JAYARAJ ANNAPACKIAM CSI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Approved by AICTE and Affiliated by Anna university, chennai)

Mergoschis Nagar, Nazareth -628617
Department of science &Humanities
PH3151-ENGINEERING PHYSICS
OSCILLATIONS OPTICS AND LASER
PART A
1.What are called damped oscillations?
Most of the oscillations in air or in any medium are damped. When an oscillation occurs, some kind of
damping force may arise due to friction of air resistance offered by the medium. So, a part of the energy is dissipated
in overcoming the resistive force. Consequently, the amplitude of oscillations decreases with time and finally
becomes zero. Such oscillations are called damped oscillations
2.What is forced oscillation?
When a vibrating body is maintained in the state of oscillations by a periodic force of frequency other than
its natural frequency of the body, the oscillations are called forced oscillations.

3.What are the types of motion? Give examples.

• Based on the motion of the physical bodies, it can be classified into two types viz.
• Translational motion, in which the motion of the body moves linear with time. Examples: Train
moving in a track, Rocket launching etc.
• Rotational (or) Oscillatory motion, in which the motion of the body repeat itself after regular
interval of time. Examples: Bob moving in a pendulum clock, Beating of hear Movement of Earth
around the Sun etc.

4.Define Simple harmonic motion.

Simple Harmonic motion is the motion in which the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the
displacement from a fixed point and is always directed towards the fixed point (or) equilibrium position.

5.Categorize the types of SHM, with examples.

• There are two types of simple Harmonic motions, viz Linear Simple Harmonic motion : Here the
displacement of the particle executing simple Harmonic motion is linear
• Examples: 1. Motion of Simple pendulum,,2. Motion of point mass suspended with a spring etc.
• Angular Simple Harmonic motion; Here the displacement of particle executingsimple harmonic
motion is Angular.Examples: 1. Oscillations of a compound pendulum.Torsional oscillations etc.

6.Write down the characteristics of SHM.

The characteristics of simple harmonic motion are as follows.
• The motion of the particle is periodic.
• The motion of the particle is along a straight line about its m position.
• The acceleration of the particle is proportional to displacement and is directed towards its mean
position.

7.Define Amplitude and phase.

Amplitude: The Maximum distance covered by the body on either side of its mean position is called its
Amplitude.
Phase: It is the physical quantity that express the instantaneous position and direction of motion of an oscillating
system.

8.Define Time period and frequency.

 Time Period: The smallest time required to complete one vibration (or) oscillation is known as time
period.
Frequency: The number of oscillations (or) vibrations made by a body per second is known as
frequency of oscillation. It is the reciprocal of the time period.

9.List out the types of Oscillatory motion.

There are three type of oscillatory motion, based on the force that is
• Free vibration
• Damped Oscillation and
• Forced Oscillation

10.What is ment by free vibration?

Free vibration : A system (or) body which vibrates freely without any resistance (Even air)
(or) Frictional force is called free vibrations. In real situation this is not possible, because by nature
always some resistance is offered to the oscillating system.

11.What is meant by damped vibrations? Give examples.

Damped Oscillation: In a real situation, if a body is set into vibrations, the amplitude keeps on decreasing
because of frictional resistance to the motion and hence after some time the vibrations (or) oscillations will die. This
type of oscillation is said to be a damped oscillation. In this oscillation (or) vibration. the body vibrates with its
natural frequency.
Examples:1. When a Pendulum is displaced from its equilibrium position, it oscillates with a decreasing
amplitude and finally it come to rest. 2. If a mass its suspended in a spring and is set into vibration in air, it will take
long time to come to rest, when compared to the same mass set into vibration in water.

12.What is meant by Forced vibrations? Give examples.

Forced Oscillation: There are situations in we need to give external force for the oscillations to sustain. This
type of oscillation in which the body vibrates with a frequency other than natural frequency due to the external force
applied in equal interval of time is called Forced Oscillation.
Examples: 1. A Tuning fork set into vibration due to external force. 2.A floor vibrating due to Marching of
soldiers. 3. A bob of simple Pendulum held in hand and then given number of swings by the hand.

13.What do you understand by the term DEAD BEAT? Give examples.

During oscillation motion, when the displacement decreases drastically without performing any oscillations,
then the motion is set to be Over-damped Oscillation (or) Dead beat.
Examples: 1. Pendulum moving in a very thick coil media. 2. Dead beat moving coil galvanometer.

`14.What is meant by critical damped motion? Give examples.

During oscillatory motion, when the displacement decreases to zero rapidly, then it is called critical damped
motion.
Examples: 1. Movement of pointer in voltmeter, Ammeter etc. 2. Sensitive galvanometers.

15.What is meant by under damped motion? Give examples.

During oscillatory motion, when the displacement (or) Amplitude decays then motion.
Examples: 1. Motion of a simple pendulum 2. Motion the ballistic galvanometer.

16.What is meant by Resonance?

Resonance observed the frequency matching, i.e., when driving occurs. For example. mechanical structures
Air planes, bridges, buildings etc., have more natural structure subject driving frquency then, i.e., When natural rods
oscillations LCR circuits. system (mechanical oscillations) and (k) in spring mass system
17.Define wave motion and give its types.
A wave motion can be defined as a disturbance which travels in the material medium and is due to the repeated
motion of the particles in the medium, about their mean position wherein the motion is being transferred from a
particle to the next at regular interval of time.
Types There are two types of waves, viz., (1) Transverse waves.(ii) Longitudinal waves.

18.What is meant by transverse wave motion? Give examples

It is the wave motion in which the particles of the medium vibrate about their mean position perpendicular
(right angles) to the direction of propagation. Examples: (1) Waves produced on the surface of water in which the
particles of the medium vibrate up and down (2) Waves produced in stretched strings.

19.What is meant by longitudinal wave motion? Give examples.

It is the wave motion in which the particles of the medium vibrate about their mean position along the same
line as that of propagation of the wave. Examples: (1) Condensation & rarefactions produced in air by the vibratory
motion of a tuning fork. (2) Compressions & rarefactions in air when one end is fixed & other end is moved with
piston in a cylinder.

20.Define standing waves (or) stationary waves.

When two identical progressive waves travel through a medium along the same line in opposite directions
with equal velocities, they superimpose over each other and produces a new type of wave called as Standing wave
(or) stationary wave.

21.Define travelling waves (or) progressive waves. Give examples.

In a travelling wave (or) progressive wave, the energy is transferred from one place to another by the
continuous vibration of the particles in an elastic material medium about their equilibrium position
Examples 1) Waves passing through water. 2) Electromagnetic waves in which the electric and magnetic field
vary periodically at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation.

22.What is meant by doppler effect?

The apparent change in frequency (or) pitch either due to the motion of the source (or) observer (or) both is
known as Doppler effect.

23.What are the applications of doppler effect

Doppler effect in sound is used to find the velocity of liqui using Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV).
• Doppler shift is used to convert an acoustic horn to a low speaker.
• Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimetry (UDV) is used to measure blood flow rate.
• Echo Cardiogram is used to assess the velocity of card tissues.
• SONAR [Sound Navigation and Raging] is used to determine the speed of submarines and to
navigate the objects under the sea using doppler effect.

27.What are the uses of Michelson interferometer?

It is used to determine (i)the wavelength of a given monochromatic source (ii) the difference between the two
neighbouring wavelengths or resolution of the spectral lines (iii) refractive index and thickness of various thin
transparent materials and (iv) for the measurement of the standard metre in terms of the wavelength of light.

28.What is meant by fringe width?

The distance between any two consecutive bright dark fringes is knows as fringe width . It is constant for both
bright and dark fringe.
29.What is meant by an Air wedge? Give its usage.
When two plane glass plates of equal thickness and diameter is tied a one end, then the two plane surfaces is
inclined at an angle 0. Thus a wedge shaped air film is formed between the two glass places and hence called as an
Air wedge. It is used to find the thickness of very thin materials like our hair, paper etc..

30.What is spontaneous emission?

The atom in the excited state E2 (higher energy state), returns to the ground state E1 (lower energy state), by
emitting a photon of energy hγ without the action of an external energy. Such an emission of radiation which is not
triggered by an external influence is called spontaneous emission.

31.What is stimulated emission?

The process of forced emission of photons caused by the incident photons is called stimulated emission. It
is also called induced emission. This process is the key factor to the operation of a laser.

33.What are the pumping methods are available?

Some of the commonly used methods are:
• Optical pumping
• Direct electron excitation or electric discharge
• Inelastic atom-atom collision method
• Direct conversion method, and

34.What is meant by population inversion and how it is achieved?

Population inversion is No. of atoms in the excited state is higher than no of atoms in the ground state. It
is achieved by Pumping

35.State the properties or characteristics of laser beam.

The most important features or characteristics of lasers are:
• Directionality
• High intensity
• Extraordinary monochromacity, and
• High degree of coherence

36.Distinguish between ordinary and laser beam.

S.No. Ordinary light Laser light
In ordinary light angular spread is more In laser beam angular spread is less
1.
2. They are not directional They are highly directional

3. It is less intense It is highly intense

It is not a coherent beam and is not inphase It is coherent beam and is inphase
4.
The radiations are polychromatic The radiations are non-polychromatic
5.
Examples: Sunlight, mercury vapour Examples: He-Ne laser, CO2 laser etc.,
6. lamp etc.,

38.What are the differences between stimulated and spontaneous emission of radiations?
Stimulated emission Spontaneous emission
A atom in the excited state is induced to The atom in the excited state returns to
return to ground state, thereby resulting in ground state thereby emitting a photon,
1.
 two photons of same frequency and without any external force is called
energy is spontaneous emission.
called stimulated emission.
The emitted photons move in the The emitted photons move in all
2. same directions and is highly directions and are random.
directional.
The radiation is high intense, The radiation is less intense and is
3.
monochromatic and coherence. incoherent.
The photons are in phase i.e., there The photons are not in phase i.e., there
4.
is a constant phase difference. is no phase relationship between them.

39.What is the principle of laser?

Due to stimulated emission, the photons multiply in each step giving rise to an intense beam of photons
that are coherent and moving in the same direction. Hence, the light is amplified by stimulated emission of radiation,
termed as LASER.
40.Explain metastable state.
Any atom can be excited to a higher level by the absorption of energy. Normally, excited atoms have short
lifetimes (10-9 seconds) through spontaneous emission. In order to establish the condition of population inversion,
the excited atoms are required for longer lifetime. A metastable state is such a state. Atoms excited to metastable
states remain excited for an appreciable time, which is of the order of 10 -6 to 10-3 seconds. There could be no
population inversion and hence no laser action, if metastable does not exist.
41.What are three basic requirements for the systems?
All the laser systems must satisfy the following basic requirements for laser operation:
• Active medium
• Pumping system, and
• Optical resonator.

42. What are the different types of laser available??Lasers are classified into five major categories based on
the types of active medium.They are:
• Solid state laser Examples: Ruby laser, Nd-YAG laser
• Gas laser Examples: CO2 laser
• Semiconductor laser Examples: GaAs laser
• Liquid laser Examples: Europium benzole acetonate
dissolved in alchohol, SeOl2 laser
• Dye & chemical laser Examples: Rhodamine 6G laser and Coumarin dye laser

43.What are the applications of Nd-YAG laser?

• It is used in long distance communication system.
• They also find applications in resistor trimming, scribing, micro
machining operations as well as welding, drilling etc.
• They find applications in medical field like endoscopy, urology,
neurosurgery, ENT, dermatology, dental surgery and general surgery.

44.What is the principle of semiconductor diode laser?

When p-n junction diode is forward biased, electrons from n region and holes from pregion recombine
with each other at the junction. During recombination process, light is released from certain specified direct band
gap semiconductors like Gallium Arsenide. This radiation is called recombination radiation. The corresponding
energy is called activation energy.The wavelength of the light emitted depends on the activation energy. The photons
emitted during recombination stimulate other changes and as a result, stimulated emission takes place which leads
to laser light.

45. What are the conditions to obtain total internal reflection?

• Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium,
• The angle of incidence on core should be greater than the critical angle,

i.e., ф > фc
where, ф is the angle of incidence and
фc is the critical angle.

46. Define total internal reflection.

When light ray travels from denser to rarer medium at an angle of incidence greater than critical angle
(θi>θc), the incident ray is reflected in the same medium that is in denser medium and this phenomenon is called
total internal reflection.

PART-B

1. Derive Einstein’s relation for stimulated emission and hence explain the existence of stimulated emission.

2. For atomic transitions, derive Einstein relations and hence deduce the expressions for the ratio of spontaneous
emission rate to the stimulated rate to the stimulated emission rate.

3. Discuss the various methods employed to achieve population inversion.

4. Explain the construction and working of a semi-conductor diode laser with diagram.

5. Discuss with theory the construction and working of homo-junction semiconductor laser.

6. Explain with theory, air wedge method of determining the radius of a thin wire.

7. Explain the construction, types of fringes and applications of Michelson interferometer.

8. Explain the construction working and applications of NdYAG, CO2 Laser

9. Explain the construction, working of Semiconductor Laser

Notes for theory questions

1. Nd-YAG LASER-

It is a Neodymium based Laser, Nd stands for Neodymium and YAG stands for Yttrium Aluminium
Garnet

Principle

⮚ The Nd-YAG rod is optically pumped by Krypton flash lamp

⮚ The Neodymium ions are raised to excited state
⮚ When the Neodymium ions make a downward transition, a Laser beam is emitted
Construction
 ⮚ The active medium Nd-YAG crystal is cut into a
cylindrical rod
⮚ The ends of the rod are highly polished
⮚ Krypton flash lamp is kept near the rod as pumping source
⮚ Two mirrors, one partially reflecting and the other fully
reflecting are placed on the either sides of the rod. It is
called optical resonator cavity

Working

⮚ When the krypton lamp is switched ON, The Neodymium ions are excited from the ground state to
the excited state (E3 and E4)
⮚ From the excited state, they make a transition to the level E2
⮚ In the energy level E2, Population inversion is achieved
⮚ From the energy level E2, due to stimulated emission more
ions make downward transition and more photons are emitted
⮚ The emitted photons gain energy due to optical resonator,
and the emitted photons get multiplied
⮚ Finally a Laser beam of wavelength 1.06 micro meter
Characteristics

⮚ Type- Four level solid state laser

⮚ Active medium : Nd- YAG Rod
⮚ Pumping method : Optical Pumping
⮚ Power : 20 KW
⮚ Wavelength : 1.06 micrometer
2.Carbon- di- oxide Laser

Energy states of CO2 molecule

Symmetric stretching

Carbon atom is at rest, both oxygen atoms vibrate symmetrically along the axis of the molecule

Bending

Both oxygen and Carbon atoms vibrate perpendicular to the axis of the molecule
Asymmetric stretching

Both carbon and oxygen atoms Vibrate asymmetrically along

the axis of the molecule

Principle

⮚ The CO2 molecules are excited by electrical discharge

⮚
⮚ The CO2 molecules are raised to excited state
⮚ When CO2 molecules make a downward transition, Laser is produced
Construction

⮚ It consists of a
discharge tube filled
with the mixture of
Carbon- di-oxide,
Nitrogen and
Helium
⮚ The terminals of the
discharge tube have
a window to produce
polarized light
⮚ Two mirrors, one partially reflecting and the
other fully reflecting are placed on the either sides of the discharge tube. It is called
optical
resonator cavity
⮚ The terminals of the discharge tube are connected to a DC power supply
Working

⮚ When the DC power supply is switched ON,

⮚ Electrons collide with nitrogen molecules and move to the excited state
N2 + e* --------------- N2*+ e
⮚ The Excited nitrogen molecules collide
with the CO2 molecules and CO2
molecules move to the excited state
⮚ N2* + CO2 ------------------------ CO2*+ N2
⮚ The CO2 molecules in the excited
state make a downward transition
⮚ Due to this downward transition Laser is produced
Transition E5 – E4

⮚ This transition produces a Laser of wavelength 10.6 micrometer

Transition E5 – E3

⮚ This transition produces a Laser of wavelength 9.6 micrometer

 Characteristics

⮚ Type- Four level Molecular Gas Laser

⮚ Active medium : Gas mixture of CO2, N2 and Helium
⮚ Pumping method : Electrical discharge
⮚ Power : 10 KW, Wavelength : 10.6 and 9.6 micrometer

3.Homojunction semiconductor Laser

Principle
A p-n Junction which emits coherent light when it is
forward biased is known as Semiconductor Laser

The p-n junction diode made of a single semiconductor

material is called Homojunction Semiconductor Laser

Construction

➢ The diode is made of GaAs

➢ The p-region is made by doping trivalent impurity with the intrinsic semiconductor
➢ The n-region is made by doping pentavalent impurity with the intrinsic semiconductor
➢ At the junction region there is an optical resonator cavity to reflect the emitted light
Working

➢ When the diode is forward biased, the electrons from the N-type region move towards the P-
region
➢ Recombination of electrons and holes takes place and photons are generated, The energy of
the photons are increased due to the optical resonator
➢ When the forward bias voltage is increased, more electrons recombine with holes producing
more photons,
➢ Stimulated emission takes place and produces a Laser
Characteristics

Type: Semiconductor Laser

Active medium: P-N Junction diode

Pumping method: Direct conversion method

Wavelength of the output: 8300Å - 8500 Å

Advantages
Small and Compact, high efficiency
4. Heterojunction Semiconductor Laser

Principle

A p-n Junction which emits coherent light

when it is forward biased is known as
Semiconductor Laser

The p-n junction diode made of different

layers in p and n region is called
Heterojunction Semiconductor Laser

Construction

➢ This Laser has five layers using GaAs and Ga Al As.

➢ The third layer which is GaAs – p type region acts as the active medium
➢ The optical resonator cavity is in the junction of 3rd and 4th layer. The end faces are polished
and it is called optical resonator cavity
Working

➢ When the diode is forward biased, the electrons from the N-type region move towards the P-
region
➢ Recombination of electrons and holes takes place and photons are generated, The energy of
the photons are increased due to the optical resonator
➢ When the forward bias voltage is increased, more electrons recombine with holes producing
more photons,
➢ Stimulated emission takes place and produces a Laser
Characteristics

Type: Semiconductor Laser

Active medium: P-N Junction diode

Pumping method: Direct conversion method

Wavelength of the output: nearly 8000Å

Advantages

Small and Compact, high efficiency

Disadvantages

Difficult to grow five layers

5. Michealson Interferometer

Principle

The interference of Light beams is the principle of Michealson interferometer

It is used to find the wavelength of monochromatic light source

Construction

It consists of two mirrors M1 and M2,

kept perpendicular to each other
The mirrors can be adjusted by screws

It consists of two glass plates G1 and

G2. The glass plates are kept inclined
at 450 to the mirrors

Glass plate G1 is called as beam

splitter and glass plate G2 is called compensating glass plate
It consists of a telescope to view the interference pattern

Working

Light from the source is divided into two rays by the beam splitter

One light ray is directed towards the mirror M1 and the other light ray is directed towards the
mirror M2

These two light rays fall on mirrors and get reflected back
The reflected lights from the mirror M1 and M2 passes through the glass plates and move
towards the telescope

These two reflected light rays undergo interference and the interference pattern is viewed
through the telescope.

Types of Interference pattern

Circular fringes, Straight fringes and Localized fringes

Applications

Used to determine the wavelength of monochromatic light

Used to determine the refractive index of various transparent materials