,
focused their research on the effect of yoga on the cardiovascular system in
subjects over 40 years old. The results were encouraging with Vijay Bharshankar
reporting that, “participants over 40 years of age who practiced yoga for five
years had a lower blood pressure and pulse rate than those who didn’t”.

Other research suggests that making yoga a part of a healthy lifestyle can
actually help to slow the progression of heart disease. A study on 113 patients
with heart disease conducted by Dr J. Yogendra of The Yoga Institute, Santacruz,
Mumbai, looked at the effects of a lifestyle change that included one year of
yoga training combined with dietary modifications and stress management. The
encouraging results showed an average decrease in cholesterol of 23% and the
progression of heart disease stopped in 47% of patients. While it was unclear
how much of a role yoga had versus other factors like diet, yoga was shown to
reduce stress which is one of the major contributors to heart disease.

Questions 1–4
Look at the following ideas (Questions 1–4) and the list of researchers below.
Match each idea with the correct researcher, A, B, C or D.
1. the importance of yoga in decreasing the main hormone linked to stress
2. the advantage of yoga compared to relaxation in decreasing stress and
anxiety
3. the significance of yoga in relation to existing cases of heart disease
4. the connection between practicing yoga and improvements in the circulatory
system
List of Researchers
A Caroline Smith
 B Jayadeva Yogendra
C Andreas Michalsen
D Vijay Bharshankar

Exercise 4
Telepathy
Can humans communicate by their thoughts alone? From more than a 100 years
ago experiments on telepathy have divided the scientific community. Today it is
still a controversy among top scientists.

Since the 1970s, parapsychologists at leading universities and research institutes

around the world have been mocked by sceptical colleagues for putting the
various claims for telepathy to the test in many rigorous scientific studies. The
results and their implications are dividing even the researchers who discovered
them.

Some researchers say the results contain strong evidence that telepathy is real.
Other parapsychologists believe the field is on the brink of collapse, because
they failed to produce definitive scientific evidence. Sceptics and advocates alike
do agree on one issue: that the most impressive evidence so far has come from
the 'ganzfeld' experiments, a German term that means 'whole field'. Reports of
telepathic experiences experienced by people while meditating lured
parapsychologists to suspect that telepathy might involve 'signals' passing
between people that were so faint that they were usually lost by normal brain
activity. In such cases these signals might be more easily detected by those
performing meditation-like tranquillity in a relaxing 'whole field' of light, sound
and warmth.

In the ganzfeld experiment, they try to recreate these conditions with

participants sitting in soft reclining chairs in a sealed room, listening to relaxing
sounds, eyes covered with special filters and letting in only pink light. In the early
ganzfeld experiments in 1980, the telepathy experiment involved identifying a
picture from a group of 4 taken from a larger group of images. The idea was that
a person acting as the 'sender' would attempt to send the image over to the
'receiver' in the sealed room.

After the session, this person was asked to identify which of the 4 images had
been used. Random guessing would give a hit-rate of 25%; if telepathy is real,
however, the hit-rate would be higher. In 1982, the results from the first ganzfeld
studies were analysed by the American parapsychologist Charles Honorton. They
pointed to typical hit-rates of more than 30% - a small effect, but one which
statistical tests say could not be put down to chance.

Questions 1 - 4
Look at the following Questions 1-4 and the list of the statements below. Match
each statement with the correct one.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
1. Years since the telepathic experiments started
2. Year when first results of ganzfeld experiments were analysed by Charles
Honorton
3. Year when early ganzfeld experiments started
4. Year when parapsychologists stated putting claims for telepathy
Year
A. 1970
B. 1980
C. 1982
D. 1970
E. 1992
F. 100

Exercise 5
Reducing the Effects of Climate Change
Our dependence on fossil fuels, and the volume of carbon dioxide already
released into the atmosphere, has led experts to agree that global warming is
now inevitable. They believe that the best we can do is keep the emission levels
low. At present the only valid option for us is to cut down our carbon emissions.
While a few countries are taking major action in this regard, other countries are
having difficulty even limiting the rate of increase, let alone reversing it. An
increasing number of scientists are exploring the alternative of geo-engineering
a term which refers to the calculated large-scale manipulation of the
environment. According to its promoters, geo-engineering is like a backup
generator. If Plan A - reducing our dependence on fossil fuels - fails, then we
require Plan B - devise grand schemes to slow down or reverse the process of
global warming.

Geo-engineering has proved to show results on a small localised scale. For many
years, MayDay parades conducted in Moscow have taken place under clear skies,
aircraft deposited dry ice, silver iodide and cement powder to disperse clouds.
Many of the schemes now suggested look to reduce the amount of sunlight
reaching Earth. The most catchy idea of all is suggested by Professor Roger
Angel of the University of Arizona. According to his scheme they have to employ
up to 16 trillion minute spacecraft weighing about 1 gms each, to form a
transparent sunshade refracting sunlight in an orbit 1.5 million kms above the
surface of the Earth. This could reduce the amount of light reaching the Earth by
2%, says Angel.

Majority of the geo-engineering projects carried out so far include planting

forests in deserts depositing iron in the ocean to stimulate the growth of algae.
They have focused on achieving a general cooling of our planet. But some
suggest reversing the melting at the poles, particularly the Arctic. The reason is
that if we can bring back the ice sheets and frozen waters of the high latitudes,
more light will be reflected back into space thus reducing the heating of the
waters and atmosphere.

Questions 1 - 5
Look at the following Questions 1-5 and the list of the statements below. Match
each statement with the correct on. Write the correct letter A-F on your answer
sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
1. Present valid option to stop climate change
2. Devise grand schemes to slow down or reverse the process of global
warming
3. Reduce dependence on fossil fuels
4. Option that shows result in small scale
5. Option to stimulate growth of algae in oceans

A. Plan B
B. Carbon emission reduction
C. Deposit iron
D. Plan A
E. Restore ice sheets
F. Geo-engineering

Exercise 6
OBJECTS FROM DIFFERENT CIVILIZATIONS
Objects from lost civilisations can tell us about the social relationships and the
way of life of the people belonging to those societies. The Indus valley civilisation
and the Chinese civilisation have been influential with their innovations and
contributions to advanced technology. The Indus Valley civilization is also called
the Harappan civilization. Developing along the mighty Indus River, it was at its
peak around 2500 and 3500 BC. This Bronze Age civilisation is believed to be
among the oldest world civilisations together with the Egyptian and
Mesopotamian civilisations. The famous figurine of the dancing girl from the
Harappa region shows the advances made in art and metallurgy at the time. The
statue describes details such as the hairstyle and ornaments prevalent then such
as the more than 20 bangles in her left arm and four on her right arm, and the
necklace. Although the bronze statuette is in standing position, it was named the
dancing girl by assuming that it was her profession.

The seals are other famous objects from the Bronze Age. Seals are beautifully
carved out of stone and then fired for durability. Over 3,500 seals discovered are
mostly square with different symbols at the top, an animal in the centre and a
few more symbols at the bottom are, which are presumed to be the inscription of
the Indus valley language. The inscription indicates that people of this age wrote
the first line from right to left, the second line from left to right and so on. Some
common animal inscriptions on these seals include elephants, unicorns,
rhinoceros, and bulls. On the reverse face, most seals have projections with a
hole to possibly carry it comfortably. The imprint on some of the seals suggests
that they were used as clay tags for sacks of traded goods such as grain, which
means that the Harappan people were involved in long-distance trading
networks. Hunting tools show that the Indus people were fond of game. Many of
the toys are carts and animals made from baked clay, and most were for
children, which has led to the conclusion that the people had an active social life.

Standardised measurement is another valuable contribution of the Indus valley

people. The oldest ruler with markings was a copper alloy rod found by a German
archaeologist and he claims that it was used as a standard measurement unit.
He mentions that the measurements on the ruler are divided into units that
correspond to 1.32 inches which are further divided into perfectly calculated
decimal subdivisions. Measurements of the bricks found in excavations of the
Mohenjo Daro and Harappan civilisations match with those on the ruler
mentioned by the German archaeologist.

China was the first nation to invent paper. In the older civilisations, words were
written on natural materials such as grass stalks, earthen plates, wood and
bamboo strips, tree leaves, and sheepskins. The first paper from the Chinese
people was known as bo and was made of silk. However, it was expensive. In the
2nd century, a new kind of paper was produced from rags, bark, wheat stalks,
and other materials, which was not only cheaper but was also durable and could
be used for brush writing. Papermaking had spread to other parts of the world in
the beginning of the third century. Ancient China also gets credit for the
invention of gunpowder. In a collection of most important military techniques as
described in Wujing Zongyao that was edited in 1044 by Zeng Gong Liang, three
formulas of making gunpowder were discovered and have been described as the
earliest formulas of such kinds. Another significant gift from China was the
compass. It was developed after some miners got hold of a piece of a natural
magnetite that attracted iron and pointed north. The compass that we use today
is a result of a series of improvements to the earliest design. Before it was
invented, navigators depended on the position of the moon, sun, and the
polestar for their bearings.

Questions 1-7
The reading passage mentions a number of objects/achievements related to
Indus Valley and Chinese civilisations and their relevance. Match each object/
achievement (Questions 1-7) in List A with its relevance (A-J) in List B.
List A
1. figurine of the dancing girl
2. seals for marking goods
3. weapons for hunting
4. toys for children
5. copper alloy ruler
6. production of paper from plant material
7. invention of the compass
List B
A strength and affordability of a product
B the various uses of clay
C spread of commerce in a wide area
D advancements in metal craft
E recognition of dance as a profession
F social activity
G a consequence of the discovery of natural magnet
H navigators depended on astronomical bodies
I use of standard measurements in construction
J the consumption of wild birds and animals as food

Exercise 7
Why can't we live forever?
The only certainties in life, said Benjamin Franklin, are death and taxes. Don't
expect either to disappear anytime soon. The prospects for a longer life currently
seem rosy, at least if you, are a laboratory mouse. This year has seen headlines
about mice, engineered to produce lots of antioxidants, who can live 20 percent
longer than usual, and equally impressive gain for animals altered to produce
high levels of a peptide hormone known as Klotho (after the minor Greek deity).
Ultra-low-calorie diets, big doses of vitamin E, and even transferring ovaries from
a younger mouse into elderly females also seem to extend lifespan. Shepherds
may say that sheep are just looking for new ways to die, but mice seem to be
susceptible to almost anything that can make them live a bit longer.

So what are the prospects for a rather larger mammal that normally lives 70-80
years, and very occasionally makes it to 120 before keeling over? Will, what
works in mice, work in humans?

There are well-publicised optimists who think it will. The most often quoted is
Aubrey de Grey of Cambridge, a proponent of a big expansion of research on
what he has called Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence. He is also
one of the leading lights of the Methuselah Mouse Prize, which is offered to the
scientific team that develops the longest lived mouse.

But for all his energy and revolutionary zeal, Professor de Grey is not actually
doing the research - his day job is as a computer expert in a genetics lab. And
many researchers in biogerontology are sceptical about his predictions. That
scepticism came through recently when Tom Kirkwood of the University of
Newcastle's Institute for Ageing and Health asked in Nature: “Why must
advocates of life extension make preposterous claims about imminent longevity
gains if they are to gain public notice?"

Professor Kirkwood is the author of the influential 'disposable soma’ theory of

ageing that states the body decays because there is little genetic interest in
keeping it going beyond reproductive age. This means that he sees no
programmed limit to lifespan, in mice or people. Ageing is a biological sin of
omission, not commission. So perhaps we could block whatever is doing the
damage. But, he stresses, “This does not imply that major increases in lifespan
are imminent. As we grow older , the accumulated burden of molecular and
cellular damage increases and the going gets harder."
Others in the field tend to agree. One reason is simply that ageing is very
complex, and e do not know enough to make sensible predictions. Caleb Finch of
the University of Southern California says: “I have a simple view: we don't know
what we don't know about egeing processes. So, what can be said on future
longevity?"

Linda Partridge of University College London's Centre for Research on Ageing,

well known for work on fruit flies, backs Professor Kirkwood. In any case, she
adds, "I think that we should be working to promote health during ageing rather
than on increases in lifespan per et." Either way, she believes that “Progress will
be gradual and based on existing promising areas of work, rather than based on
unproven approaches”.

Her colleague David Gems, who works on nematode worms, is optimistic that the
basic biology of ageing will be understood in the next decade or two. But he
stresses that how easily this translates into treating or preventing ageing-related
diseases depends on what ageing really turns out to be: "There's a huge margin
of uncertainty." He suggests that cancer treatments are a better historical guide
than, say, antibiotics - and most cancers femain incurable.

Martin Brand of the Medical Research Council's Dunn Human Nutrition Unit in
Cambridge also urges caution. "There have been spectacular increases in
lifespan caused by simple treatments and mutations in model organisms," he
concedes. But he is mindful that flies and mice in the laboratory tend to live
shorter lives than wild strains. "I worry that these results can be explained as
putting right bad husbandry of the model organisms rather than affecting ageing
itself.”

Questions 1-5
Look at the following statements and the list of people below. Match each
statement with the correct person.
NB - You may use any answer more than once.
1. The condition of the body starts to decline when we can't have offspring.
2. Only two things are predictable in life.
3. Living longer is less important than how healthy we are as we age.
4. People make ridiculous statements about how long we can live.
5. We can't predict the future because we don't know enough about the
ageing process

List of People
А Aubrey de Grey E Benjamin Franklin
B Caleb Finch F Martin Brand
C David Gems G Tom Kirkwood
D Linda Partridge

Exercise 8
MIGRAINE
"One pill makes you larger, and one pill makes you small and the ones that
mother gives you, dors do anything at all," words from 'Alice in Wonderland'. It is
believed that Lewis Carroll, who made us experience this wonderful journey of
'Alice in Wonderland' also suffered from a Migraine.

Migraine is a complex disorder pertaining to the head, which involves the

recurrence of severe and constant headaches. The intensity of headaches ranges
from moderate to grievous. Associated symptoms can be hypersensitivity to
light, sound or smell, nausea and vomiting. Migraine is assumed to be hereditary
and highly influenced by environmental changes. Hormones play a crucial role,
especially in the case of boys when they reach puberty, who are majorly affected
by migraine as compared to girls of the same age. Contradicting the fact, the
number of older female patients is twice or thrice that of males. However, the
threat of migraine is less during pregnancy.
In 1988, The International Headache Society provided valuable input on the
major classification of migraine - the International Classification of Headache
Disorders system - which was later adopted by the World Health Organisation.
The research team divided migraine into two prime categories: migraine without
aura and migraine with aura. More than three-fourths of the migraine sufferers
experience symptoms of migraine without aura: Partial and intense throbbing of
the head which lasts for more than 2-3 days associated with nausea and
occasional vomiting, blurred or smeared vision and developed sensitivity towards
the light, sounds or peculiar smells. In certain cases, symptoms can also
comprise stiffness of the neck and shoulders.

The migraine with aura refers to a range of neurological interventions prior to an

initial headache Only 20% of migraine sufferers fall in this category. The general
complications constitute flashy lights, scintillating scotoma - usually, some
zigzag patterns targeting the centre of the vision and encompassing a larger
area accompanied with distortions of shapes and figures, blind spots which
generally pose threats in the normal working conditions of an individual. Migraine
without headaches only comprises 1% of the sufferers. From a tender age Carl,
one of the subjects in a study, had seen his father suffer from bouts of severe
headaches followed by persistent vomiting leaving him sick in bed. At the age of
45, Carl says," I have been suffering from migraine from the age much younger
than my father. It is the worst experience of my life." He further adds, "I mostly
feel my genes are responsible for this painful condition. Though I visit the doctor
quite often medicines provide limited help." m

The classification system also includes some rare types of migraines. A

Hemiplegic Migraine where symptoms often start in childhood or teenage
sometimes leads to reversible paralysis due to the excessive weakening of
muscles. An Ophthalmologic migraine affects the muscles responsible for eye
movement. A Vestibular Migraine or Migraine Associated Vertigo (MAV) interferes
with the coordination of sensory nerves from the eyes and ears to the brain.

As per 2004 consensus, almost 80% of people suffer from some kind of severe
pain in the head As per which results in high absenteeism in schools, offices and
other institutions. How is a headache different from a migraine? A headache is
generally an acute pain in the head extending to the neck. As per the
researchers at the Mayo Clinic, headaches are discomfort or pain in the head or
face. In technical terms, headache is called cephalgias. Headaches can be
caused as a result of disturbances in the network of nerves over the scalp,
throat, face, resulting in turbulent blood vessels. Tension headaches are the most
common types of headaches, the symptoms being acute pain in the temples and
back of the neck. Experts believe this could be possible due to changes in brain
chemicals. Over-the-counter drugs can give some relief.

Another most frequent headache is a cluster headache. This is more common in

men. It causes excruciating pain on one side of the head, accompanied by
watery eyes and, at times, nasal congestion. The source and cause are unknown,
but hereditary conditions are somewhere to be blamed. Though counter
medications can curb the pain, no cure is available. A thin line can differentiate a
migraine and headaches with the varying degree of pain, where headaches could
be an outcome of stress, hangovers or emotional instability, migraine is actually
a disease. In the case of Rosemary, a stock consultant who presumed that
alcohol triggered her constant headache later through diagnosis by doctors that
high level of estrogen in the birth control pills she consumed played the trick.
She says "It is important to know the triggers that cause and try to avoid them.
Having a balanced diet is equally important."

Is migraine curable? More than 35 million people suffer from migraines, and no
one knows why. Dodick, a neurologist at the Mayo Clinic and president of the
American Headache Society, how the thalamus the integral part of the brain
which contains sensory information, is for transferring migraine pain directly to
pain receptors in the different sections of the. He further states, "Scientists have
evolved with a treatment wherein a minuscule battery wired to patient's spine
which helps to transmit pulses of electricity to the thalamus. This treatment is
called as neurostimulation." Despite this treatment, the antidote is a far-fetched
reality. Neurologists from Gulf, Germany and Italy do collectively assert that
neurostimulation reduces and controls pain but scientifically it is still an enigma.

To resolve this problem, we need to believe that every brain works differently,
and so does its cure. Every treatment has to be unique because so is the brain.
Comprehensive research is still awaited to cure this ailment. It is observed that
each time science thinks it has pulled strings, many more mysteries emerge. Our
brain works singularly; hence, the cure needs to be distinctive.

Questions 1-5
Look at the following categories (Questions 1-5) and the list of descriptions
below. Match each category with the correct description, A - G.
Write the correct letter, A - G, in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
1. Migraine without aura
2. Hemiplegic Migraine
3. Migraine Associated Vertigo
4. Cluster headache
5. Tension headache
A. disturbs the transmission of messages between brain, eyes and ears
B. neurological factors are responsible for headaches head
C. causes tense muscles in the neck and both sides of the
D. causes discomfort in the eyes and nasal tract along with a severe headache
on one side only
E. triggered by external stimuli such as typical odour or noise
F. could paralyse the body temporarily

Exercise 9
Questions 1-6
Look at the following descriptions (Questions 1-6) and the list of companies
below. Match each description with the correct company Write the correct
number A-E in boxes Questions 1-6 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
The list of companies
A. United Airlines
B. IBM
C. Nike
D. British Rail
E. Ford
1. Based their advertising on promoting individual endeavour
2. Created a campaign which was heavily criticised in the newspapers
3. Made claims about their product they were unable to substantiate
4. Initiated a promotion which eventually changed the public’s perception of the
company
5. Used an advertising message to imply that it would start providing a better
service
6. Took no notice of evidence which suggested their campaign would be unlikely
to succeed
Questions 7-11
The reading passage has nine paragraphs labelled A-I. Which paragraph
contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 1-5 on
your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
7. Discussions of how businesses often make incorrect assumptions about their
staff
8. an account of a company achieving greater success by boasting it staff’s
morale
9. Reference to the beneficial effects that internal advertising can have on a
companies’ staff
10. An illustration of how timing can be an important factor into whether a
campaign fails or not
11. A description of an advertising campaign which was aimed at both
customers and staff.

Internal Marketing
A. The customer experience. For more and more companies, this has become
the new corporate mantra. Creating remarkable and delightful customer
experiences, whether with a new product, when shopping online or in retail,
or during business-to-business (B2B) interactions, the customer experience is
what delivers on, or reinforces, what marketing promises. The one thing
every different customer experience has in common is employees. Whether
they are building the product or providing the service, employees define the
customer experience. With an internal marketing strategy, employees are
treated as “internal customers” who must be convinced of a company's
vision and worth just as aggressively as “external customers.” The goal of
internal marketing is to align every aspect of a company’s internal operations
to ensure they are as capable as possible of providing value to customers.
B. Why is internal marketing so important? First, because it's the best way to
help employees make a powerful emotional connection to the products and
services you sell. Without that connection, employees are likely to undermine
the expectations set by your advertising. In some cases, this is because they
simply don't understand what you have promised the public, so they end up
 working at cross-purposes. In other cases, it may be they don't actually
believe in the brand and feel disengaged or, worse, hostile toward the
company. We've found that when people care about and believe in the brand,
they're motivated to work harder and their loyalty to the company increases.
Employees are united and inspired by a common sense of purpose and
identity.
C. Unfortunately, in most companies, internal marketing is done poorly, if at all.
While executives recognize the need to keep people informed about the
company's strategy and direction, few understand the need to convince
employees of the brand's power; they take it as a given.
D. Employees need to hear the same messages that you send out to the
marketplace. At most companies, however, internal and external
communications are often mismatched. This can be very confusing, and it
threatens employees' perceptions of the company's integrity: They are told
one thing by management but observe that a different message is being sent
to the public. One health insurance company, for instance, advertised that
the welfare of patients was the company's number one priority, while
employees were told that their main goal was to increase the value of their
stock options through cost reductions. And one major financial services
institution told customers that it was making a major shift in focus from being
a financial retailer to a financial adviser, but, a year later, research showed
that the customer experience with the company had not changed. It turned
out that company leaders had not made an effort to sell the change
internally, so employees were still churning out transactions and hadn't
changed their behavior to match their new adviser role.
E. Enabling employees to deliver on customer expectations is important, of
course, but it's not the only reason a company needs to match internal and
external messages. Another reason is to help push the company to achieve
goals that might otherwise be out of reach. In 1997, when IBM launched its
ebusiness campaign (which is widely credited for turning around the
company's image), it chose to ignore research that suggested consumers
were unprepared to embrace IBM as a leader in e-business. Although to the
outside world this look using the campaign to align employees around the
idea of the Internet as the future of technology. The internal campaign
changed the way employees thought about everything they did, from how
they named products to how they organized staff to how they approached
 selling. The campaign was successful largely because it gave employees a
sense of direction and purpose, which in turn restored their confidence in
IBM's ability to predict the future and lead the technology industry. Today,
research shows that people are four times more likely to associate the term
"e-business" with IBM than with its nearest competitor.
F. Perhaps even more important, by taking employees into account, a company
can avoid creating a message that doesn't resonate with staff or, worse, one
that builds resentment. In 1996, United Airlines shelved its "Come Fly the
Friendly Skies" slogan when presented with a survey that revealed the depth
of customer resentment toward the airline industry. In an effort to own up to
the industry's shortcomings, United launched a new campaign, "Rising," in
which it sought to differentiate itself by acknowledging poor service and
promising incremental improvements such as better meals. While this was a
logical premise for the campaign given the tenor of the times, a campaign
focusing on customers' distaste for flying was deeply discouraging to the
staff. Employee resentment ultimately made it impossible for United to
deliver the improvements it was promising, which in turn undermined the
"Rising" pledge. Three years later, United decided employee opposition was
undermining its success and pulled the campaign. It has since moved to a
more inclusive brand message with the line "United," which both audiences
can embrace. Here, a fundamental principle of advertising, to find and
address a customer concern, failed United because it did not consider the
internal market.
G. When it comes to execution, the most common and effective way to link
internal and external marketing campaigns is to create external advertising
that targets both audiences. IBM used this tactic very effectively when it
launched its e-business campaign, it took out an eight-page ad in the Wall
Street Journal declaring its new vision, a message directed at both customers
and internal stakeholders. This is an expensive way to capture attention, but
if used sparingly, it is the most powerful form of communication; in fact, you
need do it only once for everyone in the company to read it. There's a
symbolic advantage as well. Such a tactic signals that the company is taking
its pledge very seriously; it also signals transparency the same message
going out to both audiences.
H. Advertising isn’t the only way to link internal and external marketing. At Nike,
a number of senior executives now hold the additional title of "Corporate
 Storyteller." They deliberately avoid stories of financial successes and
concentrate on parables of "just doing it," reflecting and reinforcing the
company’s ad campaigns. One tale, for example, recalls how legendary
coach and Nike cofounder Bill Bowerman, in an effort to build a better shoe
for his team, poured rubber into the family waffle iron, giving birth to the
prototype of Nike's famous Waffle Sole. By talking about such inventive
moves, the company hopes to keep the spirit of innovation that characterizes
its ad campaigns alive and well within the company.
I. But while their messages must be aligned, companies must also keep
external promises a little ahead of internal realities. Such promises provide
incentives for employees and give them something to live up to. In the
1980s, Ford turned "Quality Is Job 1" from an internal rallying cry into a
consumer slogan in response to the threat from cheaper, more reliable
Japanese cars. It did so before the claim was fully justified, but by placing it
in the public arena, it gave employees an incentive to match the Japanese. If
the promise is pushed too far ahead, however, it loses credibility. When a
beleaguered British Rail launched a campaign announcing service
improvements under the banner "We're Getting There," it did so prematurely.
By drawing attention to the gap between the promise and the reality, it
prompted destructive press coverage. This, in turn, demoralized staff, who
had been legitimately proud of the service advances they had made.

Exercise 10
Questions 1-6
The reading passage has eight paragraphs labelled A-H. Which paragraph
contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-H in 1-6 on your
answer sheet. NB You may use any letter more than once.
1. A situation where more accurate forecasts on temperature change are
possible because of amateur scientists
2. An account of an annual contest providing valuable information on the
coming of spring
3. An illustration of data submitted by ornithologists helping to predict droughts
4. A situation where professional scientists are sceptical about amateur’s
findings
5. A system in which the evidence is collected by amateurs and is more reliable
6. A reference to gratification received when amateur data is accepted as being
important

Questions 7-10
Look at the following descriptions (Questions 7-10) and list of people below.
Match each description with the correct person Write the correct number A-E in
boxes Questions 7-10 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
List of people
A. Tim Sparks
B. Rafe Sagarin
C. Terry Root
D. Mark Schwartz
E. Arnold Van Vliet

7. looking at ways to ensure that data provided by amateurs can be used

accurately
8. cautious about the use of amateur observation because of the way the
original data was interpreted
9. noted that there were many part-time naturalists whose data was relevant
10. found out information that came from gambling provided clues to climate
change

Amateur Naturalists
A. From the results of an annual Alaskan betting contest to sightings of
migratory birds, ecologists are using a wealth of unusual data to predict the
impact of climate change. Tim Sparks slides a small leather-bound notebook
out of an envelope. The book's yellowing pages contain bee-keeping notes
made between 1941 and 1969 by the late Walter Coates of Kilworth,
Leicestershire. He adds it to his growing pile of local journals, birdwatchers'
lists and gardening diaries. "We're uncovering about one major new record
each month," he says, "I still get surprised." Around two centuries before
Coates, Robert Marsham, a landowner from Norfolk in the east of England,
began recording the life cycles of plants and animals on his estate, when the
 first wood anemones flowered, the dates on which the oaks burst into leaf
and the rooks began nesting. Successive Marshams continued compiling
these notes for 211 years.
B. Today, such records are being put to use in ways that their authors could not
possibly have expected. These data sets, and others like them, are proving
invaluable to ecologists interested in the timing of biological events, or
phenology. By combining the records with climate data, researchers can
reveal how, for example, changes in temperature affect the arrival of spring,
allowing ecologists to make improved predictions about the impact of climate
change. A small band of researchers are combing through hundreds of years
of records taken by thousands of amateur naturalists. And more systematic
projects have also started up, producing an overwhelming response. "The
amount of interest is almost frightening," says Sparks, a climate researcher
at the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology in Monks Wood, Cambridgeshire.
C. Sparks first became aware of the army of "closet phenologists”, as he
describes them, when a retiring colleague gave him the Marsham records. He
now spends much of his time following leads from one historical data set to
another. As news of his quest spreads, more people tip him off to other
historical records, and more amateur phenologists appear. The British
devotion to recording and collecting makes his job easier, one man from Kent
sent him 30 years' worth of kitchen calendars, on which he had noted the
date that his neighbor’s magnolia tree flowered.
D. Other researchers have unearthed data from equally odd sources. Rafe
Sagarin, an ecologist at Stanford University in California, recently studied
records of a betting contest in which participants attempt to guess the exact
time at which a specially erected wooden tripod will fall through the surface
of a thawing river. The competition has taken place annually on the Tenana
River in Alaska since 1917, and analysis of the results showed that the thaw
now arrives five days earlier than it did when the contest began.
E. Overall, such records have helped to show that, compared with 20 years ago,
a raft of natural events now occur earlier across much of the northern
hemisphere, from the opening of leaves to the return of birds from migration
and the emergence of butterflies from hibernation. The data can also hint at
how nature will change in the future. Together with models of climate
change, amateurs' records could help guide conservation. Terry Root, an
ecologist at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, has collected
 birdwatchers' counts of wildfowl taken between 1955 and 1996 on seasonal
ponds in the American Midwest and combined them with climate data and
models of future warming. Her analysis shows that the increased droughts
that the models predict could halve the breeding populations at the ponds.
"The number of waterfowl in North America will most probably drop
significantly with global warming," she says.
F. But not all professionals are happy to use amateur data. "A lot of scientists
won't touch them, they say they're too full of problems," says Root. Because
different observers can have different ideas of what constitutes, for example,
an open snow drop. "The biggest concern with ad hoc observations is how
carefully and systematically they were taken," says Mark Schwartz of the
University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, who studies the interactions between
plants and climate. "We need to know pretty precisely what a person's been
observing; if they just say, 'I noted when the leaves came out,' it might not
be that useful." Measuring the onset of autumn can be particularly
problematic because deciding when leaves change color is a more subjective
process than noting when they appear.
G. Overall, most phenologists are positive about the contribution that amateurs
can make. "They get at the raw power of science: careful observation of the
natural world," says Sagarin. But the professionals also acknowledge the
need for careful quality control. Root, for example, tries to gauge the quality
of an amateur archive by interviewing its collector. "You always have to
worry, things as trivial as vacations can affect measurement. I disregard a lot
of records because they're not rigorous enough," she says. Others suggest
that the right statistics can iron out some of the problems with amateur data.
Together with colleagues at Wageningen University in the Netherlands,
environmental scientist Arnold van Vliet is developing statistical techniques
to account for the uncertainty in amateur phenological data. With the
enthusiasm of amateur phenologists evident from past records, professional
researchers are now trying to create standardized recording schemes for
future efforts. They hope that well-designed studies will generate a volume of
observations large enough to drown out the idiosyncrasies of individual
recorders. The data are cheap to collect, and can provide breadth in space,
time and range of species. "It's very difficult to collect data on a large
geographical scale without enlisting an army of observers," says Root.
H. Phenology also helps to drive home messages about climate change.
"Because the public understand these records, they accept them," says
Sparks. It can also illustrate potentially unpleasant consequences, he adds,
such as the finding that more rat infestations are reported to local councils in
warmer years. And getting people involved is great for public relations.
"People are thrilled to think that the data they've been collecting as a hobby
can be used for something scientific; it empowers them," says Root.

Exercise 11
Questions 1-5
Look at the following researchers (Questions 1-5) and list of findings below.
Match each researcher with the correct finding(s) Write the correct number A-D
in boxes Questions 1-5 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
List of findings
A. Darwin
B. Christenfeld and Harris
C. Peter Derks
D. Yngve Zotterman

1. Surprise combined with anticipation are both factors which cause laughter
when being tickled.
2. Damage to specific areas in the brain can impact how we react to humor.
3. People also laugh when tickled by a machine.
4. Even without the ability to feel sensations of pain, people may still laugh
when tickled.
5. The way we respond to being tickled by laughing is actually a reflex.

Questions 6-13
Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-J
in boxes 6-13 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
6. Differences in personality or mood may account for why humor is not the
same for everyone.
7. Location of a brain section responsible for the recognition of joke.
8. Tickling yourself is difficult because it lacks the elements of tension and
surprise.
9. Laughter lowers muscle tension and stress levels.
10. Neuropsychological mechanisms by which humor and laughter work
11. Tickling sensations involve more than nerve fibers.
12. Parts of the brain control tickling reflex 13. Parts of the brain are involved
with humor

The Science of Laughing

A. Why do we begin laughing when we are tickled? Tickling comes from the
feeling of light sensations on the skin. Sometimes this light sensation feels
like itching, but usually it causes giggling. When dragging a feather gently
across the surface of our skin, it can also cause a tickling sensation, and
more laughing. Heavy laughter can happen when someone or something
repeatedly puts pressure on a particular area by tickling. The most ticklish
spots may be the feet, toes, sides, underarms, or neck, and tickling any of
these can cause a great deal of laughter. Yngve Zotterman from Karolinksk
Institute has discovered that tickling sensations come from signals within
nerve fibers. These nerve fibers are related to our senses of pain and touch.
In addition, Zotterman has found tickling sensations are not only connected
with nerve fibers, but also with our sense of touch. This is from information
which shows people who have lost pain sensations still laugh when tickled.
Another question remains, though. Why are we not able to tickle ourselves?
What part of the brain is involved in laughter and humor? Why is it
sometimes said that a person has no sense of humor?
B. Research indicates that laughter goes beyond a person’s voice and physical
reactions. It seems that this act requires the coordination of several
muscles. Laughter increases blood pressure and heart rate as well as
changes in breathing, reduced levels of certain neurochemicals
(catecholamines, hormones) and boostes to our immune system. Could
laughter have health benefits? Muscle tension tends to go down after
laughing, so perhaps it’s a good way for some to relax. Experiments on
humans have revealed some evidence suggesting watching humorous
videos and tapes can reduce feelings of pain, stop negative stress reactions
and improve our defenses against infection.
C. Researchers believe that processing humor and laughter requires a
complicated network of brain activity involving three main brain
components. In a recent study, imaging equipment was used to record
healthy volunteers’ brain activity as they were presented with written jokes,
comics from “The New Yorker,” and “The Far Side” and recordings of the
sounds of people laughing. The first results suggest that the pathway of the
brain processing humor appears in parts of the frontal lobe brain area,
important for cognitive processing, the supplementary motor area, used for
movement, and the nucleus accumbens, connected to pleasure. Research
investigations support the notion that parts of the frontal lobe are involved
in humor. Images were taken from subjects’ brains as they listened to jokes.
Part of the frontal lobe only became active when subjects found a joke
humorous. Another study compared healthy individuals with those whose
frontal lobes were damaged. Results showed that people with damaged
frontal lobes tended to choose incorrect punch lines to written jokes and
didn’t laugh or smile as often with funny stimulus.
D. Despite current knowledge on what parts of the brain are involved with
humor, there still isn’t much of an explanation for why we don’t laugh when
we tickle ourselves. Darwin theorized within “The Expressions of the
Emotions in Man and Animals” that the connection existing between tickling
and laughing was due to an anticipation of pleasure. Since we cannot tickle
ourselves, Darwin believed that the surprise of another person touching a
sensitive spot must have caused laughter. Some scientists believe that
tickling resulting in laughter is a reflex even for babies. When we try to tickle
ourselves in the same place that someone else did, we do not laugh like we
did before. Information traveling through our spinal cord and brain should be
the same. It seems that the brain needs tenseness and surprise to produce a
response of laughter. There is no tension or surprise when you try to tickle
yourself. The way that the brain reacts to tension and surprise remains
mysterious, although some evidence points to involvement of the
cerebellum. Research suggests that during self-tickling, the cerebellum
communicates with another area, the somatosensory cortex, and therefore
lessening the tickling sensation. It seems that the cerebellum is responsible
for “warning” the body that the tickler is actually him or herself. More
research on tickling and laughter by Christenfeld and Harris includes “The
Mystery of Ticklish Laughter” and “Can a Machine Tickle?.” In their work,
 they explain how people laughed the same amount regardless whether they
were being tickled by a machine or by a person. The participants, however,
did not know which one was tickling them. This supports Darwin’s reasoning
that the tickling response is a reflex, and the laughter response requires
some level of surprise.
E. Damage to specific areas in the brain can influence the way we process
humor. Peter Derks, a professor of psychology, teamed up with a group of
scientists at NASA-Langley in Hampton. In their experiment, they used an
advanced electroencephalogram (EEG) to measure brain activity for 10
participants when presented with humorous stimuli. Whether or not we
laugh depends on the speed at which our brains realize some inconsistency
involved in most humor, then attaches an abstract meaning to it. But humor
can also be subjective, as some people find jokes funny that others do not. A
number of factors seem to be at play with humor, such as personality
differences, and intelligence levels, as well as current mood or status. Derks,
however, claims that most people pick up on situations which are supposed
to be funny. After some research experiments, Derks realized that several
patients recovering from injuries to the brain were not able to tell the
difference between what was funny and what wasn’t.
F. Dr. Shibata of the University of Rochester School of Medicine states that our
neurons can also be “tickled” after listening to a joke. The “funny bone” of
our brains seems to be located in our right frontal lobes, right over the right
eye. When this area is affected, our ability to recognize a joke is also
impacted. Dr. Shibata performed MRI scans on his patients, measuring their
brain activity in an attempt to find out which areas of the brain are active
when the punchline of a joke is delivered in compared to other parts of the
joke that are not funny. The punchlines “tickled” the frontal lobes. Activity in
the nucleus accumbens also showed up on scans, and possibly connect to
feelings of happiness after hearing a good joke as well as a tendency to seek
out humorous stimulus. Though this research focused on humor, these
results may provide us with other insights, and even help those suffering
depression. Areas in the brain activated by humor seem to be outside of the
norm for patients with depression. In the future, brain scans could be used
to examine patients affected by depression or mood disorders. It could also
be used to shed light on the reason that the loss of a sense of humor or
other personality changes occur with stroke victims.