System modeling and

Simulation
If you have a smart project, you can say "I'm an engineer“

Lecture 7
Staff boarder
Dr. Mostafa Elsayed Abdelmonem
 System modeling and Simulation

 Lecture aims:
 Facilitate combining and manipulating differential equations
 Identify the equations of motion of systems
 Understand the mathematical modeling of all systems and combination
Modeling Of Electronic Circuits
Structure of Mechatronic Systems

٤
Conditioning Circuits
 Signal Amplifiers

 Designed to amplify input signals to a right level to be

noticeable for further uses.

 Typical input signals are:

thermocouple, RTD, pressure, strain, flow, etc.

 Typical outputs include:

high level dc voltages (0 to 5 or 0 to 10 volts),
process current (0 to 20 mA or 4 to 20 mA)

 There are commercial signal conditioners with computer

٦
interface ready.
Operational Amplifier (Op Amp)

An operational amplifier (Op Amp) is an

integrated circuit of a complete amplifier
circuit.
Vi1 - Vout
A
Op amps have an extremely high gain
Vi2
B
+ (A=105 typically).

Op amps also have a high input impedance

(R=4 MΩ , typically) and a low output
Vout  Vi1  Vi 2  A
impedance (in order of 100 Ω , typically) .

٧
 Characters of Operational Amplifiers

 high open loop gain

 high input impedance
Not used 8 7 6 5 Offset null
 low output impedance
 low input bias current
Offset null 1 2 3 4
 wide bandwidth
 large common mode
rejection ratio (CMRR)
٨
Input Impedance

WHY HIGH?
Input Circuit Output
For an instrument the ZIN should
be very high (ideally infinity) so it
does not divert any current from
Impedance between input the input to itself even if the input
terminals = input
impedance has very high resistance.

e.g. an op-amp taking input from a

microelectrode. ٩
Output Impedance

Impedance between output terminals =

output impedance

WHY LOW?

Input Circuit Output For an instrument the ZOUT should

be very low (ideally zero) so it can
supply output even to very low
resistive loads and not expend
most of it on itself. ١٠
Voltage Output from an Amplifier

The linear range of an amplifier

is finite, and limited by the
Vout
supply voltage and the
A Non-linear characteristics of the amplifier.
region

Linear Vin If an amplifier is driven beyond

region

the linear range (overdriven),

serious errors can result if the
gain is treated as a constant.
١١
 Analysis of Op-Amp Circuits

The following rules can be applied to almost

all op-amp circuits with external feedback:
Vi1 - Vout
A

Vi2  No current can enter op amp input terminals,

B
+
because of infinite input impedance

Vout  AOG V  V   The +ve and –ve (non-inverting and inverting)
inputs are forced to be at the same potential.

١٢
 Voltage Follower

V+ = VIN.
By virtual ground, V- = V+
Thus Vout = V- = V+ = VIN !!!!

•Due to the infinite input impedance of an op amp, no

current at all can be drawn from the circuit before VIN.
Thus this part is effectively isolated.

•Very useful for interfacing to high impedance sensors

such as microelectrode, microphone…
١٣
Inverting Amplifier

Point B is grounded, so does

RF
point A (very small).

R1 Voltage across R1 is Vin, and

- across RF is Vout.
Vin A
Vout
B
+ The output node voltage
R3 
R1 R F determined by Kirchhoff's
R1  R F Current Law (KCL).

Circuit voltage gain determined

V R
G  out   F by the ratio of R1 and RF.
V in R1
١٤
Analysis of Inverting Amplifier

RF

iF
R1 V-
-
Vin i- A
i1 i+
Vout i1  i   i F  i F
V+B +
R V IN  V  V   V out
i1  and iF 
R1 RF

Ideal transfer characteristics: i  0  V   0  V   0

i  i  0 V IN V V out R
R1
  out
RF or V in
  F
R1
V  V
١٥
Noninverting Amplifier

Point VA equals to Vin .

RF

Op-amp circuit is a voltage divider.

R1
- R1
A
V A  V out 
R1  R F
Vin B
+ Vout

Circuit voltage gain determined by the ratio of R1 and RF.

V out R
G   1 F
V in R1
١٦
Differential Amplifier

RF  Point B is grounded, so does

point A (very small).
R1
V1 -
A  Voltage across R1 is V1, and
R2
V2 + Vout across R2 is V2.
B
R3
 Normally: R1 = R2, and RF = R3.

 Commonly used as a single op-

amp instrumentation amplifier.
RF
V out  (V 2  V 1 )
R1
١٧
Design an Instrumentation Amplifier

RF
Design a single op-amp instrumentation amplifier.

R1
R1 = R2, RF = R3
V1 -
A Determine the instrumentation gain.
R2
Vout
V2 + V1  V A V  V OUT
B  A  iA
R3 R1 RF
V2  VB V
 iB  B
R2 R3
i A  iB  0
VA  VB V1  V A V  V OUT V V  VB
 A  B  2
RF R1 RF R3 R2
V out  (V 2  V1 )
R1 V OUT  V A  V B   V 2  V 1   V A  V B 
RF R 1 ١٨
Instrumentation Amplifier with isolators
In order to avoid high current driving to the circuit, V1 and V2 input lines
are connected straight to the inputs of two voltage-follower op-amps,
giving very high impedance. The two op-amps on the left now handle
the driving of current through the resistors instead of letting the input
voltage sources (whatever they may be) do it.

١٩
Example 1:
A Sensor outputs a voltage range of 20 to 250 mV. The sensor output has to
feed computer based controller that work at voltage range of 0 to 5 V.
Design the required conditioning circuit in order to get the demand
voltage range.

٢٠
Instrumentation Amplifier with Adjustable Gain

Gain in the multiple stages: i.e.

Inverting
High Gain – so, you can
amplifier
amplify small signals

Put
some
lowpass
and
high
pass
filters!
Differential
amplifier but
with very high
input
impedance
Differential amplifier -> Non-inverting
- So, you can amplifier
it rejects common-mode
connect to ٢١
interference -> so you
sensors
can reject noise
Instrumentation Amplifier: Stage 1

Recall virtual ground of op-amps

I1 = (V1 – V2)/R1
Recall no current can enter op-
I2 amps and Kirchoff’s current law
I1
I3
I2 = I 3 = I 1
Recall Kirchoff’s voltage law
VOUT = (R1 + 2R2)(V1 – V2)/R1
= (V1 – V2)(1+2R2/R1)
٢٢
Instrumentation Amplifier: Stage 2

Recall virtual ground of opamps

and voltage divider
V- = V+ = V2R4/(R3 + R4)
I2 Recall no current can enter
I1
I3 opamps
(V1 – V-)/R3 = (V- – VOUT)/R4
Solving,
VOUT = (V2 – V1)R4/R3
٢٣
Instrumentation Amplifier: Complete

VOUT = (V2 – V1)(1 + 2R2/R1)(R4/R3)

Gain from Stage I and Stage II ٢٤
Example 2:

Re-solve example 1 by using the adjustable instrumentation amplifier.

٢٥
Example 3:

A sensor outputs a voltage ranging -2.4 to -1.1 V. For interface to ADC,

this needs to be 0 to 2.5 V. Develop the required signal conditioning.

٢٦
Example 4:
Temperature is to be measured in the range of 250oC to
450oC. The sensor resistance that varies linearly from 280Ω
to 1060Ω for the temperature range. Power dissipated in
the sensor must be kept below 5mW. Develop analog signal
conditioning that provides a voltage varying linearly from -
5 to 5 V for the temperature range. The load is high
impedance recorder.

٢٧
 Sources of Amplifier Errors
 Temperature drift: a drift in the output signal per unity change in the temperature
(e.g., μv/ oC)

 Offset current: present at the input leads due to bias currents that are needed to
operate the solid-state circuitry.

 Offset voltage that might be present at the output even when the input leads are open.

 Common mode output voltage

 The inverting gain is not equal to the non-inverting gain.

 Internal noise

 Ground Loop Noise: which can enter the signal leads because of the possible potential
difference between the two ground points.
٢٨
Mathematical Modeling Of
Electronic Circuits
 Obtain the relationship between the output eo and the inputs e1, e2, and e3

 e' = 0. Hence, we have

Outlines of Filters

input output
Filter

Filtering:
Certain desirable features are retained
Other undesirable features are suppressed
٣٠
Classification of Filters

Signal Filter

Analog Filter Digital Filter

Element Type Frequency Band

Active Passive Low-Pass Band-Pass All-Pass

High-Pass Band-Reject

٣١
 Classification of Filters

Filter classification according to frequency response

 Low-pass filter
 High-pass filter
 Band-pass filter
 Band-stop (Notch) filter

٣٢
 State-variable filters
Also known as a Universal Active Filter

 Consists of one amplifier and two integrators

 High-pass, low-pass and band-pass in the same IC

 Example below: Burr Brown UAF42

٣٣
Mathematical Modeling Of
Electronic Circuits

V 2( s ) 1 V 2( s )
RCs
V 1( s ) RCs V 1( s )
Mathematical Modeling Of
Electronic Circuits

V 2( s ) R 2 R 1 C s  1
V 2( s )  R 1 C 1 s  1  R 2 C 2 s  1
V 1( s ) R1
V 1( s ) R 1 C 2 s
Low Pass RC Filters
 The critical frequency (fc): is the frequency for which the ratio of
the to the input voltage is approximately 0.707. in terms of the
resistor and capacitor, the critical frequency is given by:

1
fc 
2RC

 The output-input voltage ratio can be computed by:

Vout 1

Vin 1  ( f / fc )2 ٣٦
Example:

A measurement signal has a frequency < 1 kHz, but there is unwanted noise
at about 1 MHz. Design a low-pass filter that attenuates the noise to 1%.
What is the effect on the measurement signal at its maximum of 1 kHz?

٣٧
High Pass RC Filters
 High pass filter passes high frequencies and blocks low
frequencies.

1
fc 
2RC

 The output-input voltage ratio can be computed by:

Vout

 f / fc 
Vin 1  ( f / fc )2 ٣٨
Example:

Pulses for stepping motor are being transmitted at 2000 Hz.

Design a filter to reduce 60-Hz noise but reduce the pulses
by no more than 3 dB

٣٩
Band Pass RC Filters
 Band pass filter blocks frequencies below a low limit and above
a high limit while passing frequencies between the limits.
1 1
fH  fL 
2RL C L 2RH C H

 The output-input voltage ratio can be computed by:

Vout fH f

Vin ( f 2  f H f L ) 2  [ f L  (1  ( RH / RL )) f H ]2 f 2
٤٠
Example:

A signal-conditioning system uses a frequency variation from 6 kHz

to 60 kHz to carry measurement information. There is a
considerable noise at 120 Hz and 1 MHz. Design a band pass
filter to reduce the noise by 90%.

٤١