Chemical Bonding

Lewis Electron Dot Symbol

-Valence Electrons
-Octet and Duet Rules
Valence Shell
-Outermost electron shell
-Valence electrons are found in the valence shell
Compounds
-Combination of 2 or more atoms of the same or different elements
Octet Rule
-Atoms combine to have 8 electron atoms to be stable
Duet Rule
-Light atoms tend to be stable by having 2 valence electrons in the first energy level
-Helium follows this rule even though it is in Group 8A, therefore only draw 2 dots
when drawing around it
Lewis Electron Dot System(LEDS)
-Known as the Lewis Dot System
-Compact way of representing valence electrons
-Dots are drawn in a way around the element to represent the valence electrons
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Chemical Bonds
-Ionic Bond
-Covalent Bonds
-Electronegativity and Chemical Bonding
-Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
-Metallic Bond
Ions
-Atoms with diff no. of e- from a neutral atom
-Cations
Formed when metals lose e- | p+ > e-
-Anions
Formed when nonmetals gain e- | p+ < e-
-Valence e- are lost/gained during ion transformation to satisfy the octet rule
Metals
-Givers
-Valence electrons: 1, 2, 3
Nonmetals
-Takers
-Valence electrons: 5, 6, 7
Polyatomic Ions
-Ions comprised of more than one atom can be anions or cations
 Ionic Bonding
-Results from the complete transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal
-Ionic bonding does not result in a physical connection
-Cations and anions stick together because of electrostatic attractions
-In writing formulas of ionic compounds, cations come first
-Ionic compounds are formed through ionic bonding
-Prefix “-ide” at the end of elements
-Soluble in water (or other polar solvents)

LEDS
-Represents the valence electrons of an atom
Cations
-Forms when metal loses electrons (donors)
Anions
-Forms when nonmetals gain electrons (receivers)
Writing and Naming Ionic Compounds
-Predicting the Ionic Compound
>Identify the number of valence electrons
>Draw the LEDS of the metal and nonmetal
>Transfer electrons from the metal to the nonmetal until the octet is full
>Draw the Lewis Structure of the ionic compound formed
Method/s for Predicting
-Criss Cross Method
>Identify the number of valence electrons
>Identify the ions formed by each atom
>Criss-cross the change of one atom to the subscript of the other
>Write the formula of the resulting compound
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
-Aims to create a common language for chemistry
-Authority in terms of chemical nomenclature
Rules for Naming Ionic Compounds
-Name of the cation (metal) + name of the anion (nonmetal)
>CA₂+ Calcium
>NA+ Sodium
-Cations of the transition metals
Some transition metals are polyvalent. They can lose electrons in more than
one way
>CU+ Copper(1)
>CU+₂ Copper(2)
-Polyatomic Ions
Ions comprised of more than one atom are given special names
>NH⁴+ Ammonium
>H³O+ Hydronium
Properties of Ionic Compounds
-Physical State
>State of matter of the compound at room temperature
>Ionic compounds are mostly found as solid crystals
-Melting Point and Boiling Point
>High MP and BP due to strong electrostatic attraction among ions
-Solubility in Water
>Most are soluble in water due to ion-dipole interaction
>The positive pole attracts anions, and the negative pole attracts cations
-Electrical Conductivity
>Conducts electricity in solution

Covalent Bonding
-Results from the sharing of electrons among nonmetals
-Molecules are covalently bonded together
-Shared electrons:
>Single Bond: 1
>Double Bond: 2
>Triple Bond: 3
-Bonding Pairs: Lines
-Lone Pairs: Dots
-Metals do not prefer electrons | gives away
-Nonmetals are fond of electrons | gains
-Covalent bonding isn’t always sharing equally
-Insoluble in water

Naming of Covalent Compounds

Prefix element 1 + Prefix element 2-ide
Polar Covalent:
Unequally shared
Polar Covalent Bond:
Unequal sharing of e-
Particle charges on atoms
Ionic Bond
Complete transfer of 1 or more valence electrons
Full charges of resulting ions
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
Shared equally between 2 atoms
No charges on atoms
Formula
△EN = |EN of E1 - EN of E2 |
 Bond Type EN Difference

Nonpolar Covalent △EN<0.4

Polar Covalent 0.4>△EN<1.8

Ionic △EN>1.8

Steps
-Get the EN
-Get EN difference
-Determine bond type
-Use steps on ionic or covalent bonding
Properties of Covalent Compounds
Molecular Weight
-Gas: Low MW
-Liquid: Medium MW
-Solid: High MW
Electrical Conductivity
-Gas: Can’t carry charges
-Liquid: Poor conductors
-Solid: Some are semiconductors
Solubility in Water
-Gas: “like dissolves like”
-Liquid: Polar-soluble
-Solid: Nonpolar-insoluble

Metallic Bonding
-Metal atoms delocalize their valence electrons

Electron Sea Model

-Metals give off valence electrons to be cations
-These valence electrons form the sea where cations are suspended
Nature of Metallic Bonding
-All typical properties of metals result from a crystal lattice
-In solid-state, all atoms of a metal are ionized
Malleability
-Metals can be hammered into any shape
Ductility
-Metals can be drawn into wires
High Melting and Boiling Point
-The electrostatic reaction between the metal cations and the sea of electrons prevents
metals from melting easily
-The strong metallic bond between electrons results in high boiling points in metals
Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
-The sea of electrons is a very mobile charge carrier, an easy pass for electricity
-The orderly structure of metals allows efficient heat conduction
Shine and Luster
-Visible wavelengths are emitted by delocalized electrons when light hits metal
-This gives their lustrous looks
Alloys
-Mix of 2 or more elements, where one is metal
Alloys Composition

Stainless Steel Iron + Nickel + Chromium + Carbon

Brass Copper + Zinc

Bronze Copper + Tin

Duralumin Aluminium + Copper + Magnesium

Cupronickel Copper + Nickel

Carbon Compounds
Uniqueness of Carbon
-4 valence electron
-Easily bonds with other carbon elements and others
-Can form single, double, and triple bonds
Organic Compounds
-Compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen
-May also contain O, S, N, P, and Halogens(F, Cl, Br, and I)
Hydrocarbon
-The simplest inorganic compound which only contains carbon and hydrogen
Carbon(12.011) Hydrogen(1.00794)

Melting Point -3550 C -259.14 C

Boiling Point -4827 C -252.87 C

Types of Hydrocarbon Bonds

-Saturated
Hydrocarbons have only single covalent bonds among carbon atoms
-Unsaturated
Hydrocarbons have 1 or more of the bonds between carbon atoms that are
double or triple covalent bonds
Types of Fatty Acids
-Saturated
 No double bond
Straight structure
Solid at room temperature
>Example of Sources:
Red meat
Dairy products
Coconut oil
>Health Impacts and Intake Recommendation:
Increases the risk of heart disease
Less than 20gm of saturated fats per day(for a 2000 kcal diet)
Raise LDL and HDL
Increase total cholesterol
-Unsaturated
>Monounsaturated:
One double bond in the cis configuration
Bent structure
Liquid at room temperature
>Polyunsaturated:
Multiple double bonds in the cis configuration
Even more “bent” in structure
Liquid at room temperature
>Example of Sources:
Olive Oil
Canola Oil
Avocado
Omega 3 (ALA, DHA, EPA)
Omega 6 (Linoleic Acid)
>Health Impacts and Intake Recommendations:
Monounsaturated:
May reduce the risk of heart disease
Moderate intake of M-U fats
Lowers LDL (bad) and raises HDL (good)
Source of Vitamin E
Polyunsaturated:
May reduce the risk of heart disease
Moderate intake of P-U fats
A high Omega 3 to Omega 6 ratio is optimum for reduced heart
disease and anti-inflammatory
Writing Formula
Structural Formula
Indicates the kind, number, and arrangement of atoms in a molecule
Line Formula
The most abbreviated diagrammatic expression
Condensed Structural Formula
 Easier and shorter way to draw the line-bond structural formula because it
omits the carbon and hydrogen bonds

Types of Hydrocarbons

Alkanes
-Saturated carbons
-The general formula is CnH₂n+₂, where n is the number of carbon atoms in the
alkane
Properties of Alkanes
-Generally, the more carbon items in a straight-chain alkane, the higher the boiling
and melting points
-At room temperature, straight chain alkanes with 1-4 carbon atoms are gases, those
-with 5-16 are liquids, and those with more than 16 carbon atoms are solid
-All alkanes are nonpolar. They only dissolve in organic nonpolar solvents
Examples of Alkanes
-Butane
-Octane
-Hexadecane

Alkenes
-Unsaturated hydrocarbons with 1 or more C=C bonds. Other bonds may be
single-carbon bonds and carbon-hydrogen bonds
-Formula is CnH₂n
-All members of this series end with the suffix -ene
-The first part of each name or prefix indicates the number of carbon atom/s in the
compound
Properties of Alkenes
-Generally, the more carbon atoms in a straight carbon-chain alkene, the higher the
boiling and melting points

Alkynes
-Unsaturated hydrocarbon that has at least 1 pair of carbon atoms joined by a triple
bond
-Follows the formula CnH₂n-₂
Properties of Alkynes
-Nonpolar
-More reactive than alkenes because of triple bond being broken easily

Cyclic Hydrocarbons
-Hydrocarbons where the carbon chains are in the form of a ring

Cycloalkanes
 -Cyclic hydrocarbons that contain single bonds. They are named by adding the prefix
cyclo- to the alkane name
-CnH₂n
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
-Cyclic hydrocarbons with alternating single and double bonds in a six-carbon ring
-Also called “arenes”

Substituted Hydrocarbons
-Formed when one or more hydrogen atoms in a chain or ring are replaced by a
different group of atoms
-More polar

R—F
R = Rest (Hydrocarbon group)
F = Functional group

Alkyl Halides or Halocarbons (R - X)

-Formed when one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by a halogen or an atom or
atoms of F, Cl, Br, or I (Group 7A)
-Polar
-Halogens
-Identification:
Iodomethane
Bromopoentene
-Properties:
High density
High boiling points
Alcohols (R - OH)
-Substituted hydrocarbons in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by an
-OH group or hydroxyl group
-Polar
-Identification:
Butanol
Propanol
-Properties:
Attracts water molecules (polar)
High boiling points
Ether (R - OR’)
-Substituted hydrocarbons in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by an
-OR group. These organic compound that contain an oxygen between 2 alkyl groups
-Polar
-Identification:
 Ethoxyethane
Diethyl Ether
-Properties:
The boiling point is similar to alkanes
Miscible with water
Carboxylic Acids (R - COOH)
-Organic acids that contain the R-COOH group or carboxyl group. They are named by
adding the suffix -oic acid to the name of the corresponding hydrocarbon
-Polar
-Identification:
Acetic Acid
Methanoic Acid
Pentanoic Acid
-Properties:
Acidic
Polar molecules
Strong unpleasant smell
Esters (R - COOR)
-Formed by alcohol + organic acid reaction
-Naming:
Use alcohol’s alkyl chain as the substituent
Parent carboxylic acid name, replace “-ic acid” with “-ate”
-Identification:
Ethyl Acetate
Cinnamate
-Properties:
Volatile
Pleasant smell similar to bananas, pineapple, apples, and strawberries
Ketones (R - COR) and Aldehydes (R - COH)
-Organic compounds that contain a carboxyl group
-Ketones:
The carboxyl group is at any location in the carbon chain except the end.
Change the “-e” to “-one”
-Aldehyde:
The carboxyl group is at the end of the carbon chain. Change the “-e” ending
of the parent chain to “-al”
-Functional group: -CO
-Identification:
Ketone:
Acetone
Aldehyde:
Formaldehyde
-Properties:
Distinctive odors
 Very reactive
Amines (R - NH₂) and Amides (R - CONH₂)
-Organic compounds that contain an amino group (-NH₂)
-Amine
Can be named by replacing “-e” with “-amine”
-Amide
Named by dropping the “-oic acid” or “-ic acid” by adding “-amide”
-Naming:
Amine: Methylamine
Amide: Hexanamide
-Properties:
Amine: Basic, ammonia-like odor
Amide: Neutral, most are solids