Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY

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Introduction
Geography – it means “Study of the Earth”. It has two parts:
Physical geography:

A. Landforms
B. Atmosphere,
C. Hydrosphere,
D. Biosphere.

Human geography:

A. Habitation
B. Population
C. Agriculture
D. Location of Industries.

Fundamentals of geography:

1. Latitudes:
a. They represent angular distance from center of the earth.
b. Latitudes or “Parallels” are concentric circles.
c. Largest latitude: Equator [0°]

d. Tropic regions: From equator to 23.5° N “Tropic of Cancer” and 23.5°S “Tropic of Capricorn”. Heat surplus regions.
e. Temperate regions: from 23.5°N to 66.5°N and 23.5°S to 66.5°S. Heat deficit regions.
f. Differential heating is responsible for different pressure and planetary winds.

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 Fig 1: Longitude and Latitude

2. Seasons:
a. The Earth is tilted on its axis by angle of 23.5°. This is the reason for the seasons. The variation in the
length of day and night from seasons is also due to the tilt.
b. The Earth completes a rotation around sun in 365 days. In March the hemispheres are equidistant from the sun this
is spring.

c. In June the northern hemisphere is closer to the sun so it’s summer in the north and winter in the south.
d. The autumn is in September when again both hemispheres are equidistant. In December the southern hemisphere
is closer to the sun and hence there is summer in the south and winter in the north.

Fig 2: Revolution of Earth

3. Longitudes / Meridians
a. They are the angular distance of a place from the prime meridian [0°].
b. 0° = Greenwich line, UK and 180° = international date line

c. From International Date Line moving to east subtracts a day and moving west adds a day. Western hemisphere is
one day behind and eastern hemisphere is one day ahead.
d. Every country selects its standard meridian [for India – 82.5°]. India’s time is 5.5 hrs ahead of Greenwich meridian
time.

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 Fig 3: Meridians of Globe

Miscellaneous Examples:

E.g. If 12 pm at Greenwich then at 15° E its 1 pm and 15° W its 11 am. Since 15° is 1 hour.
Note: France has the highest number of time zones --> 12.

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 • The Equator passes through: Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, and
Indonesia.

• Tropic of Capricorn: Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, Botswana, Madagascar and Australia.

• Tropic of Cancer: Mexico, Algeria, Niger, Libya, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, India, China, Oman, Bangladesh,
Burma and Taiwan.

• GMT runes through United Kingdom, France, Spain, Algeria, Mali and Ghana in Africa

• IST runs through UP, MP, Orissa and Chhattisgarh

Chapter 2: EARTH
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Introduction
The upper layer of the Earth’s crust is called lithosphere. It has 2 parts – upper part is granitic rocks and forms the conti-
nents. Its main constituent is Silica and Aluminum and is also called SiAl. It has a density of 2.7. The lower part is denser
and is called SiMa [Silica, iron, magnesium]. As the SiAl is lighter than SiMa the continents are said to be floating on
denser SiMa. The thickness of the crust is about 30 miles.

Below the crust is the Mantle which is 1800 miles thick. It is made up of dense layer very rich in olivine. The interior of
mantle is the core which has radius of 2100 miles. It is called NiFe layer as it is made up of Nickel and Ferrous/iron. The
inner part of the core is solid.

The Earth has three layers:

a. Outer layer: Continents [SiAl – Silica + Aluminum] are granite and oceans are basaltic

b. Mantle and oceanic crust: SiMa; mantle is Olivine. Highly fluidic

c. Inner layer: Core [NiFe – nickel + ferrous]. Outer core is liquid and inner core is solid.

Iron has highest composition in earth and oxygen has highest composition in Earth's crust. Continental crust is light and
oceanic is heavy.

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 Fig 1: Rock layers

Rocks in the earth’s crust:

1. Igneous rocks:

a. Formed by solidification of magma or lava.

b. Don’t have strata or layers.

c. Don’t have fossils.

d. They are non crystalline if volcano burst out and cools at the surface [e.g.: basalt] or crystalline if vol-
cano doesn’t burst and cools inside surface [ e.g.: granite]

They are further divided into types based on mineral composition:

1. Acid igneous rock: less dense and lighter

2.
3. Basic igneous rock: denser and darker
4.

In terms of origin there are two main types of igneous rocks:

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 1. Plutonic rocks: these are formed after the magma has cooled beneath the Earth’s surface. Because of slow
cooling the crystals formed are large and easily recognized. E.g. granite
2.
3. Volcanic rocks: the molten rocks pour out of the surface as lava. This cools faster at the surface and crystals
formed are small. E.g. basalt
Most igneous rocks are hard and resistant and so are mostly used for road making, gravestones and monuments.

2. Sedimentary rocks:

a. Formed when sediments compact under pressure lose fluid and become solid called lithification. They are non
crystalline.
b. Have fossils and strata. E.g.: shale, clay, limestone, silica
Types:
• Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks: These rocks are made from accumulation of material from other
rocks that is cemented together.
• Organically formed sedimentary rock: these are formed from remains of marine life having shells like oysters
or snails. As the fleshy part perishes the calcareous part fuses together. Carbonaceous origin sedimentary rock
is formed when vegetative matter is compressed into carbon forms due to weight of overlying matter. Peat, lig-
nite and coal are formed in this manner.
• Chemically formed sedimentary rocks: these are formed from chemical precipitation from solutions. E.g. rock
salt, gypsum

3. Metamorphic rocks:

a. Formed when agents like heat or pressure or both act on igneous or sedimentary rocks.

b. No fossils or strata. E.g.: granite -> gneiss, sandstone -> quartzite

Weathering of Rocks:
The work of weathering is of two kinds: Chemical or Physical.
1. Chemical: The reactions caused by elements in water or air causes the rocks to decompose slowly.
◦ Chemical Solution
◦ Wet climates promote chemical weathering and dry climate promotes physical weathering.
◦ Mineral composition of the rock and the density of joints and cracks also affect weathering.
◦ Decomposition by oxidation or organic acids.
2. Physical weathering:
◦ Repeated cycles of high and low temperatures
◦ Repeated wetting and drying.
◦ Biotic factors like plant roots
◦ Activities of men like mining

Rock cycle:
Igneous rocks under lithification become sedimentary / [metamorphic under heat] and further on heat or pressure be-
come metamorphic. This again on melting becomes magma which turns to igneous rocks.

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 Fig 2: Rock cycle

Seismic wave studies: the waves are S waves [can travel through solids and gases] and P waves [can travel through all
mediums but speed is fastest in solids and least in gases].

Formation of continents:

Theory 1: Continental drift theory

1. Alfred Wegener propounded it
2. It was based on matching coastlines, similarity in age of rocks, fossil evidence i.e. similar plant and animal fossil
found on both sides of the continents and glacial evidence in tropical lands.
3. His theory was that the super continent – Pangaea broke up into continents 200 million years ago by drifting over
the oceans.

4. However his theory doesn’t explain how the gravitational forces could have affected the movement of continents.
He couldn’t explain the driving force for the drift. Also his model of crust doesn’t agree with modern version. The speed of
drift suggested by him too was implausibly high.

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 Fig 3: Continental drift

Theory 2: Convention current theory / sea floor spreading:

1. A convention cell which is like a conveyor belt moves under the crust and is responsible for drifting of the conti -
nents.
2. The sea floor has a lot of diversity: Mid ocean ridges, trenches, continental slopes, ocean floor. Some questions
emerged as finding proved that oceanic crust was 200 million years old, age of crust increases away from mid ocean
ridge and sea mounts deformed at trenches.
3. The sea floor spreads due to the convention current and magma comes out this forms new ocean crust and expan-
sion of ocean crust.

4. It could also explain trenches in the ocean. The diverging oceanic crust was heavier than the continental crust. It
was subdued under and it melted inside the mantle.
Mariana trench: – Pacific Ocean near Philippines.

Diamantine trench: – Indian Ocean near Australia.

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 Fig 4: Magma movements

Theory 3: Plate tectonic theory

1. Some questions that remained unanswered were the formation of Fold Mountains, reasons for earthquakes and
reasons for Volcanism on land.
2. The theory states that the crust isn’t continuous but broken into plates. The lithosphere floats over the Atheno-
sphere.

3. There are entirely continental, entirely oceanic and mixed plates. Totally 6 major and 20 minor plates.
4. Plates interact due to earth’s rotation. These interactions are of types:
a. Divergent plate boundary: below oceans the divergence of plates causes mid ocean ridges. And below conti-
nents it causes rift valley and nascent sea.

b. Convergent plate boundary: ocean and ocean plate convergence causes island arcs like in the Indian ocean and
Philippines archipelago; ocean continent plate convergence causes volcanic mountains like in Andes, rocky and atlas
mountains and continent plate convergence causes fold mountains like Himalaya, alps and Ural.
c. Transverse boundary: when the two plates slip past each other it doesn’t have any mountain formation but
causes seismic activity. E.g.: San Andréa’s fault in USA.

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 Fig 5: Plate movements

Solved Question Papers

Q.Which of the following phenomena might have influenced the evolution of organisms?
Continental drift
Glacial cycles
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (UPSC CSAT 2014)

• 1 only
•
• 2 only
•
• Both 1 and 2
•
• Neither 1 nor 2.
•

Ans . C

1. One of the most prominent example of the effect of continental drift on evolution of organisms, is the unique pri-
mates found in Australia and South America.
2. The final stages of evolution of Genus Homo occurs in the last 3 glacial cycles.
Chapter 3: LANDFORMS ON THE EARTH
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Introduction

Landforms on the earth are:

1. Mountains

2. Plateaus

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3. Plains

Types of Landforms

I. Mountains

They are of two types: Block Mountains and Fold mountains.

Mountain Building Process:

1. Pull of descending limb of the convention current. The compressive force is exerted by the convention current.

2. Geosynclines are elongated narrow depressions on continental margins. Here the sediments of marine origin are de-
posited by oceans and rivers.
3. Because of the plate collision the geosynclines and continental plates are converged to form mountains. These give
the mountains sediments of marine origin.

Types of Mountains

Fold mountains:

Fold Mountains are also called true mountains and are the youngest mountains of the earth. They are formed due to
compressive force of the plates. They can be either of continental – continental convergence origin or continental -
oceanic convergence origin. Therefore only compression is the force that creates Fold Mountains.They are the most
widespread and most important. These are associated with volcanic activity and mineral wealth. They are called moun-
tains of elevation. The compressive forces push the layers of the earth upwards and these are formed into mountains.

Characteristics of Fold Mountains:

1. Extensive mountain chain
2. Great heights
3. Formed along unstable part of the earth
4. Sedimentary deposits of marine origin if formed from continent - continent convergence.

Fig 1: Fold mountains

Block mountains:

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These are formed due to forces within the interior of the earth. There are two reasons for formation. Firstly when there is
tension between two blocks which causes them to move apart. Secondly when there is compression between two blocks
which causes them to move closer and the central portion is elevated. The portion that is uplifted is called “Horst” i.e.
Block mountain and the sinking part is “Grabben” i.e. Rift valley. E.g. Aravalli, Vindhyas and Satpuda are Block Moun-
tains.

Characteristics of Block:
1. Not true mountains.
2. The differential erosion of horst gives it a look like a mountain range.

Fig 2: Block mountains

Volcanic mountains: These are formed when materials ejected from the earth’s crust erupts from the vent of the moun-
tain. This material accumulates around the vent of the mountain. Therefore volcanic mountains are called mountains of
accumulation.

Residual mountains: These are mountains formed from the effects of denudation agents like rivers, air, breeze etc.

Plateau:
This is raised land higher than surrounding areas. It is formed during mountain building process. It is raised land due to
erosion of mountain from glaciers or deposition from winds or lava.

1. Tectonic plateau: These are formed by earth movements that cause uplifts and are normally of considerable
size and altitude. Intermount plateaus are plateaus enclosed by fold mountains. These plateaus are the most ex-
tensive and highest in the world. E.g: Tibetan plateau
2. Volcanic plateau: Molten lava may issue from the Earth’s crust and spread over the Earth’s surface to form suc-
cessive sheets of basaltic lava.
3. Dissected plateau: These are formed from the action of glaciation and rivers on plateaux

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Plains:
These are flat areas with low heights. These are the most populated areas of the world. They are most fit for human
habitation.
The depositional plains are formed due to rivers or sea. Erosion plains are formed due to erosions of plateau.

There may also be low hills that form a rolling topography.

1. Structural plains: These are formed by horizontally bedded rocks. These make up some of the extensive low-
lands of the world.
2. Depositional plains: These are plains formed from depositional material brought by agents of weathering like
rivers, glaciers etc. Running water is the single most potent agent of denudation.
3. Erosional plains: These are plains formed from the action of agents of erosion like rain, rivers, ice and wind.
Lava and Volcanic Activity
Lava:

The main types of lava are:

1. Basic lavas: These are hottest lavas and highly fluidic. They are rich in iron, magneisum but poor in silica. They
flow fast and without explosions and so cover more areas. The resultant volcano is flat dome or shield.

2. Acid lava: These are highly viscous and flow less fast. They also explode loudly.

Volcano:

1. Shield volcanoes: highly fluid, gentle rising slopes and broad, flattened tops.

2. Cinder cones: less fluid lava with large craters and steep slopes.

3. Composite cones: highest and most common type.

In some volcanoes the top of the cone collapses into the vent or is blown off. This orifice gets widened forming a caldera.
Sometimes a lake may form in this depression and is called a Caldera lake.

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The greatest concentration of volcanoes is along the Cir-cum Pacific region which is also known as the “Pacific Ring of
Fire” which has 2/3rds of the world’s volcanoes. It is also the region that sees the highest concentration of earthquakes
as nearly 70% of the earthquakes are seen in this region.

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Famous river plains in the world:
1. Yangtze river plain:
· Third longest river in the world.

· Iron and steel industries / Coal industries located on the coast.

· Used as an inland waterway.
2. Tigris and Euphrates river plain:
· Originates in turkey and flows through Syria and Iraq.
3. Amazon basin

· Second longest river in the world.

· Large mineral reserves and oil reserves.
4. Mississippi basin, USA
· Temperate grasslands and mineral reserves.

· Granaries of the world – Prairies.

5. Murray – Darling basin, Australia
· Temperate grasslands – Downs
· Animal husbandry and mineral reserves.
Lakes
Most of the lakes in the world are fresh water lakes and a few that have limited source of water and face high evapora-
tion are salt water lakes. Lakes are however only temporary land-forms and shall be erased due to siltation and evapora -
tion.
Factors responsible for lake formation:

1. Lakes formed due to Earth movements:

2.
1. Tectonic lakes: These are formed due to movements in the Earth’s crust. E.g.: Lake Titicaca which is
the highest lake and Caspian Sea which is the largest lake.
2.

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 3. Rift valley lakes: These lakes are formed due to sinking of land between two parallel faults. E.g.: Lank
Tanganyika the World’s deepest lake and Dead sea , the World’s lowest lake.
4.
3. Lakes formed by glaciation:
4.
1. Cirque lakes: A glacier on its way down the valley leaves behind circular hollow in the heads of the val -
leys up in the mountains which become lakes.
2.
3. Kettle lakes: These are depression in the outwash plain left by the melting of masses of stagnant ice.
4.
5. Rock hollow lakes: Formed by valley glaciers that scoop out hollows in the surface. E.g.: Finland has
35000 such lakes and is called Land of Lakes.
6.
5. Lakes formed by Volcanic activity:
6.
1. Crater or Caldera lake: When the top of the cone is blown off during volcanic explosion a crater or
caldera is formed in which a lake may be created.
2.
3. Lava blocked lake: A stream of lava may flow across a valley and block a river thus damming it and
creating a lake.
4.
5. Lake due to subsidence of a volcanic lava surface: The crust of a hollow lava flow may collapse leav-
ing a wide and shallow depression where a lake may form.

Apart from these there are also lakes formed by erosion or deposition or formed from activities of man, animals and orna-
mental lakes.
Tourist industry has become the National occupation in Switzerland due to the presence of lakes in the Alps.

Chapter 4: NATURAL CATASTROPHIC EVENTS

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Introduction
The major types of natural calamities are

1. Volcanoes
2. Earthquakes
3. Tsunami

Volcanoes:

Volcanism and causes of volcanism aren’t random. The areas of high volcanic activity are of ocean - ocean convergence
and ocean continent convergence.

One of the regions is the Pacific ring of fire located in the pacific ocean and consists of border areas of China, Philip-
pines, Japan, rocky mountains, Mexico , Andes mountains, Indonesia, new Zealand, Tanzania.

The second reason for volcanoes is the ocean - ocean divergence which creates peaceful basaltic eruptions as mid
ocean ridges are formed.

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The third reason for volcanic eruptions is breaking up of plates into blocks. The andesitic eruptions are seen in this
type.

Intrusive land - forms:

1. Sills - Horizontal

2. Dykes - vertical
3. Laccoliths – magma which couldn’t come out
4. Balolith – intrusive granite rock
5. Phacolith – shaped like waves

6. Lopolith – saucer shaped.

Fig 1: intrusive landforms

Extrusive Landforms:

Lava plateau: The cracks in the continental crust leads to basaltic flows which spread across land creating lava plateau.
E.g. Deccan plateau.

Shield / Dome volcano: The magma reservoir creates volcanic islands. These create peaceful basaltic flow with gentle
flow. E.g.: Hawaii.

Cinder cones: The ocean continent plates collide and then viscous lava explodes violently.

Composite cones: Volcanic eruptions led to new layers of ash or lava.

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 Fig 2: Volcano types

Geysers:

Fountains of hot water. Ground water heated by shallow source of magma. They have chambers in interior and water
comes out like fountains due to pressure. Silica is dissolved in water.

Hot springs:

Springs: The groundwater stored in rocks comes out of outlets called springs where the water table reaches the surface.
The water may seep out gradually out of rocks or gush out as a fountain. Wells are man made for obtaining ground water
by digging a hole in the ground till the water table is reached.
Water reaches interior and there it is heated. Water is heated by magma or hot rocks. It is common and is present in
many places of the world. Cyano bacteria are present in this water.

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 Fig 3: Hot springs vs geysers

DROUGHTS

• Drought is a continuous and lengthy period during which no significant rainfall is recorded. In India, the Meteoro-
logical Department of India defined drought as a period of at least 22 consecutive days on none of which is there
more than 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) of rainfall. However this definition doesn't apply to the whole country.
•
• In general, the areas recording less than 60 cm of rainfall annually and in which the variability of rainfall is more
than 20 per cent are the drought prone areas in India.
•
• Areas where the variability of rainfall varies between 20 to 60 per cent (like Rajasthan, west of Aravallis, and east
of the Western Ghats) are the chronic drought prone areas.
•
• Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Environment, a drought prone area is defined as one in which the prob-
ability of a drought year is greater than 20 per cent. A chronic drought prone area is one in which the probability
of a drought year is greater than 40 per cent. A drought year occurs when less than 75 per cent of the average
annual rainfall is recorded.
•
• The drought prone areas of India are:
•
◦ The Arid and Semi-arid Areas of Rajasthan
◦
◦ The Rain-shadow Areas of Western Ghats

Chapter 5: NATURAL CALAMITIES

Page 19 of 193
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Earthquakes
Sudden movement or vibration in Earth crusts. It is due to release of energy and active internal dynamism of the earth.
Types:
1. Shallow focus

2. Intermediate focus
3. Deep focus
Shallow focuses are the most destructive.

Fig 1: Japan has frequent earthquakes as it’s located at junction of three plates.

Reasons:
1. Collision of plate boundaries like Ocean – Ocean, Ocean – Continental or Continent – Continent plates.
2. Divergent plate boundaries lead to earthquakes due to formation of mid ocean ridge and eruptions.
3. Transverse plate boundaries create friction of plates and lead to earthquakes.

4. Breaking of plates and frequent interaction between them.

5. Human induced due to Mining, building of dams.
6. Re emergence of old fractures.

Tsunami
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The tsunami waves are created due to the energy released from plate collision. The colliding energy is transmitted to
the waves. These waves have greater wavelength and height when they hit the coast.
The vessels in the ocean don’t feel the tsunami. Waves also have higher speed.

Floods

Floods - Inundation of land. Indian climate where monsoon concentrated in a few months leads to flooding situation. The
reasons of a flood are heavy rainfall, poor drainage due to topography, cloud burst, siltation of river bed, landslide in
course of river.

Human induced reasons like deforestation, unplanned settlements, global warming and melting of glaciers and construc-
tion of dams.

Solution:
1. Afforestation on river banks
2. Better settlement management

3. Watershed management and rainwater harvestin

Droughts

Rainfall is 60 - 75 cm then place is considered as drought affected. Southern part of Deccan plateau, Western Ra-
jasthan and Ladakh are considered drought prone as these have 25% variability of normal rainfall.
In India drought is a more complex problem. Drought is due to inadequate development. It leads to agrarian
poverty, high mortality of infants and mothers.

To resolve drought related problems:

1. Improve agriculture irrigation facility

2. Provide alternative livelihood

3. Economic status of farmers.

Rain fed areas where agriculture completely depends on rainfall cover 55% of the country. 50% of food grains,
90% of pulses / millets and 66% of livestock population resides here. However, there is low productivity, high
poverty and subsistence farming. 40% of India's B.P.L population live here.

The following are drought prone areas:

1. Rain shadow region of western Ghats – don’t receive adequate rainfall

2. Malwa, Bundelkhand, Mewar

3. Eastern India – high rainfall but overuse and inadequate storage

4. North east India – wettest part of India but no availability of storage.

Solution:

1. Agricultural income should be supplemented by alternate income sources too from animal husbandry, food pro-
cessing, agro-forestry, handicrafts and tourism.

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2. For availability of alternate income 24*7 electricity, transportation, connectivity should be ensured.

3. Mostly cash crops are grown in rain fed areas and this should be changed to less water intensive crops like mil-
lets. Agro practices should be changed like use of drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation.

4. Use of Drought-resistance variety, Conservation of soil moisture – mulching, Pre-monsoon ploughing and soil
dressing ,Deep drilling of seed and fertilizers , crop-rotation.

Chapter 6: OCEANOGRAPHY
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Introduction
Ocean crust isn't uniform or flat. It has higher diversity than continental crust.
It is highly dense, thick crust and basaltic.
Oceanic crust is created at the mid ocean ridge and destroyed at the Trench.

The ocean floor is divided into three main regions:

1. Ocean – Continent margin

· Continental shelf
· Continental slope
· Continental rise
2. Deep ocean plains / Abyssal plains
3. Mid ocean ridge

Continent Shelf:
This is the seaward extension of the continent from the shoreline to the continental edge. They are absent on mountain-
ous coasts and are widest in shores of lowland coasts. The continental shelf formation may be by submerging of conti-
nental edges due to rising water levels or by water erosion. Alternately they could have been formed by deposition of silt
from rivers.
Properties:
1. They are responsible for preventing cold under current from rising and also increase the height of tides.
2.
3. They are excellent location for ports.
4.

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 5. The sunlight reaches the shelves and so minute plankton grows on them. This causes fishes to reach the
shelves. The shelves are thus known as the richest fishing grounds of the world.
6.
Characteristics:

1. It is shallow part of ocean and connected to the continent.

2. It has highest bio diversity.
3. Light reaches the bottom and hence aquatic plants are found.
4. Depth is about 200m.
5. Sediments from land are also found.

Resources in continental shelf:

1. 90% of petroleum reserves are found in shelves. E.g.: Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, Arctic Ocean, and Gulf of
Mexico.
2. Sulfur metal rarely found on land but is abundant in continental shelf due to marine volcanism.
3. Concentration of heavy metals on shelf. E.g.: Monazite sand [thorium], gold, silver and diamonds.
4. Pearls.

Continental Slope:
1. Massive slope at the end of the shelf.
2. Landfalls of terrestrial deposits.
3. Great rivers form canyons, underwater waterfalls.

Continental Rise:
1. Transition between ocean block and continental block.
2. Absent near trenches as trenches consume the depositional material of the continental rise.

Abyssal plains:
1. Occupies 2/3rd of the ocean floor.
2. High diversity in types of landforms and deposits from continental and aquatic sediments.
Ocean trenches: These are long, narrow deeps that penetrate to about 30000 feet at times. They are usually located
near continents. Pacific Ocean has the deepest trenches.

Resources from an abyssal plain:

1. Poly metallic nodules are a concentration of metals around a core. Found in all oceans. Some of the minerals are
rare on land.

UN Convention on laws of seas:

1. Decides deep sea mining, environment protection, maritime boundary and dispute settlement.
2. As per the convention, territorial sea is 12 miles from coast, 24 miles is contiguous zone and 200 miles is the exclu -
sive economic zone where state can explore minerals and produce energy.

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 Chapter 7: ISLANDS
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Introduction

Islands

A piece of land surrounded by water on all sides. Generally formed of the following types:
1. Continental islands: These islands were formally a part of the mainland and now detached from the continent
by a shallow lagoon or a deep channel. The rise in sea levels then submerged the low lying areas that connected
them. The evidence of this is the presence of identical flora and fauna on both sides of the land.
2.
3. Types:
4.
1. Individual islands: These lie just outside the mainland very much associated with the characteristics of
the mainland they were once a part of.
2.
3. Archipelagoes: Groups of islands varying in shapes and sizes.
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 4.
5. Island arcs: Islands form an archipelago in the shape of a loop around the mainland, marking the con-
tinuation of mountain ranges which can be traced on the continent.
6.
5.
6. Oceanic islands: These are isolated islands that lay thousands of miles away from the mainland. They have
flora and fauna different from the nearest mainland. They are usually sparsely populated but are useful stops for
the aeroplanes and steamers.
7.
8. Types:

1. Volcanic islands: Many islands are actually topmost part of cones of volcanic mountains that rise from
the ocean bed.
2.
3. Coral islands: These are lower and emerge just above the water surface. These are built by coral ani-
mals of various species and are found near the shores of mainland and in midst of oceans.
4.

Fig 1: Island types

Coral reefs:
1. Sources of greatest biodiversity amongst marine ecosystems.

2. They are indicative of the health of the marine ecology. Cant survive in muddied waters or polluted water. They
need sediment free water.
3. Primary food chain. Home to Zoantharia which is aquatic primary producer.

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 Fig 2: Zoantharia

Characteristics of coral reefs:

1. Corals are tiny fleshy sea anemones. They extract calcium from the sea and form skeletons to protect their bodies.
2. Each generation dies on top of the previous.
3. They have a symbiotic relationship with microscopic plant Zoantharia which are photosynthetic in origin.

4. They corals provide protection to Zoantharia and Zoantharia provide food to the corals.
5. When corals are in stress they expel Zoantharia and become white. Ultimately they die without food.

Conditions needed for coral reefs:

1. Shallow platform where sunlight reaches.
2. Temperature 25-27°

3. Warm, tropical and low latitude waters.

4. Salinity should be 33 ppm.
5. Not at mouth of the river; they need circulating nutrient rich water.

Reasons for coral bleaching:

1. Global warming and ozone depletion

2. Ocean acidification,
3. Algal bloom
4. Marine pollution and oil spills.

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Formation of coral reefs:
1. Fringing reef: coral reef is formed bordering an island or continent. A distance is created between island and the
reef. Here small water bodies are seen to form called lagoons.
2. Barrier reef: reef isn’t continuous but broken. The lagoons can connect to ocean. Here the coral reef if formed par-
allel to the coast it’s called barrier reef.

3. Atoll: the hill is submerged and now only narrow ring of reef is visible.

Fig 3: Formation of reefs

Theory of Reef Formation

Formation of reefs: Subsidence Theory by Darwin

All reefs started as fringing reefs of islands or top of volcanoes that emerge out of sea bed. Then these islands subside
with Earth movements.
However the fringing reefs continue to grow upwards. The corals also continue to grow outwards as more favorable con-
ditions are seen there then at the inner edge.
Finally a barrier reef is formed and this becomes an atoll as the inner island is completely submerged due to the down
warping.

Page 27 of 193
Glacial Control theory: RA Daly
He said that a close relationship exists between the Glaciation and Coral reef formation. The theory states that the Ice
Ages saw a great marine erosion due to absence of coral barriers. The erosion lowered the islands.
Then as the glaciers melted the water levels rose. The coral activity started and now the island was covered by corals.
However, as the island submerged due to erosion and wave action, the corals continued to move upward to rise above
the water level. This created Atolls.

Page 28 of 193
 Chapter 8: MOTION OF OCEANIC WATER
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Waves:
Wind pushes the water body. Then gravity pushes the crest downwards and falling water pulls the troughs upwards. Ac-
tual motion of water below the surface is circular.

Page 29 of 193
 Fig 1: Wave motion

Ocean Currents:

They are shallow and narrow stream of water circulating along the ocean margins. They circumnavigate the world.

The currents are created due to

1. Winds – Most currents follow the winds.

2. Coriolis force- the earth’s rotation deflects the ocean currents to east in north and south.
3. Insolation – water at equator is heated and rises. The water at poles cools and sinks, this water flows towards the
equator at subsurface level to maintain the loss.

Page 30 of 193
4. Also insolation increases salinity and the high saline water sinks and less saline water rises to the surface. The
equator water is less saline [heavy rainfall] and moves to polar high saline water [icebergs].
5. Gravity and coastlines.

The best fishing grounds in the world are places where hot and cold current meet like Japan and east coast of
America but are foggy areas making it tough for fishing.

The cold currents are also responsible for desiccating effect on the deserts.

The winter current in Arabian Sea caused movement of water towards Arabia and in summer caused movement of water
towards India, Thus facilitating trade.

Upwelling:
• When wind blows in the north direction it creates a flow of water in the western direction. This west flowing water
then leads to the divergence at the coast and draws water from below the surface to the top. This is “Upwelling”.

• The cool and nutrient rich water from below comes to the surface. This causes reproduction of phytoplankton
and zooplankton.

• When the wind moves southward it causes flow of water towards the coast and this creates down welling.

Fig 2: Upwelling and downwelling

Tides:
1. Due to the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon causes tides.
2. The tides depend on depth of ocean, configuration of coastline and openness and closeness of sea.

3. The perigee tides [moon is closer] are higher than apogee tides.
4. When sun, moon and earth are in a line either during full moon and new moon we get spring tide which is the high-
est high tide and neap tide is when sun, moon and earth are at right angles and this is lowest high tide.
5. In spring tide low tide is lower than usual and in neap tide the low tide is higher than usual.

6. Tides help large ships enter and leave ports. E.g. Kandla and diamond harbor are tidal ports.
Vishakapatnam is deepest landlocked port, Chennai oldest artificial port, Kolkata is oldest port.

Page 31 of 193
 Fig 3: Tides

Estuary: mouth of a river is submerged or low lying under sea water. The river deposit create long narrow delta like Nar-
mada and Tapti.

Page 32 of 193
 Fig 4: Estuary

Temperature of ocean water

The process of insolation is responsible for ocean temperature. The average temperature of ocean is 3-5°. But the aver-
age temperature of surface of ocean is 25°.

It is highest at the tropics not the equator as equator has high cloud cover and rainfall. It decreases towards the
poles. For same reason the diurnal temperature range of tropics is higher than equator.
Due to large land mass in the northern hemisphere the temperature of water is higher than in south.

The enclosed seas of tropics are warmer than open oceans. The enclosed seas of temperate are cooler than Open
Ocean.

Upwelling brings cold water on top but down welling piles warm water on top.

Bigger the size of the ocean better mixing of water and so less annual range of temperature.

Temperature decreases with depth. The decrease rate is higher at equator than the poles.

Salinity of oceans

Sodium chloride is the highest percentage present in ocean. Both sodium and chlorine have high residual time and
hence remain in highest proportion.

The proportion of salt remains same in all parts of the ocean.

Salinity decreases from equator to poles but highest salinity is in tropics as equator gets high rainfall and low
evaporation due to cloud cover.

Page 33 of 193
Variations in salinity:

1. Salinity increases with high evaporation rate, windy conditions, no fresh water source and down welling.
2. Salinity decreases due to high rainfall, low evaporation rate, upwelling and melting of glaciers.

Solved Question Papers

Q.Tides occur in oceans and seas due to which of the following?

1. Gravitational Force of the Sun
2. Gravitational Force of the Moon
3. Gravitational Force of the Earth
Select the correct answer using the code given below (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• 1 only
•
• 2 and 3 only
•
• 1 and 3 only
•
• 1, 2, and 3
•

Ans . D

1. Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of gravitational forces exerted by the
Moon, Sun, and rotation of the Earth.

Q.What explains the eastward flow of the equatorial counter-current? (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• The Earth’s rotation on its axis

•
• Convergence of the two equatorial currents
•
• Difference in salinity of water
•
• Occurrence of the belt of calm near equator
•

Ans . B

1. The equatorial counter-currents are driven by a distinct surface wind pattern in the tropics. Strong westward
trade winds result in westward surface flow in most of the tropical Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. However, several
hundred mi. (km.) north of the equator the winds are much weaker, in comparison.
2. The stronger winds to the south pile up water where the winds are weak.
3. As a result, the surface of the ocean can be up to 6 in. (15 cm.) higher and the thermocline (region of strongest
decrease of temperature with increasing depth) as much as 328 ft. (100 m.) deeper than it is directly to the north.
The excess water flows eastward under the influence of the Earth’s rotation, giving rise to the equatorial counter-
currents.

Chapter 9: CLIMATOLOGY
Share Quote
Introduction
During early life of the earth there was abundance of hydrogen and helium. Extensive volcanism increased nitrogen, sul-
fur, water vapor, argon and carbon dioxide. Then heavy rains pushed the bulk of CO2 into the oceans. Currently the pro -
portion of gases in the atmosphere is

Page 34 of 193
Nitrogen – 78%
Oxygen – 21%
Argon – 0.93%
Carbon dioxide – 0.03%

Page 35 of 193
 Fig 1: Atmosphere
Page 36 of 193
Layers of the Atmosphere:

The atmosphere extends up to 10000 km above the earth’s surface. The parts of the atmosphere are:

Troposphere:
· 90% of atmosphere within 32 km. Tropopause is at 8 km at poles and 18km at equator. At equator cumulonimbus
clouds are formed.
Climatic elements like temperature, pressure, humidity, precipitation, clouds lead to variations in local climate and
weather phenomenon. The variable water content in the atmosphere leads to great contrast in weather and climate.
Without water in the atmosphere there would be no weather or climate

· Temperature decreases with height. It is transparent to shortwave radiation but G.H.G's absorb long wave terres-
trial radiation.
· Weather phenomenon is formed at troposphere.

Stratosphere
· Temperature increases with height. Ozone layer is present here and UV radiation is absorbed.

Stratosphere lies above the troposphere and has no dust, smoke or water vapor however seasonal temperature varia-
tions are seen.
· Polar stratospheric clouds present. Spy planes, commercial planes and weather balloons fly here.

Mesosphere
· No GHG's and temperature decreases with height. Noctilucent clouds seen.
Meteors burn in this layer.

Thermosphere - Ionosphere
· Gases in ionic state trap insolation. Temperature increases with height.
Ionosphere layer makes short wave radio transmission possible over long distances.
· Largest layer of atmosphere. Useful in radio communication.

· Reflects low frequency and high frequency waves but not very high or ultra high.

Page 37 of 193
 Fig 2: Layers of the atmosphere

Heat Budget:
Sun’s energy reaches as solar or radiant energy by process called Insolation. Out of this 35% is reflected back by the
dust and the atmosphere, 14% is absorbed by the water vapor in atmosphere and is scattered by dust particles in air this
causes “Blue Sky phenomenon”.
The remaining 51% is absorbed by earth’s surface and heats it. The surface the through conduction and convection
heats the air above it. Radiation of heat at night by the surface continues during night and since insolation is absent the
surface cools.
Land is heated rapidly than water as the heat in water is spread out evenly due to the motion of water. The opaque na-
ture of land means that more heat is absorbed and so land is heated and cooled faster. Transparent nature of water also
leads to less heat being absorbed. Specific heat of water is higher so it takes longer to heat. Interiors of continents also
face higher temperature variations than coastal areas as the moderating influence of the sea is not seen there.
The differential heating gives rise to land and sea breezes. During day as land gets heated faster than water the air
above it is warmer and less dense. The sea remains cool and so a high pressure belt is formed and we experience sea
breeze. This is usually stronger in tropics than temperate regions. During night, the land is cooled faster than sea and so
a low pressure belt is seen over sea. Winds now move from land to sea and we get land breeze.

Slopes to are affected by temperature as a steep slope is heated faster than gentle slope. Mountains having east west
alignment also see their south facing ‘sunny slope’ have a higher temperature than their north facing ‘sheltered slope’.
The southern slopes thus see more cultivations and settlements.
Dry soils heat and cool faster than wet soils. The darker soils also better absorbers of heat than lighter soils. The leaves
of trees in jungles loose water during day due to evapo-transpiration and this makes the air cooler. The relative humidity
increases and mist and fog may form.

Page 38 of 193
Albedo is the percentage of solar radiation reflected by the surface of the solar radiation that is incident. Lower albedo is
for dark soil and higher albedo is snowfall.

Fig 3: Albedo

Movement of Air:

Air moves from high pressure area to low pressure area [advection]. When air gets warm it expands as it becomes
lighter [convection].

When air is heated it goes up. If it has moisture it condenses and brings rain. However this causes instability. Similarly
when air cools it can’t rise it sinks causing high pressure conditions or anti cyclonic conditions on ground.

Temperature inversion:

In hill areas a hot day followed by a cloudless night see the air at a higher altitude cool much faster. This cold, dense air
sinks downwards and pushes the warmer air to rise. The temperature at the bottom of the valley is lower than the top.
This is called “temperature inversion”. Normally temperature decreases with height but when it increases.

Case 1: On a cool night the air above cools rapidly than the air below. The warm air rises upwards than the colder air.
This causes temperature inversion.
Page 39 of 193
Case 2: In a valley the cool air descends downwards and the warm air rises. This cool air causes frost and damages
crops.

Effects of temperature inversion:

1. Fog - The water droplets condensed around a dust particle. It reduces visibility and damages crops.

2. Frost
3. Atmospheric Stability – discourages rainfall.

Smog is when water droplet condenses around a pollutant like SO2. It too reduces visibility and is a health hazard. It oc-
curs in cool humid climate.

Photochemical smog: it occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate. It is due to unsaturated hydrocarbons and ozone in
presence on sunlight. It is oxidizing smog.

Fig 4: Temperature inversion

Chapter 10: TYPES OF CLOUDS

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Introduction

1. Types of clouds:
2.
1. High clouds:
2.
1. Cirrus: indicate fair weather and good sunset. Look fibrous or wispy.
2.
3. Cirrocumulus: Appear like white globular mass.

Page 40 of 193
 4.
5. Cirrostratus: resemble thin white sheet or veil.
6.
3.
4. Medium clouds:
5.
1. Altocumulus: indicate fair weather.
2.
3. Altostratus; dense, grayish clouds
4.
6. Low clouds:
7.
1. Stratocumulus: rough, bumpy cloud
2.
3. Stratus: Brings dull weather with light drizzle.
4.
5. Nimbostratus: Rain clouds. It also brings snow or sleet.
6.
8. Clouds with great vertical height:
9.
1. Cumulus: Typically seen in tropical, humid regions.
2.
3. Cumulonimbus: Thunder cloud brings rain with thunder and lightning.
4.
3.
Phenomenon caused by High Humidity

Haze: It is caused by smoke or dust in industrial areas or when there is unequal refraction of light in air of differ-
ent densities in lower atmosphere. This is seen in regions of low humidity [Relative humidity < 75%].
Mist: It occurs in areas of high humidity where relative humidity is 75% +. Condensation of water vapor in air
causes small water droplets to float about in lower atmosphere forming clouds.
Fog: These are formed when water vapors condense on smoke or dust particles. A dense ground cloud is
formed reducing visibility. Although fogs are seen in tropics and temperate areas, they are denser in high and
middle latitudes than tropics. Fogs are more common over seas than land and prevalent in coastal areas.
Haze and Mist occur more commonly in dry interiors.
Clouds and their types

Low altitude clouds:

1. Nimbostratus – rain bearing

2. Stratocumulus and cumulus are fair weather clouds.

Middle altitude clouds:

1. Altocumulus
Page 41 of 193
 2. Altostratus

High altitude clouds:

1. Cirrostratus, cirrocumulus and cirrus.

4.
Clouds with vertical development are cumulonimbus which is stormy clouds and an indicator of cy-
clonic heavy rainfall.

5.

6.
7. Fig 1: Types of clouds

8.
Rainfall and its types

9.

The term "rainfall" is used to describe precipitation in the form of water drops of sizes larger than 0.5 mm. Other
forms are snow, drizzle, glaze, sleet and hail.

Types of rainfall:
1. Frontal and cyclonic - Seen in temperate regions and is reason for rainfall during winters there.
Warm air rises over cool air and is cooled due to it. this leads to condensation and rain

2. Convectional - Hot air formed due to sun's heating effect on oceans rises upwards and condenses. This
rain is seen in equatorial and tropics.

3. Orographic - This is seen where moist air is forced to climb a mountain barrier. The windward sides of
mountains see this rainfall. It is also called “Relief rain”. The leeward side of mountain however doesn’t receive
much rainfall and are called “Rain shadow regions”. E.g: Western ghats

Page 42 of 193
 10.
11.
Fig 2: Types of rainfall
12.
Page 43 of 193
 13. Pressure systems of the world:

Entire earth is divided into four pressure belts. Belts aren’t continuous but pockets of low or high pressure. Low
pressure is created by heat and rising movement of air. High pressure is created by low temperature
and descending air.

14.
The belts are:
1. Equatorial low pressure belt.
2. Sub tropical high pressure belt

3. Sub polar low pressure belt

4. Polar high pressure belt.

Equatorial low pressure belt OR inter tropical convergence zone:

15.
The direct insolation leads to low pressure as the air is heated. The heated air rises upwards and condenses
to bring evening rain.: The region along the equator and within 5 degree North and South is the equatorial low
pressure belt is called Doldrums.

This convectional rain is common throughout the year in equatorial areas.

Calm belt with slow winds.

Sub tropical high pressure belt:

The air above the equator moves towards the poles but due to Coriolis force it is deflected and its path in-
creases. The air loses energy and cools down; it descends and creates a high pressure belt.

Sub polar low pressure belt:

The cold air from the poles moves to the equator but the warm air of the sub tropic high pressure zone collides
with it. The warm air rises here and creates a low pressure zone. About 30 degree North and South is the area
of descending air currents or wind divergence or anticyclones. These are the horse latitudes. 60 degree North
and South are the temperate low pressure belts and zones of cyclonic activity. Then at 90 degree north and
south are the polar high pressure belts.
Polar high pressure belt:
The air from the low pressure sub polar belt descends here creating high pressure. Also the low temperature
cools air.

Page 44 of 193
 16.

Fig 3: Pressure belts

Planetary winds: These winds blow in the same direction throughout the year. But due to Coriolis force their di-
rection is deflected. Winds tend to blow from high pressure belts to low pressure but due to Earth ’s rotation are
deflected to right in north hemisphere and left in south hemisphere - “Ferrel’s law”. Coriolis force to is absent at
the equator but increases towards the poles. Due to large expanse of oceans in the Southern hemisphere com-
pared to North, planetary winds blow harder.
Trade winds or Easterlies:

They blow from sub tropical high to the equatorial low. They are deflected from east to west due to Coriolis
force.
Desert winds:
The trade winds blow from east to west. But they lose moisture as they pass over the continents. The western
margins of the continents don’t receive rain. Hence deserts are formed called trade wind deserts.
The second reason for deserts is they are on contact with cold currents that reach the western margins of the
desert. These cold currents create a desiccating effect on the trade winds.
Westerlies:

They blow from sub tropic high pressure zone to sub polar low pressure zone. Their direction is from west to
east due to Coriolis force. Due to absence of land mass in southern hemisphere they have high velocities.
Page 45 of 193
 Polar easterlies:
Blow from Polar Regions to sub Polar Regions. Direction is east to west.
Seasonal winds:
These are monsoon winds in Indian subcontinent. The easterlies blow from north to south in winter and south to
north in summer over some areas only.

The reason is earth tilted axis which causes apparent movement of the sun in the north during June - July. This
causes shifting of the low pressure belt or ITCZ to the north.
This brings rainfall to India.
Land and sea breezes:
During the morning the sea gets heated slower than land. The land remains under low pressure and sea is high
pressure. Thus we get sea breeze. In the night the land cools faster than sea due to lower specific heat. This
creates low pressure over sea and the high pressure over land. Hence we get land breeze.
The fishermen use this system to move from land to sea and back.

Upper troposphere winds:

The troposphere has a different situation than at land. Here there is high pressure over the equator and low over
the poles. They blow from west to east “Westerlies”. In these winds there are strong, narrow band of winds
called Jet Streams [speed – 300 kmph].

17.

18.
19. Fig 4: Jet streams
20.

Page 46 of 193
 21. Cyclones

Tropical cyclones:

22.
8-20° latitude. Movement from east to west. They are created due to thermal conditions. Their path is difficult to
predict. They have winds of high speed but quickly dissipate on land. They mostly affect coastal areas.
Location: Bay of Bengal, western pacific i.e. Philippines etc and Gulf of Mexico when formed over these
areas they make landfall hence the coastal parts of these areas are largely affected.

The other regions where they are formed but can’t make landfall are Arabian sea, east coast of Africa, west
coast of Mexico and south west USA.

Formation:
1. The increase in the sea surface temperature causes air to warm and rise. This air also has moisture. The
low pressure zone at sea level is where air converges.

2. As air moves upwards the Coriolis force causes spiral movement. After reaching the top it dissipates.
3. Continuous process of above causes a cyclone where a high pressure eye is surrounded by low pressure
region. But as this cyclone is fueled by moisture when it makes landfall it dissipates quickly. This is due
to being cut off from moisture.

23.
Temperate cyclones:
30-40° latitude. Movement from west to east. They are formed due to movement of air [rising]. They have winds
at 40-50 mph. They don’t dissipate quickly and cause destruction.
They are located on the western coast of USA and Europe. They are influenced by the Westerlies.

Chapter 11: WEATHER PHENOMENON

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Page 47 of 193
Introduction

Weather v. Climate

1. Weather changes frequently but Climate is the average atmospheric conditions of an area over a considerable
time.
2.
3. Climate of temperate latitudes is far more variable than the tropics.
4.

Points to remember about the Weather effect's

1. Death rates of tropics are higher than deserts as germs find it difficult to transmit easily in dry conditions com-
pared to humid conditions.
2.
3. Rainfall, snow, sleet, hail are types of precipitation and are measured by Rain gauge.
4.
5. Places with the same mean annual rainfall are joined by the lines called “Isohyet”.
6.
7. Mercury is used in the Barometer as it is the heaviest known liquid. The mercury column at sea level is 30 inches
approx. or 1013 milli-bar / 760 mm of Hg [Mercury].
8.
9. Lines called isobars join regions of high pressure.
10.
11. The Temperate latitudes see higher variations in pressure which leads to cyclones and anti-cyclones. As one
goes higher in altitude the pressure decreases. The drop is 1 inch for every 900 feet ascent in height.
12.
13. Aeroplanes use a modified barometer called Altimeter.
14.
15. Temperature decrease is 1 Fahrenheit drop for 300 feet ascent in altitude.
16.
17. Humidity is the measure of dampness in the atmosphere. It has two types:
18.
19. Absolute and Relative humidity. The Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapor in grams per cubic meter.
20.
21. Relative humidity is the amount of water vapor present in air at a particular temperature compared to the total
amount of water vapor, air can hold at that temperature.
22.

Relative humidity = 80%; This means Air holds 4/5th of the water vapor it can hold.
Important instruments related to Weather

1. Wind director – Wind vane

2.
3. Wind speed – Anemometer
4.
5. Relative Humidity - Hygrometer
6.
7. Places with equal sunshine duration are joined by “Isohels”.
Page 48 of 193
 8.
9. “Isonephs” are lines that join places with equal degree of cloudiness.
10.

Formation of thunderstorms:
Heavy rainfall with thunder and lightning. They usually last for short amount of time. Cumulonimbus clouds are formed.
This leads to atmospheric instability and convectional rainfall.
1. Air motion is upwards.

2. The accumulation of water increases and water droplets descend the surrounding is cooled. This leads to more
downward draft and spreads throughout the entire cumulonimbus.

Fig 1: Formation of thunderstorms

Types of thunderstorms:

1. Thermal thunderstorms – localized, intense heating of ground.

2. Orographic thunderstorms – obstruction due to mountains leads to it as forcible vertical movement is needed.
3. Cold front thunderstorms – hot and cold air collide to get this.

Tornadoes:

Occurs mostly in temperate regions where cold and warm air meets. South east of USA is called “Tornado Alley”.

Polar stratospheric clouds:

They are formed in winter and contain nitric acid, sulfuric acid and water. Nitric acid reacts with CFC to create chlo-
rine. This creates a chlorine concentration in winter. This chlorine reacts with oxygen molecule of ozone and de-
stroys the ozone layer.

Ozone depletion is more at southern pole and is called ozone hole - “Thinning of ozone layer in stratosphere below
threshold” [not an actual hole].
Page 49 of 193
El - Nino and La - Nina

There are oscillations in the pressure gradient and air circulation every 2-3 years in South Pacific Ocean. This is called El
Nino Southern Oscillation.

The term "El Niño" refers to "the boy" / "Child christ" , so named because the pool of warm water in the annual weak
warm ocean current that ran southwards along the coast of Peru and Equador around Christmas. "La Niña", the 'oppo-
site' of El Niño, translates to "the girl".

During a normal year the following events are seen:

• The south equatorial current takes warm water to Australia and creates a low pressure region. This heats
the air and it rises upwards. The resultant atmospheric instability leads to rainfall in Australia.
• The air that rises up cools and diverges. It comes to the South American coast. Due to this high pressure is
created and has a desiccating effect on the Atacama Desert.
• This is High pressure and low pressure formation is called Walker Cells.
• The south equatorial current takes warm water to the west from east. This causes up-welling at Peru coast
and rich fisheries at Peru.

Page 50 of 193
 Fig 2: El nino

During El Nino year:

1. The south equatorial current weakens and water piling is reduced to Australia.

2. The abnormal cooling of Australian region and warming of Peruvian coast is seen. The low pressure condition over
Peru and high pressure over Australia causes drought. Reversing of walker cells is observed.
3. This causes rainfall in Atacama Desert. The up-welling at Peru coast is affected and the fishery business goes
down.
4. El Niño causes droughts in India and Indonesia as well.

During La Nina year:

1. Walker cells are intensified. This leads to higher rainfall in Australia and higher up-welling in Peru due to which
fishes are more.
2. India too receives good rainfall.

Solved Question Papers

Q.In the South Atlantic and South Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclone does not originate. What is the
reason? (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• Sea Surface temperature are low

•
• Inter Tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs
•
• Coriolis force is too weak
•
• Absence of land in those regions
•

Ans . A

1. Coriolis force is weak only in the region around 0-5 degrees North or South latitudes.
2. ITCZ formation is not essential to the formation of cyclones. Cyclones are formed in regions where ITCZ does
not form, for e.g. in North Atlantic.
3. Absence of land boosts cyclones. Presence of land cuts off moisture from the cyclone.
4. For cyclone formation, a sea temperature of at least 26 degree Celsius is needed. In the South-eastern pacific
and South Atlantic region cold currents are found. This leads to lower sea temperatures. Hence, cyclones don’t
form there

Q.The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of (UPSC CSAT 2014)

• Equatorial climate
•
• Mediterranean climate
•
• Monsoon climate
•
• All of the above climates
•

Ans . C

1. Monsoon connotes the climate associated with seasonal reversal in the direction of winds

Chapter 12: CLIMATIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD

Page 51 of 193
Share Quote
Introduction

Fig 1: Climate map

Equatorial Region:

Between 5 and 10 ° North and South of the equator. The temperature is uniform throughout the year with no variations.
Cloudiness and heavy precipitation make the climate bearable. The annual range of temperature is small and so is the
diurnal range of temperature [ range of temperature in a 24 hour period]. Rainfall is heavy and throughout the year with
no dry period. The equinoxes coincide with the periods of maximum rainfall [April and September].

1. Morning is bright and sunny.

2.
3. Afternoon sees heavy convectional rainfall accompanied by lightning and thunder.
4.
5. Relative humidity is high and weather feels sticky.
6.
7. Equatorial vegetation has features like:
8.
9. Growing season throughout the year.
10.
11. Great variety of vegetation
12.
13. Trees are tall as they compete for sunlight. Undergrowth is less as sunlight may not reach the ground.
14.
15. Tropical and equatorial forests have large number of species in a small area and this makes commercial ex-
ploitation tough. Also the hardwood doesn’t float on water and is difficult to transport. Thus most of these nations
are net importers of timber.
16.

Page 52 of 193
Oil palm, cocoa and rubber are the main crops.
Hot and wet climate throughout the year. Rainfall during evening and high biodiversity. Intense competition amongst
species for survival. Large number of species in a small area which makes it tough for exploitation. Presence of many
epiphytes.

Also the trees are hardwood and difficult for transportation by rivers. Hence most of these regions are importers of tim -
ber.
Living conditions are poor because of hot and moist climate. High incidents of disease. Death rates are higher in equato -
rial and tropical regions due to the pathogens finding it easier to spread in moist weather then the dry weather in deserts.

Deserts of the World

Deserts
Deserts occupy 1/5th of the World’s land. They are almost always present in 15-30 degree parallel both north and south
of the equator. They lie in the trade wind belt in the western margin of continents and hence receive offshore trade winds.
They are also bathed by cold currents that have a desiccating effect on the moisture and hence it doesn’t precipitate.
Types of deserts:
1. Trade wind deserts
2. Continental interior desert / mid latitude desert – they have extreme temperatures.

Desert landscapes:

1. Rocky deserts
2. Stony deserts
3. Sandy deserts
4. Badlands
5. Mountains deserts

Landforms in the dessert are formed due to chemical actions of minerals present in rain water on the rocks [weathering],
rapid heating and cooling of rocks due to high temperatures. Water is expanded on heating in the morning and contracts
at nights due to low temperature. This also weathers the rocks. Wind effects are also high here as there is no presence
of vegetation to block the winds.
Tropical Deserts:

They are present between 15-30 degree latitudes in western margin of continents. They receive offshore trade winds
hence low precipitation. Also they are basked with cold currents which have a desiccating effect on the winds.

The deserts are present on leeward side or rain shadow side of mountains. Hence they experience low rainfall.
Low population and xerophytic vegetation. However compared to temperate deserts the annual temperature range is
low. Deserts also have high diurnal temperature range i.e. day and night temperatures have high difference.

Desert plants have long roots and thorns in place of leaves to prevent evaporation. Cacti are plants that store water in
the stems to withstand long droughts.
Nomadic herders like Bedoiuns [Sahara] and Bindibu [Aborigines of Australia] tribes are seen in deserts. Tuaregs and
Gobi Mongols are nomadic horsemen who have settled here.
Continental deserts:

These are located in interior region. The rain bearing winds don’t reach here. They have high annual temperature range
than tropical deserts..

Tropical Grasslands: Savannah

Savanna Climate:

Transitional type of climate found between the hot trade wind deserts and the equatorial forests. There is a distinct cool,
dry and hot, wet seasons here. In days the clear sky and the treeless land ensure that the temperatures are high and
similarly the night time temperatures are low due to the radiation of heat from the land. Thus the high diurnal temperature
range is a characteristic feature of the savannas.

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Tall grass and short trees are the features of savanna forest. Trees are mainly deciduous origins. Wildlife is plenty.
Masaai [nomadic, cattle herders] and Hausa [settled cultivators] are the tribes found there.
The Sudan climate is also responsible for rapid deterioration of soil fertility. The torrential rains cause heavy leaching of
minerals like nitrates, potassium and phosphates. Then in the summer the high evaporation rates water of the soil dries
up and so the savanna regions have laterite soils. These can’t have good yield unless proper fertilizer treatment is given.

Temperate grasslands: Steppe

These are practically treeless grasslands in the interiors of the continents. They are remotely located and are far away
from the influence of any moisture bearing winds.
In Northern hemisphere these are the Steppes and the Prairies, in the Southern hemisphere they are Pampas, Velds and
Downs. In the northern hemisphere , these grasslands face extreme heat in summer and extreme cold in winter.

This is due to being far away from the moderating influence of the sea. In Southern hemisphere, due to moderating influ -
ence by the oceans extreme temperature swings are absent. Rainfall is mild in north compared to south.
Wheat cultivation is the major occupation in the prairie grasslands. But due to the large landholdings one characteristic
feature of the agriculture is poor yields. This is due to low attention that can be paid by a farmer compared to those who
have small land holdings.
However due to sparse population majority of the wheat is exported and so the Prairies are called the Granaries of the
World. 75% of Canadian wheat is exported to European nations that though have higher yield but can’t feed their dense
populations.
Wheat has two types:

1. Summer wheat: This is grown in parts where winter temperatures are too low and so seedlings are sown in
summer. This wheat is used for making cakes, biscuits and pastries as it is too soft for bread making. 25% of
wheat produced is of this type.
2.
3. Winter wheat: 75% of wheat is of this type. It is sown in winter and dried in summer and so becomes hard. This
is best for making breads.
4.

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 5. Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine:
The basic cause of monsoon climate is the difference in the rate of heating and cooling of the land and sea. The
summer sees intense heating of the tropic of cancer region which is the Tibetan plateau; the heating causes a
zone of low pressure to develop there.
At the same time in southern hemisphere there is winter and a high pressure belt is formed around the Continent
of Australia. The winds blow from high pressure to low pressure and they are attracted to the Indian subcontinent
which they reach as the “Southwest Monsoon”.
The conditions are reversed and in the winter a high pressure zone develops in the Central Asian region. The
winds blow from there to the low pressure belt in Australia created by intense heating as the sun is now over the
Tropic of Capricorn. These winds arrive to Australia as the North west monsoon.
Thus, Tropical Monsoon climate is characterized by the seasonal reversal of winds.
Seasons:

Cool and Dry winter:

The high pressure belt over Central Asia leads to out blowing dry winds. These cause some cyclonic showers
over North West belt of India. These winds then cross the Bay of Bengal and acquire some moisture. This mois -
ture causes precipitation over the Southern tip of India which is the Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu region.
Hot, dry summer:
This period sees intense heating of the Indian subcontinent and no precipitation is seen. This lasts from March to
May.
Mid June to September:
This is the rainy season in the subcontinent and during this period almost all of the precipitation is seen. Heavy
and concentrated rainfall is a characteristic feature of Tropical Monsoon climate.
Tropical Marine climate:
This occurs in the Eastern coast of Tropical countries. They receive rainfall from onshore trade winds continu-
ously throughout the year. The pattern of rainfall is that a peak is seen during the summer which lasts for 4
months. However these regions are also affected by tropical cyclones, hurricanes and tycoons.
Tropical monsoon forests:
These are deciduous due to the presence of a dry period in the rainfall. Thus the leaves are shed. The monsoon
forests are less thick and have far fewer species in an area compared to equatorial forests. This also means that
they can be commercially exploited for timber. The tropical countries are major producers of timber for the world.

Agriculture is main occupation of most people and the main crops are rice [most characteristic crop of monsoon
and marine regions], sugar cane [commercial cash crops], jute [grown mostly along the Ganga - Brahmaputra
delta], tea, coffee.
Western margin of temperate areas: Mediterranean Climate
These are regions found in the western margins of continents between 30-45 degree North and South of the
equator. Basic cause for this type of climate is the “Shifting of Wind Belts”.
Climate
In summer there is a dry, warm period. Due to the movement of the sun to the top of the tropic of cancer, a warm
zone or low pressure region is built on the Mediterranean region and so rain bearing winds are not seen here.
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 But offshore trade winds blow here which don’t bring much precipitation.
Wet winter is a characteristic feature of these regions. The precipitation is brought by the westerly which are on -
shore. The Wet Winters are a unique characteristic of this region. However this affects the grassland as a cold
wet season isn’t favorable for growth of grass and it is thus wiry and bunchy and unsuitable for animal farming.
Due to these reason cattle herding isn’t practiced here and Mediterranean regions are Net importers of Dairy
products.
Citrus fruit cultivation is practiced here and this region is responsible for majority of the World’s exports. Olive
trees can also grow here as it can survive long spells of dry seasons due to its long and deep roots. Since animal
fats are scarce here olive oil is the main source for cooking oil.

Grape cultivation or viticulture is practiced here commercially. A long dry summer is most suitable for grape culti-
vation. Almost 75% of the World’s wine production comes from here.
Famous wines:

1. Sherry – Spain
2. Port wine – Portugal
3. Chianti, Asti, Marsala – Italy
4. Champagne, Burgundy, Bordeaux - France
6.

7. Eastern margin of temperate areas:

Warm moist summer and cool dry winter is seen in this region. These regions occur in the Eastern margins of
continents present in the temperate regions. The regions see high annual temperature range.
Due to South East monsoon there is rainfall in summer and North West monsoon leads to rainfall in winters. Ty-
phoons occur in late summer and are disastrous.
In the Gulf of Mexico region of USA there are hurricanes or thunderstorms in summer and local intense heating
in winters creates highly destructive tornadoes. This region is also known as the “Tornado Alley”.
The China type climate is modified in the Southern hemisphere due to the moderating influence of the Oceans.
The annual temperature range is lower. Hurricanes or typhoons are absent but less destructive weather activity
is seen here too.
Natural vegetation is evergreen as rainfall is throughout the year and no dry period is present. The adequate
rainfall has made this region the most productive and intensively cultivated regio
8.

Rice is the main crop of China and Eastern margin countries of Asia. Since rice isn’t the staple food of the gulf
states , they grow corn and maize, cotton and tobacco. The Corn belt of USA accounts for half of the World’s
Page 56 of 193
 production but doesn’t export much as a great part of it is used for fattening of Cattle and Pigs. These are sold to
slaughter houses and the meat is exported as “corned beef” or “frozen and chilled beef”.
Other commercial crops are cotton and tobacco. The cotton belt is a major producer of cotton and the yield is
high. The crop requires conditions like long summer and adequate rainfall. As both are seen here the productivity
is high. Tobacco too is grown plenty as it is the native crop of the US.
China type: – Rainfall throughout the year. Typhoons occur in late summer.
Gulf type: – no distinct dry season. Less annual temperature range.
Natal type: - rainfall throughout the year.

9. Cool temperate western margin [British type]:

This climate sees mild summers and winters and so a low annual temperature range. This season is suitable for
maximum mental alertness and productivity. Therefore these regions are known as the Maximum Productivity re-
gion of the World.
The mildness of the temperature is also due to the influence of the North Atlantic drift.
There are four seasons: Small winters where snowfall is expected, spring which is dry and refreshing, summer
which is long and sunny and then autumn or fall when leaves of trees fall down. Autumn season is a characteris-
tic of the temperate regions as it is absent in tropics.
Warm summer, cool winters. Best for human habitation and low annual range of temperature.

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 Temperate cyclones give rainfall in winter. Rainfall from Westerlies and so west coast receives the most rainfall.

10. Cool temperate eastern margin [Laurentian type] and Continental area [Siberian Type]:
Coniferous forests are found in Siberia, Taiga is the greatest single band of coniferous forests. The Siberian type
of climate is completely absent in the Southern hemisphere due to the narrowness of continents in the high lati -
tudes as well as the moderating influence of the oceans. Coniferous forest has limited tree species like Pine, Fir,
Spruce and Larch.
They are commercially exploited for soft wood. The World’s largest softwood producer is USSR, USA is leader in
wood pulp and Canada is leader in Newsprint. A luxurious coniferous forest has made this possible.
Vegetation of non-conifers is low due to harsh conditions like small summers. Conifers have adapted themselves
to this climate by showing remarkable features like:

1. Conical shape – Snow falls to ground

2. Thick, needle shaped, leathery leaves - check excess transpiration. Due to the evergreen nature of trees
there is little leaf fall, also low temperature means decomposition rate is less plus the needle shaped
leaves are slow to decompose. Podzolized soils of coniferous forests are acidic and hence humus con-
tent of soil is low. Thus coniferous forests have low undergrowth.
12.

Not in southern hemisphere as hardly any land below 40 degree. In North America, rainfall throughout the year.
Temperate regions have profitable fishing and coniferous forests. Found only in northern hemisphere.

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 13.

14.
15. Taiga
Found between tundra region and Laurentian climate. Very cold winter and warm summer. High annual temper-
ature range. Rainfall throughout the year and temperate cyclones. Found only in northern hemisphere.

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 16. Tundra:
Tundra vegetation is seen here in the low lands where a few frost free months are there. Polar climate is seen
mostly in the Northern part of North America continent and Northern part of Russia. Ice caps are seen in the
Greenland area.

Freezing in winter. Thawing in summer. Aborigines are seen. Ephemeral [short lived] flowering plants. Found
only in northern hemisphere.

17.

18.
19. Solved Question Papers

20.
21. Q.Consider the following statements

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 22. 1. The winds which blow between 30 degrees N and 60 degrees S latitudes throughout the year are known as
westerlies.
23. 2. The moist air masses that cause winter rams in North-Western region of India are part of westerlies.
24. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC CSAT 2015)

1. 1 only
2.
3. 2 only
4.
5. Both 1 and 2
6.
7. Neither 1 nor 2
8.
25.
26. Ans . B

1. Westerlies flow between latitudes 30-60 degrees North and 30-60 degrees South.
2. The western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena of the winter months brought in by the west-
erly flow from the Mediterranean region. They usually influence the weather of the north and north-west-
ern regions of India. They are a non-monsoonal precipitation pattern driven by the Westerlies.
27.
28. Q.“Each day is more or less the same, the morning is clear and bright with a sea breeze; as the sun climbs high
in the sky, heat mounts up, dark clouds form, than rain comes with thunder and lightning. But rain is soon over.”
Which of the following regions is described in the above passage? (UPSC CSAT 2015)

1. Savannah
2.
3. Equatorial
4.
5. Monsoon
6.
7. Mediterranean
8.
29.
30. Ans . B

1. Equatorial climate is characterized by consistently high temperatures (around 30 °C), with plentiful pre-
cipitation (150–1,000 cm), heavy cloud cover, and high humidity, with very little annual temperature vari-
ation. Wet equatorial regions lie within about 12° latitude of the Equator.

Chapter 1: GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF INDIA

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Introduction
• Theories related to the origin of the Earth have put forth various intuitions such as one that said the earth origi-
nated from the sun. It was earlier a hot gaseous mass which on cooling first turned into a liquid and then a solid.
This was the gaseous hypothesis put
•
• A more popular theory was proposed by Laplace known as the Nebular hypothesis. This proposed that the Earth
was formed from the solidification of a ring thrown away by a cooling and rotating Sun. This ring was one of the
several ones that condensed to form the various planets.
•
• Another theory known as the Tidal hypothesis put forth by Jenny and Jeffreys assumes the presence of two neb-
ula instead of one as assumed by Laplace. According to this theory a large nebula wandering in space came
close to a smaller nebula. As the larger nebula wandered away from the smaller one, the matter rising in the
form of a tidal wave from the smaller nebula was pulled towards it. This matter was pulled so much away from
the smaller nebula that it could not go back to the parent nebula.
•
• However it could not follow the larger nebula also and as the larger nebula pulled away, the matter was detached
from the smaller nebula. On cooling the matter condensed to form the planets and they started revolving around
Page 61 of 193
 the sun. This hypothesis is more closer to reality due to the structure of our solar systems with smallest planets
located far away from the sun and larger ones located at intermediate positions.
•

200 million years ago India was a part of Gondwana. Indian peninsular block is a fusion of three blocks Aravali, Singb-
hum and Dharwad.

Page 62 of 193
Page 63 of 193
Fig 1: Gondwanaland and India

The Aravallis, Satpudas, eastern ghats, Vindhyas and Bijjawals are remnants of it.

Rift valleys which are formed are Godavari, Mahanadi, Damodar towards the Bay of Bengal.

The Narmada and son rift valleys are towards the Arabian sea.

Fig 2: Rift valleys and Peninsular block

Page 64 of 193
The Indian plate separated from Gondwana and then Madagascar. It moved over reunion island and due to hotspot vol-
canism developed the Deccan lava plateau. The collision between Indian plate and Eurasian plate led to formation of Hi-
malayas.

Archaen Formation (Pre Cambrian)

Geologically, the subcontinent of India was a part of the Gondwanaland (the Southern Continent). The geological history
of India is described in the below sections:

Archaen Formation (Pre Cambrian)

87% of the Earth's history is of this period (4.6 billion years ago till 570 million years ago). Archean means "oldest rocks
of the Earth's crust". This period saw the development of the Earth's atmosphere, the first photosynthesis, first
chemosynthesis and formation of the life supporting atmosphere. Throughout the world the rocks of this period are called
as "Fundamental Geinesses" OR "Basement complex". They are devoid of any form of life or sediment and form the
core of all great fold mountain ranges of the world.The Archaean rocks are the repo sitories of the mineral wealth of
India. These rocks are rich in ferrous and non-ferrous minerals Like iron ore, copper, manganese, mica, dolomite, lead,
zinc, silver and gold. The Archaean rocks cover two-thirds of Peninsular India. In the Peninsular region, the Archaean
rocks are known to be of three well-defined types:

The Bengal Gneiss

• The bengal gneiss is highly foliated.

•
• It occurs mostly in the eastern ghats
•

The Bundellkhand Gneiss

• It is coarse grained in structure and found mostly in southern India.

•
• It occurs mostly in Bundelkhand (UP), Baghelkhand (MP), Maharashtra, Rajasthan

The Nilgiri Gneiss

• It is criss crossed and has quartz veins and is mostly like a granite.

DHARWAR SYSTEM

• This geologic time extends from 2500 million years ago to 1800 million years ago. These are the first metamor-
phosed sedimentary rock systems in Indian geological time scale.
•
• The Dharwar rocks are highly metalliferous. They are rich in iron ore, manganese, lead, zinc, goLd, silver,
dolomite, mica, copper, tungsten, nickel, precious stones and building materials. Some of the important series of
the Dharwar System are:
•

• Champion Series :-Its gold mines are one of the deepest in the world,
•
• Champaner Series :-It is an outlier of the Aravalli system in the vicinity of Vadodra. An attractive green variety of
marble is obtained from this series
•

Page 65 of 193
 • Chlipi Series :-It occupies parts of Balaghat, jabalpur and Chhindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh.
•
• Closepet Series, Iron-Ore Series, Khondolite Series, Rialo Series, Sakoli Series, Sausar Series.
•

THE CUDDAPAH SYSTEM (THE PURANA GROUP)

• The Cuddapah system is made of shales, slates, limestone and quartzite. The rocks are generally without fos-
sils. The Cuddapah formations, named after the district of Cuddapah in Andhra Pradesh, are sedimentary-meta-
morphic formations.
•
• At places the Cuddapah formations are six thousand metres in thickness. The enormous thickness of these
rocks indicates the Sinking of beds of the basin with growing sedimentation.

• The metallic contents in the ores of Cuddapah rocks are, however, low and at places uneconomical for extrac-
tion.

THE VINDHYAN SYSTEM

• he Vindhyan System derives its name from the Vindhyan Mountain. This mountain forms a dividing line between
the Ganga Plain and the Deccan Plateau.
•
• It has enormous sedimentary deposits and at places their depth is more than 4000 metres. In some tracts, the
Vindhyan rocks are buried under Deccan lava. The Great Boundary Fault (GBF) separates the Vindhyan System
from the Aravallis for a distance of about eight hundred km
•
• The Vindhyan system is well known for red-sandstone, sandstone, building material and raw materials for ce-
ment, chemical industries.
•
• The historical buildings of Qutab Minar, Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Red Fort, Jama-Masjid,
Birla Mandir, the Buddhist Stupa of Sanchi, etc. have been constructed from the red-sandstone obtained from
the Vindhyan Ranges.
•

THE PALAEOZOIC GROUP (CAMBRIAN TO CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD)

• This is known as the Dravidian Era in the Indian Geological Time Scale.
•
• The Palaeozoic Era extends from 570 million years ago to 24.5 million years ago. It marks the beginning of life
on the Earth's surface.
•
• The formations of this period are almost absent in the Peninsular India except near Umaria in Rewa.
•
• It was during this period that the Pangaea was broken and the Tethys Sea came into existence.
•

THE MESOZOIC ERA (THE GONDWANA SYSTEM)

• The term is used for a period of geologic time in which the presence of fossil invertebrates dominated the rocks.
•

Page 66 of 193
 • In the Indian Geological Time Scale, these periods extend from the Upper Carboniferous up to the beginning of
the Cenozoic Era or the Aryan Era.
•
• Most of the good quality coal deposits (bituminous and anthracite) of India are found in Gondwana formations.
•
• The Gondwana System of rocks provides over 95% of the coal of India.
•
• India's best and largest coal deposits are found in the Gondwana System mainly in the Damodar Valley of West
Bengal,Jharkhand, the Mahanadi valley of Odisha and Chhattisgarh, the Godavari valley of Andhra Pradesh and
the Satpura basin of Madhya Pradesh.
•

Aryan period ( Beginning of the Upper Carboniferous Period )

• The Upper continent of Gondwanaland developed fissures and its broken parts started drifting away from each
other. The Subcontinent of India drifted towards north and north-east to collide with the Asian land mass
•
• The Tertiary mountain building gave birth to Himalayas.
•
• The Subcontinent of India assumed its present shape.
•
• Evolution and spread of man in different parts of the world.
•
• The development and expansion of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
•

THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM (THE DECCAN TRAP)

• This period is marked by the transgression of the sea (Coromandal coast, Narmada valley) and outpouring of
huge quantity of lava (basalt) so as to form the Deccan Trap.
•
• During this period, enormous quantity of basaltic lava was poured out to the surface assuming a great thickness
of over three thousand metres. The Lava Plateau (the Deccan Trap) is the result of that lava eruption.
•
• The lava plateau of India (Deccan Trap) has a maximum thickness of about 3000 m along the coast of Mumbai
from where it decreases towards south and east.
•

THE TERTIARY SYSTEM (THE CENOZOIC ERA)

• Cenozoic means recent life. The beginning of the Tertiary Period js about 65 million years ago. Fossils in these
rocks include many types, closely related to modern forms, including mammals, plants and invertebrates.
•
• During this Period, as India collided with Tibet, the sediments which had been accumulating in the Tethys basin
had begun to rise by a slow rise of ocean bottom. The upheaval of the Himalayas altered the old topography of
the subcontinent.
•
• There is enough evidence to prove that the Himalayas are still rising.
•

THE QUATERNARY PERIOD (THE PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT FORMATIONS)

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 • The Northern Plains of India came into existence during the Pleistocene Period
•
• The Pleistocene period is marked by Ice Age and glaciation on a large scale in the Northern Hemisphere.
•
• The moraine deposits and the karewa formations of Kashmir Valley are of the Pleistocene period
•
• The river terraces of the Narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, etc. are also of the Pleistocene Period.
•

Points to Remember

• The karewas are the lacustrine deposits of the Pleistocene period.

•
• The karewas of Kashmir are generally found along the lower slopes of Pir-Panjal with a dip towards the Kashmir
Valley.
•
• They are well known for the cultivation of saffron, almond and walnut.
•

Solved Question Papers

Q.Which of the following pairs of States of India indicates the easternmost and Westernmost State? (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• Assam and Rajasthan

•
• Arunachal Pradesh and Rajasthan
•
• Assam and Gujarat
•
• Arunachal Pradesh and Gujarat
•

Ans . D

1. west of the line falls in Gujarat, while the east falls in Arunachal Pradesh.

Q.Consider these pairs

1. Cardamom Hills - >Coromandel Coast
2. Kaimur Hills -> Konkan Coast
3. Mahadeo Hills - >Central India
4. Mikir Hills - > North-East India
Which of the above pairs are correctly matched? (UPSC CSAT 2014)

• 1 and 2
•
• 2 and 3
•
• 3 and 4
•
• 2 and 4
•

Ans . C

Page 68 of 193
 1. Kaimur hills is in central highlands, far away from Konkan Coast.

Chapter 2: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

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Introduction
Indias latitudinal and longitudinal extent is 30°. North-South distance is 3214 km and east west distance is 2933 km.
North lies in subtropical and warm temperate region and south lies in tropics.
It is the 7th largest country with 3.28 million sq km and 2.4% of worlds land surface and 17% of the population. It has
6100 km of coast in mainland and 7517 km along with the islands.
Gujarat has the longest coastline and Bangladesh shares the largest border with India. In all there are 7 countries not
counting Tibet that India shares a border with.
Indira point in Nicobar Islands is the southernmost tip of India.

Physiography of India

• Physiography deals with the study of the surface features and landforms of the Earth. On the basis of tectonic
history, stratigraphy and physiography, India may be divided into the following four physiographic divisions:
•
◦ The elevated Peninsular region
◦
◦ The mighty Himalayas and their associated young folded mountains
◦
◦ The Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains
◦
◦ The Coastal Plains and Islands.
◦

Major Geological Formations of the Peninsular India (about 3600 million years ago)

• The North Central Highlands: They include First The Aravallis (It is one of the oldest folded mountains of the
world). The Great Boundary Fault (GBF) separates the Aravallis from the Vindhyan Mountains. Secondly, Malwa
Plateau has two drainage systems, one towards the Arabian Sea (Narmada, and Mahi], and another towards the
Bay of Bengal (Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken) joining the Yamuna river. Finally the Vindhyan ranges (Maikal
Range forms a connecting link between the Vindhyans and the Satpura mountains).
•
• The South Central Highlands: It has Bundelkhand and Vindhyachal-Baghelkhand or Vindhyachal Plateau.
•
• Chotanagpur plateau: Plateau sprawls over parts of West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and north-
eastern part of Andhra Pradesh.
•
• Meghalaya Plateau and Mikir Hills: Consisting of the Garo, Khasi,Jaintia hills and the outlying Milar and
Rengma hills, it is a plateau which has been detached from the Indian Peninsula by the Malda Gap.
•
• The North Deccan (Maharashtra Plateau):Plateau of Maharashtra includes the enti re state of Maharashtra,
except the Konkan coast and the Sahyadris.
•
• The South Deccan
•
• The Western Ghats:The Western Ghats or Sahyadris run parallel to the western coast for about 1600 km in the
north south direction from the mouth of the Tapi river to Kanyakumari (Cape Camorin). The western slope of
Sahyadri is steep while the eastern slope is gentle. These are block mountains formed due to the downwarping
of a part of land into the Arabian Sea
•
• The Eastern Ghats
•

Physical Geography
The physical geography of India has four parts:
1. Northern mountains.

Page 69 of 193
 2. Northern plains.
3. Peninsular plateau
4. Coastal plains.

Northern mountain:
The northern mountain complex contains Himalayas, Trans Himalayas and Purvachal. Himalayas are in north, Hin-
dukush and Sulaiman are in north west and Purvachal in east.
The Himalayas are true mountains. They are formed from the continent - continent plate collision. They have
sediments of marine origin. It is not a single range but a series of ranges.
The Himalayas have three ranges namely great Himalayas [Himadri] , middle or lesser Himalayas [Himachal] and outer
Himalayas [Shiwaliks].

Fig 1: Himalayan range

Types of Himalayas
Greater Himalayas:
1. Highest and most continuous mountain range in the world. The Greater Himalayas are almost a contiguous
range. The range has very few gaps mainly provided by the antecedent rivers. The Greater Himalayas receive less rain-
fall as compared to the Lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks. Physical weathering is pronounced. Erosion is, however,
less effective over the Greater Himalayas as compared to the Lesser Himalayas. Being lofty, they have very little forest
area. The Greater Himalayas are about 25 km wide with an average height above 6100 metres
2. Crystalline rocks.

Middle Himalayas:
1. Less in height and discontinuous. The width of the Lesser Himalayas is about 80 km with an average height of
1300-4600 m. It consists, generally, of un-fossiliferous sediments or metamorphosed crystalline.
Outer Himalayas:
1. Upliftment of the foothills of the Himalayas. The Shiwaliks extend from Jammu Division of Jammu and Kashmir
State to Assam. In width, Shiwaliks vary from 8 km in the east to 45 km in the west with an average elevation of about
900 - 1500 m above sea level. It is not a continuous range. It is broader in the west and narrows down In the east. Be -
tween the Shiwaliks and the Lesser Himalayas are longitudinal valleys called Doons / Duns.
2. They are created due to the alluvial deposit of the Himalayan rivers.

Structure of Himalayas:
1. The middle bend is convex shape.
2. Second sharp bend is towards southern end.
3. Western bend towards Nanga Parbat and eastern towards Namcha Barwa.

Page 70 of 193
 4. Northern side rests against Tibetan plateau and southern side is covered with snow. Gentle slope on northern
side and steep slope on southern side.
5. The mountains don’t act as a water divide but allow rivers to cut across. The rate of erosion by rivers is greater
than the rate of upliftment of Himalayas.

Western Himalayas Eastern Himalayas

Lower and gradual slope. Higher and steep sudden slope.
Located on higher latitudes and so Located on lower latitudes and so
colder warmer
Don’t act as barrier to south west Act as barrier to south west monsoon
monsoon
Shiwaliks are farther Shiwaliks are closer
TABLE 1: EASTERN AND WESTERN HIMALAYAS

Region - wise division of Himalayas

The Himalayas are divided into five regions:
1. Kashmir Himalayas
a. Karakoram, Ladakh, Zanskar, Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar are the ranges from north to south in that order. It has
the largest number of glaciers in India.
b. Karewa formation – clay, sands from old fertile lands. Surrounded by the Greater Himalayas and the Lesser Hi-
malayas is the Kashmir Valley. Having a height of 1585 m above the sea-level, the total area of the Kashmir Valley is
about 4920 sq km. It is a structural longitudinal 'Dun'. A special feature of the the Vale of Kashmir is the Karewa (lacus-
trine) deposits consisting of silt, sand and clay. These karewas are mainly devoted to the cultivation of saffron and have
orchards of apple, peach, almond, walnut and apricot. Kashmir Himalayas are characterised by high snow covered
peaks, deep valleys, interlocked spurs and high mountain passes.

c. Lake Wular – largest freshwater lake of India located in Kashmir.

2. Kumaon Himalayas:The Kumaon Himalayas are connected to Tibet by a number of passes.

a. Garhwal and Kumaon hills from west to east.
b. Source of Ganga and Yamuna. Located in Uttarakhand.
3. Nepal Himalayas

a. Tallest section of the Himalayas. .

4. Sikkim Himalayas: The highest peaks of the world like Mt. Everest (8850 m), Kanchenjunga {8598 m}, Makalu
(8481 m), Dhaulagiri (8172 m), Annapurna (8078 m), Manaslu (8154 m) and Gosainath (8014 m) are situated in this part
of the Himalayas. It has very few passes. The passes of Nathu-La and Jelep La (4538 min Sikkim) connect Gangtok
(Sikkim) with Lhasa (Tibet, China).
5. Assam HimalayasOn the southern border of Arunachal Pradesh, the Himalayas take a southerly turn and the
ranges are arranged in a north-south direction. Passing through the states of Arunachal Pradesh (Tirap Division) Naga-
land, Marripur, Trip ura, and Mizoram, the Himalayas are locally known as Purvachal. The Purvanchal is joined by the
Meghalaya Plateau in the west. The extension of the Myanmar mountain chain continues southward up to Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and even up to the Archipelago of Indonesia.

Himalaya range isn't stable like western ghats

Debris, avalanches, landslides occur frequently in the Himalayas as they are techtnically active, made up of sedimentary,
unconsolidated or semi consolidated rocks.
They have steep slopes.
Nilgiris slightly techtonically stable and have have hard rocks so land slides are less frequent. However direct rockfall is
seen due to steep slopes, heavy rains and mechanical weathering due to temperature and escarpments.
Page 71 of 193
Dun:
When rivers are obstructed by mountains they spread out to form lakes. The lakes dry up when the rivers find paths
through the mountains. These dried up lakes are called “duns”. They are found between great and middle Himalayas .

Importance of Himalayas:
1. Prevents cold Siberian winds from entering into India.
2. Himalayas are responsible for rainfall in north east. Also without them there would be no Tibet plateau and India
would have been a desert.
3. They split the sub tropical jet streams into two bringing winter rain to India.
4. Source of perennial rivers.
5. Great forest and mineral wealth.

The Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas

• The general east-west trend of the Himalayas terminates suddenly at its western and eastern extremities and the
ranges are sharply bent southward in deep knee-bend turns which are called syntaxial bends.
•
• The western syntaxial bend is near Nanga Prabat where the Indus has cut a deep gorge.
•
• There is a similar hair-pin bend in Arunachal Pradesh where the mountains take a sharp bend from the eastern
to southern direction after crossing the Brahmaputra river.
•

Main Passes of Himalayas

• Bomdi La :Connects Arunachal Pradesh with Lhasa, the capital of Tibet.

•
• Dihang Pass: Connects Arunachal Pradesh with Mandalay (Myanmar).
•
• Khardung La: Situated at an elevation of more than six thousand meters above sea level, it is the highest mo-
torable pass in the country. It joins Leh with Siachin glacier. The road remains closed during the winter season.
•
• Lipu Lekh (Uttarakhand): Connects Uttarakhand with Tibet. The pilgrims for Mansarovar Lake travel through
this pass
•
Purvanchal:

Page 72 of 193
The mountains have same orogeny as the main Himalayas . From north to south the mountains are patkai, naga and
mizo hills. The elevation decreases from north to south.
Patkai hills – border between Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar.
Manipuri hills – border between Manipuri and Myanmar. Manipur has loktak lake and Mizoram has molassis basin which
are soft unconsolidated deposits.
Andaman and Nicobar islands are extension of eastern Himalayas.

Fig 2: Purvachal

Importance of Himalayas

• Climatic Influence :The altitude of the Himalayas, their sprawl and extension intercept the summer monsoon
coming from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. They also prevent the cold Siberian air masses from enter-
ing into India. Had there been no Himalayas, the whole of northern India would have been a desert. The Hi -
malayas are responsible for the splitting of the jet streams into two branches, and these in turn, play an important
role in the arrival, success and failure of the monsoons in India.
•
• Defence :Throughout history, the foreign invaders never entered India from the northern side. Despite modern
technology of warfare, the Himalayas have great defence value.
•
• Source of Perennial Rivers: Most of the perennial rivers of northern India have their origin in the glaciers, lakes,
and springs of the Himalayas.
•
• Source of Fertile Soils :The perennial rivers and their tributaries carry enormous quantities of alluvial soils
which are deposited in Great Plains of India.
•
• Generation of Hydro-electricity:
Page 73 of 193
 •
• Forest Wealth: There is horizontal zonation of vegetation in the Himalayas. The natural vegetation in the Hi-
malayas varies from the humid tropical to the conifers and alpine pastures. At the higher altitudes are the alpine
pastures (margs) used by the tribals for grazing cattle during the summer season.
•
• Orchards, minerals, tourism and pilgrimage
•
Northern plains:
Youngest physiographic feature in India. Depositional flood plain created by Himalayan rivers like Indus, Ganga,
Brahmaputra and Yamuna.
Densely populated with 30% of worlds population on 10% of worlds agricultural land.

Part of the northern plains:

1. Babhar – alluvial fans of rivers with course boulders and not suitable for cultivation.
2. Khadar – new flood plains with very fertile soil
3. Bangar – old flood plains with calcerous kanker formation; less fertile
4. Terai – bad drainage with swampy land.
North plains is divided into four parts:
1. Rajasthan plains

· Formed west of Indus.

· Drained by Luni which is located west of Aravalli
· Thar desert is a tropical desert formed due to off shore trade winds and Aravalli range is parallel to south
west monsoon so no orographic rains.

2. Punjab plains
· Drained by Ravi, Sutlej, Beas

· Khadar plains are present but bad topography causes bad drainage.
3. Gangetic plains
4. Assam plains
· Drained by Brahmaputra - the largest river of India by volume.

Fig 3: Northern plain

Peninsular plateau:
Page 74 of 193
It is covered by western ghats and eastern ghats and in the north by the central highlands. The Deccan traps were
formed when Indian plate flowed over reunion island. The basaltic flow created layer over layer and it looks like steps. It
is higher than northern plains.
Aravalli range: one of the oldest mountain range. It has sedimentary, metamorphosized rocks. Sabarmati from eastern
side of Aravali merges into Arabian sea.
Vindhyan range: source of many north flowing rivers that meet Yamuna. It represents the water divide of central India.
Mahi from north side of Vindhya also is a west flowing river.
Malawa plateau – between Aravalli and Vindhya range.

Satpuda range – has the Amarkantak plateau which is source of Narmada and son.
Meghalaya plateau – Garo, Khasi, Jaintia hills and Barail range in line. The hills aren't very high so ineffective in block-
ing rain winds. These are blocked at Arunachal Pradesh.

Page 75 of 193
 Fig 4: Peninsular plateau
Narmada and tapti are old rift valleys. Worlds largest freshwater lakes are rift valleys.

Western Ghats: UNESCO World Heritage Site

They are extending from Maharashtra to Kerela. In Maharashtra they are steeper and higher. In Karnataka they are
broader. In Kerela they are isolated hills with gaps that allow rain winds to pass through them.

Page 76 of 193
Height of the Western ghats decreases from north to south.
The air parcel that passes over the hills retain energy but as they take longer the droplets precipitate into rain.
Anaimudi is the highest peak in the Deccan.

Eastern Ghats
Discontinuous range but with lower heights in the mountains. Laterite soil is present. Coromandel coast lies between
eastern Ghats and bay of Bengal.

Bay of Bengal has 572 islands out of which 2 main islets are richies and labyrinth island.
Andaman and Nicobar are separated by the 10° channel and Lakshadweep by 11° channel. Barren island in Nico-
bar is india's only active volcano.

Southern hill complex:

They are not a part of the western or eastern ghats. From north to south the hills are:
Nilgiri, Palani, Anamalai and Cardamom. Palghat pass between Nilgiri and Anamalai hills.
Nallamala, Javadi too are hill ranges in the south but above the above hills.

The western and the eastern ghats meet at Nilgiri hills.

Page 77 of 193
 Fig 5: Southern hill complex

Importance of Deccan plateau:

Page 78 of 193
 1. Oldest and most stable region.
2. Rich in mineral wealth.

3. 98% of Gondwana coal

4. Peninsular soil is black cotton soil or regur soil. Plantation of tea, coffee, rubber, cashews and sugarcane.

Coastal Plain:
It extends from Rann of Kutch to Sunderbans. It has two parts western coastal plain and eastern coastal plain.

Western coastal plain:

1. Narrower and steeper with fast flowing rivers but no deposits.

2. Rivers form estuaries not deltas.

3. Good for port development

4. Has two gulfs: kutchh and khambat.

5. Coast are two: Konkan and Malabar.

Eastern coastal plain:

1. Broader and with large rivers that form delta.
2. Chilika lake – biggest salt water lake in India.

Solved Question Papers

Q.Consider the following pairs :

Medieval Indian State : Present Region
1. Champaka : Central India
2. Durgara : Jammu
3. Kuluta : Malabar
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• 1 and 2
•
• 2 only
•
• 1 and 3
•
• 3 only
•

Ans . B

1. The ninth century saw the rise of a number of hill states in the Himalayas, some of which maintained their iden-
tity until recent years, despite their wars with each other and the frequent raids from the men of the plains.
2. States such as Champaka (Chamba – Himachal Pradesh), Durgara (Jammu), Trigarta (jalandhar), Kuluta (Kulu
– Himachal pradesh), Kumaon and Garhwal managed to remain outside the main areas of conflict in the north-
ern plains.

Q.Consider the following rivers :

1. Vamsadhara
2. Indravati
3. Pranahita
4. Pennar
Page 79 of 193
Which of the above are tributaries of Godavari? (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• 1,2 and 3
•
• 2,3 and 4
•
• 1,2 and 4
•
• 2 and 3 only
•

Ans . D

1. Left tributaries: Purna, Pranahita, Indravati, Sabari, Taliperu, Wainganga, Penganga, Wardha, Dudhana
2. Right tributaries: Pravara, Manjira, Pedda Vagu, Manair, Kinnerasani
Chapter 3: RIVERS OF INDIA
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Introduction

THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

• The drainage system is an integrated system of tributaries and a trunk stream which collect and funnel surface
water to the sea, lake or some other body of water.
•
• The total area that contributes water to a single drainage system is known as a drainage basin.
•
• A geometric arrangement of streams in a region, determined by slope, differing rock resistance to weathering
and erosion, climate, hydrologic variability, and structural controls of the landscape is known as a drainage pat-
tern.
•
• Thus, drainage pattern refers to a design which a river and its tributaries form together, from its source to its
mouth.
•
• India has the following drainage patterns:
•
◦ The Antecedent or Inconsequent Drainage: The rivers that existed before the upheaval of the Hi-
malayas and cut their courses southward by making gorges in the mountains are known as the an-
tecedent rivers.
◦
◦ Consequent Rivers:The rivers which follow the general direction of slope are known as the consequent
rivers. Most of the rivers of peninsular India are consequent rivers.
◦
◦ Subsequent Rivers:A tributary stream that is eroded along an underlying belt of non-resistant rock after
the main drainage pattern (consequent river) has been established is known as a subsequent river. Due
to the northward slope of the Peninsula towards the Great Plains, the rivers originating from the Vind-
hyan and the Satpura ranges flow northward into the Ganga system. The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa,
Tons and Son meet the Yamuna and the Ganga at right angles. They are the subsequent drainage of
the Ganga drainage system.
◦
◦ Superimposed Epigenetic (Discordant) or Superinduced Drainage :It is formed when a stream with
a course originally established on a cover of rock now removed by erosion, so that the stream or
drainage system is independent of the newly exposed rocks and structures.
◦
◦ Dendritic Drainage:A term used for drainage which is branching thereby giving the appearance of a
tree. Most of the rivers of the Indo-Gangetic Plains are of dendritic type
◦

Page 80 of 193
 ◦ Trellis Drainage:Trellis is a rectangular pattern formed where two sets of structural controls occurs at
right angles. In a trellis pattern, the river forms a net like system and the tributaries flow roughly parallel
to each other.
◦
◦ Barbed Pattern:A pattern of drainage in which the confluence of a tributary with the main river is charac-
terized by a discordant junction-as if the tributary intends to flow upstream and not downstream.
◦
◦ Rectangular Drainage:The drainage pattern marked by right-angled bends and right-angled junctions
between tributaries and the main stream is known as rectangular drainage.
◦
◦ Radial Pattern:It is a pattern characterised by outflowing rivers, away from a central point, analogous
with the spokes of a wheel. It tends to develop on the flanks of a dome or a volcanic cone.
◦
◦ Annular Pattern:In this drainage pattern, the subsequent streams follow curving or arcuate courses
prior to joining the consequent stream.
◦
◦ Parallel Drainage:The drainage pattern in which the rivers flow almost parallel to each other is known
as parallel drainage.
◦
◦ Deranged Pattern:This is an uncoordinated pattern of drainage characteristic of a region recently va-
cated by an ice-sheet.
◦

Page 81 of 193
Page 82 of 193
Page 83 of 193
Indian rivers are of two categories: northern rivers and peninsular rivers.

Northern rivers:
Indus:

It has 5 tributaries Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj and Jhelum. Chenab is the largest. The Indus is one of the most important
drainage systems of the subcontinent of India. It has a length of 2880 km, of which 709 km lies in India. The catchment
area of the Indus is about 1,165,000 sq km, out of which about 321,284 sq km is in India.

Satluj is the only one that doesn't originate in India.

Ravi, Beas, Satluj, Chenab and Yamuna flow through Himachal Pradesh.

Jhelum (Vitasta):
1. Srinagar is on banks of Jhelum. It is the most important river of Kashmir.
2. Rises at Verinag

Chenab (Asikni):

1. Two headward tributaries: Chandra and Bhaga

Ravi (Parushni or Irawati):

1. Source near Rohtang pass in Himachal Pradesh

Beas (Vipasa or Argikiya):

1. Source near Rohtang pass in Himachal Pradesh

2. Entirely within India.

Satluj (Satadru or Satudri):

1. Originates near Mansarovar.

Fig 1: Indus river system

Page 84 of 193
Ghaggar (the legendary Saraswati)

• This is an inland drainage which rises in the talus fan of the Shiwaliks of Sirrnur near Ambala (Haryana),
•
• After entering the plains, it disappears, but reappears at Kamal District
•
• At present, the entire area is practically a desert, and the Ghaggar-Hakra are practically ephemeral streams
coming into flow only during the season of general rains.
•

Ganga:

Originates as Bhagirathi from Gangotri. The river is home to more then 140 fish species, 90 amphibian species and
the endangered Ganga river- dolphin.
Left bank tributaries: Kosi, Ramganga, Gandhak, Gomati, Gaghar.
Right bank tributaries: Yamuna, Son, Hugli

The Yamuna River(length 1380 km)

• This is the longest and the western-most tributary of the Ganga. Its source lies in the Yamunotri Glacier On the
western slopes of Banderpunch
•
• It joins the Ganga at Allahabad.
•
• The important tributaries Of the Yamuna are mostly the right bank tributaries originating from the Aravallis, Vind-
hyan Range and the Malwa Plateau of Madhya Pradesh. The Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken and Tons are the main
righthand tributaries of the Yamuna River.
•

The Chambal (length 960 km)

• The Chambal River is famous for its extensive ravines which it has carved along in the lower Chambal Valley.
•

Brahmaputra:

Originates in Kailash and enters into India as Dibang. Through the Malda gap between Rajmahal and Garo hills passes
into Bay of Bengal. Enters Bangladesh and is known as Jamuna. Meets Ganga and is now called Padma. Then meets
Meghna river and is called Meghna. Forms a large delta.

Page 85 of 193
 Fig 2: Ganga and Brahmaputra

Peninsular rivers:

Page 86 of 193
Fig 3: Peninsular rivers
East flowing rivers: kaveri, godawari, krishna, meghna, tungabhadra, mahanadi, damodar, subarnarekha.

Damodar – source in chota nagpur plateau.

Godawari – dakshin ganga
Krishna – source near mahabaleshwar.
Mahanadi – hirakud dam
Rushkiya river – mouth of river is hatching site for olive ridley turtles.

Olive ridley turtles- the most abundant sea turtles in the world. Live in warm waters of pacific, atlantic and indian
ocean. Odissa coast is the largest mass hatching site for olive ridley turtles.

West flowing river: Narmada and Tapti. These rivers form no delta as they dont carry any alluvial sediments.

Physiographic Divisions of the Great Plains of India

• The Great Plains of India are a remarkably homogeneous surface with an imperceptible slope. They are a fea-
tureless alluvial fertile plains formed mostly by the depositional process of the Himalayan and Vindhyan rivers.
•
• The Northern Plains of India may be divided into the following sub-regions:
•
◦ The Bhabar Plain: It is highly porous tract of land where small streams disappear into the soil and only
large streams survive. This tract isn't suitable for the survival of crops and thus only big trees grow here
that have long roots. The inhabitants of these regions are the cattle herders (Gujjars)
◦

Page 87 of 193
 ◦ Tarai tract: It is a marshy tract. However it has been mostly reclaimed for agriculture.
◦
◦ The Bhangar (Bangar) Plains:These are upland alluvial tracts of the Great Plains of India, formed by
the older alluviums. The Bhangar land lies above the flood limits of the rivers. The soil is dark in colour,
rich in humus content and productive. It contains concretions and nodules of impure calcium carbonate
or 'Kankar'. In relatively drier areas, the Bhangar also exhibits small tracts of saline and alkaline efflores-
cences known as 'Reh', 'Kallar' or 'Thur'. Bhangar is generally a well drained and the most productive
land of the Great Plains of India.
◦
◦ The Khadar Plains: The new alluvium tracts along the courses of the rivers are known as the 'Khadar'
or 'Bet lands. The khadar tracts are enriched by fresh deposits of silt every year during the rainy season.
◦

Brahmaputra Plain

• It is the eastern part of the Great Plains of India. It is a depositional plain, that is surrounded by water from all
three sides.
•
• The Assam Valley is characterised by a steep slope along its northern margin but the southern side has a grad-
ual fall from the Meghalaya Plateau. The whole length of the plain is traversed by the Brahmaputra. Due to the
low gradient, the Brahmaputra is a highly braided river having numerous islands.
•
• Majuli (area 930 sq km) is the largest river island of India and the second largest in the world after the Marajo Is-
land of the Amazon River.
•

The Indian Islands

• India has a total of 615 islands, of which 572 lie in the Bay of Bengal, and the remaining 43 in the Arabian Sea.
•
• The Bay of Bengal islands include the Andaman and Nicobar Islands which are largely tectonic and volcanic in
origin, while the islands of the Arabian Sea are mainly coral formations.
•
• One of the largest and also the rarest crabs in the world, the Giant Robber Crab, can be found in the Wandoor
Marine Biosphere Reserve in south Andaman and Great Nicobar Islands. Its powerful claws help it to climb the
coconut tree and break the hard shell of its fruit.
•
• Lakshadweep islands are separated from the Maldive Islands by the Eight Degree Channel.
•
• The Andaman Islands have been formed by the extension of the Tertiary mountain chain of Purvachal. The
physiography of the Nicobar islands is mainly of coral origin.
•

RIVER REGIMES

• The pattern of the seasonal flow of water in a river is called its regime. The main difference in the flow pattern of
the Himalayan and the Peninsular rivers is caused by the differences in climate.
•
• The Himalayan livers are perennial and their regimes are dependent on the pattern of water supply both from
snow-melt and rainfall. Their regimes are monsoonal as well as glacial.
•
• The regime of most of the peninsular rivers, on the other hand, are only monsoonal as they are controlled by
rainfall alone.
•

Page 88 of 193
Major Rivers of Peninsular India

Length
River Source in km Main tributaries

Godavar Trimbak Plateau Near 1465 Manjra, Penganga, Wardha Wain ganga,
i Nasik {Maharashtra) Indravati, Saban, Pranhita

Krishna Near Mahabaleshwar 1400 Koyna, Ghataprabha, Malprabha, Bhima,

(Maharashtra) Tungbhadra, Musi, Muneru

Narmad Arnarkantak 1310 Hiran, Orsang, Barna, Kolar, Burhnar,

a Tawa, Kundi

Mahana Dandakaranya Plateau 857 Ib, Mand, Hasdeo, Seonath, Ong,Jonk, Tel
di near Raipur

Kaveri Taal Kaveri 800 Herangi, Hernavati, Lokpavni, Shimsa,

Arkavati, Kabani, Bhavani, Amravathi

Tapi Multai in Betul Dist, 730 Puma, Betul, Patki, Ganjal, Dhatranj,
(M.P.) Bokad, Amravati

Comparison of the Peninsular and the Extra-Peninsular Rivers

Peninsular Extra-Peninsular (Himalayan)

The rivers of Peninsular India are much The rivers of the Extra-Peninsular India are
older. Some of them are as old as the Pre- much younger with few exceptions like
Cambrian Period. Indus, Ganga

They are mostly consequent or rejuvenated Inconsequent rivers mostly

rivers.

small basins except for godavari large basins

Page 89 of 193
 The channels of these rivers are broad. The channels of these rivers in the upper
courses form gorges, waterfalls, and rapids.

Negligible vertical erosion Significant vertical, lateral erosion

Slow moving, low carrying capacity, mainly Swift movements, transport huge quantity
depositional agents of sediments, active erosional and
depositional agents.

Shallow meanders, non navigable, seasonal Make sharp meanders and ox bow lakes,
nature navigable in plains, perennial nature.

Originate in western ghats Himalayan origin

Make deltas and estuaries. These rivers make only deltas. The
Sundarban Delta is the largest in the world.

Solved Question Papers

Q.Which of the following is/are tributary tributaries of Brahmaputra?

1. Dibang
2. Kameng
3. Lohit
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. 1 only
2.
3. 2 and 3 only
4.
5. 1 and 3 only
6.
7. 1, 2 and 3
8.

Ans . D

1. Brahmaputra’s main left bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit
2. the important right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh.

Q.In which of the following regions of India are shale gas resources found?
1. Cambay Basin
2. Cauvery Basin
3. Krishna-Godavari Basin
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. 1 and 2 only

Page 90 of 193
 2.
3. 3 only
4.
5. 2 and 3 only
6.
7. 1, 2 and 3
8.

Ans . D

Q.Recently, linking of which of the following rivers was undertaken (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. Cauvery and Tungabhadra

2.
3. Godavari and Krishna
4.
5. Mahanadi and Sone
6.
7. Narmada and Tapti
8.

Ans . B

1. Andhra Pradesh Government has succeeded in interlinking Krishna-Godavari rivers through the Pattiseema lift
irrigation scheme and 10,000 cusecs of water from the Godavari was being presently drawn on a daily basis
through the project to meet the requirements of the Krishna delta.

Q.Recently, which of the following States has explored the possibility of constructing an artificial inland port to be con-
nected to sea by a long navigational channel? (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. Andhra Pradesh
2.
3. Chhattisgarh
4.
5. Karnataka
6.
7. Rajasthan
8.

Ans . D

1. Rajasthan wants to develop artificial inland shipping port at Jalore, it’ll be connected to the Arabian Sea by devel-
oping a channel along the Kutch Creek.

Q.Consider the following rivers:

Barak
Lohit
Subansiri
Which of the above flows / flow through Arunachal Pradesh? (UPSC CSAT 2014)

• 1 only
•
• 2 and 3 only
•
• 1 and 3 only
Page 91 of 193
 •
• 1, 2 and 3
•

Ans . B

1. The Barak is an important river in Manipur and Mizoram

2. The barak river , the head stream of Meghna rises in the hills in Manipur”

Q.Which one of the following pairs of islands is separated from each other by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’? (UPSC CSAT
2014)

• Andaman and Nicobar

•
• Nicobar and Sumatra
•
• Maldives and Lakshadweep
•
• Sumatra and Java
•

Ans . A

1. The Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south are separated by a water body called 10 degree channel

Chapter 4: INDIAN SEASONS

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Introduction

SEASONS IN INDIA

• Winter season, mid-December to mid-March

•
• Hot weather season, mid-March to May.
•
• Rainy season, June to September
•
• Season of retreating monsoon, October to mid-December.
•

There are three seasons in India: summer, winter and monsoon. The climate of India is essentially sub-tropical mon-
soonic. The word 'monsoon' has been derived from the Arabic word "Mausim" which means 'season'. Originally, the word
'monsoon' was, used by Arab navigators several centuries ago, to describe a system of seasonal reversal of winds along
the shores of the Indian Ocean, especially over the Arabian Sea, in which the winds blow from the south-west to north-
east during the summer season and from the north-east to south-west during the winter season.

Monsoon is a unique weather phenomenon due to seasonal reversal of winds.

Features of Indian Monsoon

Monsoon has following features:

1. Sudden onset

2. Gradual advance
3. Gradual retreat
4. Variation – temporal and regional

Page 92 of 193
INDIAN MONSOON

• Monsoons are a complex meteorological phenomenon. Experts of meteorology have developed a number of
concepts about the origin of monsoons. Some of the important concepts about the origin of monsoons have
been given as under
•
◦ The Thermal Concept of Halley :
◦
▪ The primary cause of the annual cycle of the Indian monsoon circulation was the differential
heating effects of the land :and the sea.
▪
▪ Monsoons are the extended land breeze and sea breezee on a large scale, produced by the dif-
ferential heating of continents and ocean basins. During the summer season in the Northern
Hemisphere, when the Sun's rays are vertical over the Tropic of Cancer, the huge landmass of
Asia heats quickly and develops a strong low pressure centre near Lake Baikal (Siberia) and Pe-
shawar (Pakistan). This thermal low extends up to 700 mb. Moreover, the pole-ward shift of the
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to a position over southern Asia reinforces the ther-
mally induced low pressure centre. In comparison to this, the pressure over the adjacent water
of the Indian and the Pacific Oceans is relatively high. Under these conditions, a sea-to-land
pressure gradient develops. Consequently, the surface air flow is from the high pressure over
the oceans towards the low pressure areas over the heated landmass. Under the extreme low
pressure condition on land, the wind from the southern part of the Indian Ocean (south of Equa-
tor) is attracted towards the subcontinent of India.
▪
▪ The air coming from oceans towards land is warm and moist. When land barriers like mountain
ranges and plateaus come in the way of the moisture-laden winds, they ascend and result into
saturation, condensation, and precipitation
▪
▪ In the Northern Hemisphere during winter season, there develops high pressure areas near
Baikal Lake (Siberia), and Peshawar {Pakistan}. As compared to these high pressures, the In-
dian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean (south of Japan) remain relatively warm, having low pressure
areas.
▪
▪ Consequently, there is an outflow of air from the high pressure of the land to the low pressure ar-
eas of the oceans. The air blowing from high pressure areas of land towards the sea is cold and
dry. This cold and dry air is incapable of giving precipitation unless it comes into contact with
some water body (ocean/sea)
▪
◦ Criticism of The Thermal Concept of Halley
◦
▪ The low pressure areas that develop over the continents during the summer season in the
Northern Hemisphere are not stationary. These low pressure areas change their position (loca-
tion) suddenly, This sudden change in the low pressure areas are not exclusively related to low
thermal conditions.
▪
▪ Had the monsoon been thermally induced, there would be anti-monsoon circulation ill the upper
air of the troposphere, which is lacking.
▪
▪ Halley did not take into consideration the Coriolis effect of rotation of the earth on its axis. On a
rotating earth, the wind has a tendency to move towards its right in the Northern Hemisphere
and towards its left in the Southern Hemisphere.
▪
▪ The role of latent beat passing into the atmosphere through water vapour was also not consid-
ered by Halley; water vapour also plays an important role in the origin and development of mon-
soons.
▪
Page 93 of 193
 ▪ The modern researches in meteorology have shown that the monsoon rainfall is not wholly oro-
graphic. They are an amalgamation of convectional, orographic and cyclonic rainfall.
▪
Indian Monsoon

Stage 1:

The apparent movement of the sun in northern hemisphere in summer is seen. This heats the Tibetan plateau and the air
rises upwards. This creates a Tropical Eastern Jetstream which descends at Madagascar and creates a high pressure
zone there. An inter tropical convergence zone [ITCZ] formed at equator moves to Tibetan plateau.

Fig 1: Indian monsoon

Stage 2:

The Somali jet stream intensifies the Somalian ocean current during summer. Stronger the Somalian current better the
monsoon.

Stage 3:

Sub tropical westerly jet maintains high pressure over North India. The STWJ is bifurcated by the Himalayas into two
branches.

Page 94 of 193
 Fig 2: STWJ and Himalayas

The summer see apparent movement of the sun and heating of the Tibetan plateau. This creates a low pressure belt
over Tibet.

The STWJ still continues to be over South Himalayas and it resists the monsoon winds.

In this time there is local convectional rainfall in Bengal, Bihar called Kalbaisakhi , mango showers. These are pre mon -
soon thunder showers.

Then the STWJ southern branch moves over north and STWJ withdraws from the Indian subcontinent. If this branch
reestablishes then monsoon break is seen.

Stage 4: Indian Ocean Dipole

Low pressure conditions over Australia and Tibetan plateau and high pressure over Madagascar create an Indian ocean
dipole. A strong dipole pushes monsoon winds towards Indian subcontinent.

Page 95 of 193
 Fig 3: Indian Ocean Dipole

Stage 5: onset of monsoon

The monsoon winds have two branches Arabian and Bay of Bengal. The Arabian branch moves over western ghats and
is blocked. This brings heavy rainfall over western region.

The SW Arabian branch isn't blocked by Aravallis so less monsoon over Rajasthan. The gap between Vindhyas and Ar-
avallis mean SW winds reach over to Himachal Pradesh.

The Eastern branch of the SW monsoon goes over Bay of Bengal and isn't blocked by the eastern ghats. It passes
through their gaps and reaches Vindhya , Satpuda range and Chota Nagpur plateau. This gives rainfall to the Eastern In-
dia and interiors.

The second part of the eastern branch of sw monsoon passes over north east and brings rain there.

Stage 6: retreat monsoon

The month of September the ITCZ retreats towards the equator from Tibetan plateau. As it passes over the India the
eastern branch of South west monsoon and north east winds collide.

Page 96 of 193
The eastern branch of South west monsoon withdraws first. Then North East winds are off land and hence dry but they
pick moisture over Bay of Bengal and bring rain to southern tip of India i.e. Coast of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.

The retreating eastern branch of South west monsoon brings cyclones to the land.

Fig 4: Indian Monsoon

Fluctuations in Indian monsoon:

1. If the Indian ocean dipole is weak.

2. Southern oscillation is reversed or not strong.

3. SWTJ doesn’t retreat from India or comes back once again.

4. Inadequate heating of Tibetan plateau.

Solved Question Papers

Q.With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon,
which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. IOD phenomenon is characterized by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean
and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.
2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon. Select the correct answer using the code
given below: (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. 1 only
2.
3. 2 only
4.
5. Both 1 and 2
6.
7. Neither 1 nor 2
8.

Page 97 of 193
Ans . B

1. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is an event which the western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer and then
colder than the eastern part of the Indian ocean.
2. A positive IOD leads to greater monsoon rainfall and more active (above normal rainfall) monsoon days while
negative IOD leads to less rainfall and more monsoon break days

Q.Consider the following statements:

1. In India, the Himalayas are spread over five States only.
2. Western Ghats are spread over five States only.
3. Pulicat Lake is spread over two States only.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. 1 and 2 only
2.
3. 3 only
4.
5. 2 and 3 only
6.
7. 1 and 3 only
8.

Ans . B

1. Western Ghats are spread over six States

Q.With reference to river Teesta, consider the following statements:

1. The source of river Teesta is the same as that of Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim.
2. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and it is a tributary of river Teesta.
3. River Teesta flows into Bay of Bengal on the border of India and Bangladesh.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. 1 and 3 only
2.
3. 2 only
4.
5. 2 and 3 only
6.
7. 1, 2 and 3
8.

Ans . B

1. Teesta merges into Brahmaputra itself rather than flowing into sea by its own

Q.If you travel by road from Kohima to Kottayam, what is the minimum number of States within India through which you
can travel, including the origin and the destination? (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. 6
2.
3. 7
4.
5. 8
6.
7. 9
8.

Ans . B

Page 98 of 193
 1. Nagaland, Kohima, Assam, W.Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka (or Tamilnadu), Kerala, Kottayam

Q.At one of the places in India, if you stand on the seashore and watch the sea, you will find that the sea water recedes
from the shore line a few kilometres and comes back to the shore, twice a day, and you can actually walk on the sea
floor when the water recedes. This unique phenomenon is seen at (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. Bhavnagar
2.
3. Bheemunipatnam
4.
5. Chandipur
6.
7. Nagapattinam.
8.

Ans . C

1. Chandipur beach has a unique distinction on its own. Unlike other beaches, the sea water here recedes away
from the shore line about five km twice a day, an unusual phenomenon, rarely found anywhere.

Q.Which of the following is geographically closest to Great Nicobar ? (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. Sumatra
2.
3. Borneo
4.
5. Java
6.
7. Sri Lanka
8.

Ans . A

1. Sumatra seems quite closer to Great Nicobar than Sri Lanka.

Q.Mediterranean Sea is a border of which of the following countries?

Jordan
Iraq
Lebanon
Syria
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (UPSC CSAT 2017)

1. 1, 2 and 3 only
2.
3. 2 and 3 only
4.
5. 3 and 4 only
6.
7. 1, 3 and 4 only
8.

Ans . C

1. Mediterranean Sea doesn’t touch Jordan and Iraq

Chapter 5: VEGETATION OF INDIA
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Introduction
• Tropical Evergreen:
Page 99 of 193
 •
◦ They are located in North-East India, parts of Western Ghats, the Andaman and Nicobar, upper Assam,
lower slopes of Eastern Himalayas, Odisha, along the foot-hills of Himalayas, Bhabhar and Tarai re-
gions.
◦
◦ The forests are dense; composed of tall trees (45 m) epiphytes, parasites, lianas and rattans so as to
look like a green carpet when viewed from above.
◦
◦ Trees have multi-storeyed structures with good canopies. These trees do not shed their leaves annually
and are hence evergreen. The floor lacks grasses because of deep shade.
◦
◦ There are, however, canes, palms, bamboos, ferns, and climbers which make passage difficult. The im-
portant species of these forests are white cedar, toon, dhup, palaquinum, mesua, collophyllurn, hopea,
and canes, gmjan, chaplas, agor, muli, and bamboo. Due to poor accessibility these forests have not
been properly exploited.
◦
• The Tropical Moist Deciduous:
•
◦ The typical landscape consists of tall teak trees with sal, bamboos, and shrubs growling fairly close to-
gether to form thickets.
◦
◦ Both teak and sal are economically important and so are the Sandalwood, Shisham , Hurra , and Khair .
◦
• The Tropical Thorny Forests:
•
◦ The tropical thorny forest is a degraded version of the moist deciduous forest.
◦
• The Subtropical Montane Forests:
•
◦ Chir (pine) is the main tree but broad leaved trees are also found in these areas. Oak, jamun, and rhodo-
dendron are the other varieties in these forests.
◦
• The Dry Deciduous Forests:
•
◦ These forests are characterised by closed and rather uneven canopies. Enough light reaches the ground
to permit the growth of grasses and climbers.
◦
◦ Acacia, jamun, modesta, and pistaciaare the main trees. Grasses and shrubs appear during the season
of general rains.
◦
• Montane Wet Temperate Forests: These forests are found in the entire Himalayas from Jammu and Kashmir to
Arunachal Pradesh between the altitudes of 1500 m to 3500 m where the temperature varies between 12°C to
15°C, and the mean annual rainfall is between 100 to 250 cm.
•
• Desert Vegetation: The desert vegetation is confined to the west of Aravallis in the states of Rajasthan and
northern Gujarat
•
• Tidal (Mangrove): The mangrove which attains a height up to 30 metres is the most important tree. It is utilised
for fuel. The famous delta of Sundarban is covered by the Sundri trees which supply hard durable timber for con-
struction and boat making. Here, higher grounds support screw-pines, Palms occupy creeks, and epiphytes are
predominant all over the region
•

IMPORTANT SPECIES OF TREES AND THEIR UTILITY

• Rosewood: (Evergreen)The wood from these forests is hard and fine-grained, dark purple in colour, widely
used in the manufacture of furniture, floor boards, and ornamental plyboards.
Page 100 of 193
 •
• Gurjan: (Evergreen)The wood is dull reddish to brown in colour. It is extensively used for internal construction
work of houses. It is also used for packing cases, tea boxes, flooring, and wagons.
•
• Ebony: (Evergreen)The wood has a metallic lusture when smoothed. It is one of the most valuable woods as it
is resistant to attack by insects. It is used for ornamental carving and decoration.
•
• Sal : (Monsoon)Its wood is very heavy, hard and durable. It is much in demand for piles, doors, beams, planking
and railway sleepers. Sal forests occupy 1l.6 lakh hectares, accounting for about 16 per cent of the total forest
area of the country.
•
• Teak : (Monsoon)Its wood is moderately hard, duarable, easy to work and takes a good polish. It is an expen-
sive timber used for doors, cupboards, and furniture. Teale forests cover about 9 million hectares of the total for -
est area of the country.
•
• Jamun :Its timber is moderately strong and used for the construction of houses and furniture. Its fruits are highly
beneficial in controlling diabetes and high blood pressure.
•

FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILITY

• Bamboo:It is used for a variety of purposes- basket making, roofing, and thatching, construction, paper, and
pulp making. Even ornaments are made of bamboo in states like Mizoram, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, and
Tripura. Bamboo also finds a place in cultural activities of the Mizo people, i.e. Cherraw (bamboo) dance.
•
• Tendu:Tendu leaves are used for bidi-making.
•
• Grasses:KhusKhus grass is used for making cooling screens during summer season. Raska, lemon and ginger-
grasses yield medicinal and perfumed oils.
•

SOCIAL FORESTRY

• The main objective of social forestry is to reduce pressure on traditional forests by plantation of fuel-wood, fod-
der, timber, and grasses.
•
• To release cow dung as manure for increasing agricultural production,
•
• To provide gainful employment opportunities to the rural population, To develop cottage industries, to provide ef-
ficient soil and water conservation
•
• To improve aesthetic value of an area and to meet the recreational needs of the population.
•

Community Forestry

• It involves the raising of trees on community lands with the set objective to provide benefits to the community as
a whole. Although the plants and seedlings are provided by the forest departments, the protection of planted
trees is primarily the responsibility of the community as a whole.
•

Agro- Forestry

Page 101 of 193

 • Agro-forestry is a sustainable management for land that increases overall production, combines agricultural
crops, tree crops, forest plants and animals simultaneously and applies management practices that are compati-
ble with cultural patterns of local population.
•
• Agro-forestry is a type of social forestry in which individual farmer undertakes tree-farming and grows fodder
plants, grasses and legumes on his own land.
•

The three types of forests seen in India are:

1. Tropical forest

2. Montane forests
3. Alpine forests

Page 102 of 193

Fig 1: Forest types of India

Page 103 of 193

Tropical forests:

The types are:

1. Moist
a. Wet evergreen – areas with more than 250 cm rainfall viz. Western ghats, A&N, NE states. Dense forests and
dense undergrowth.

b. Semi evergreen – border areas of wet evergreen forests.

c. Moist deciduous – rainfall 100-200cm. Located on western and eastern ghats.

2. Dry

a. Dry evergreen – winter rainfall and monsoon rainfall. Rainfall -100 cm. TN coast.
b. Dry deciduous – transition between moist deciduous and tropical thorn. Sheds leaves in dry season. 100-75 cm
rainfall.
c. Tropical thorn – North West part of India. >75cm rainfall.

Montane forest:

Types:

1. Sub tropical forests – 1000 -2000 m altitude

a. Broad leaves: evergreen and dense. 75-125 cm rainfall.

b. Moist pine: 100cm rainfall. Chir tree is example
c. Dry evergreen: stunted trees and shrubs. Found in western himalayas.

2. Temperate forests – 1800 – 3000 m altitude.

a. Wet temperate: evergreen and short trees. Western ghats and eastern himalayas. 150 – 300 cm rainfall. E.g. De-
odhar.

b. Moist temperate: 150 – 250 cm rainfall. Found in entire length of himalayas. E.g. Deodhar.
c. Dry temperate: rainfall >100 cm. Present in dry part of himalayas. Coniferous forests e.g. Ash, maple, oak.

Alpine forest:

It has an altitude of 2900 – 3800 m. It is a mixture of coniferous trees, large shrubs and broad leaved trees. E.g. Fir,
spruce, birch.

TABLE 1: FOREST COMPOSITION OF INDIA

Forest type Area

Tropical moist deciduous 37%
Tropical dry deciduous 28%
Tropical wet evergreen 8%
Montane subtropical pine 6.6%
Page 104 of 193
 Tropical semi evergreen 4%

Solved Question Papers

Q.Consider the following States:

1. Arunachal Pradesh
2. Himachal Pradesh
3. Mizoram
In which of the following states do “Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests” occur? (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• 1 only
•
• 2 and 3 only
•
• 1 and 3 only
•
• 1, 2 and 3
•

Ans . C

1. The true evergreen forests are found along the western side of the Western Ghats (between 500 to 1370 metres
above sea level) south of Mumbai, in a strip running from northeast to south-west direction across Arunachal
Pradesh, Upper Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura upto a height of 1070 metres and in the An-
daman and Nicobar Islands.

Q.In India, in which one of the following types of forests is teak a dominant tree species? (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• Tropical moist deciduous forest

•
• Tropical rain forest
•
• Tropical thorn scrub forest
•
• Temperate forest with grasslands
•

Ans . A

1. Tropical moist deciduous forests exist mostly in the eastern part of the country – northeastern states, along the
foothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern slopes of the Western
Ghats.
2. Teak is the most dominant species of this forest. Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun, mul-
berry are other commercially important species.

Q.Which one of the following regions of India has a combination of mangrove forest, evergreen forest and deciduous for-
est? (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• North Coastal Andhra Pradesh

•
• South-West Bengal
•
• Southern Saurashtra
•

Page 105 of 193

 • Andaman and Nicobar Islands
•

Ans . D

1. The South Andaman forests have a profuse growth of epiphytic vegetation, mostly ferns and orchids. The Middle
Andamans harbours mostly moist deciduous forests. North Andamans is characterized by the wet evergreen
type, with plenty of woody climbers.
2. The North Nicobar Islands (including Car Nicobar and Battimalv) are marked by the complete absence of ever-
green forests, while such forests form the dominant vegetation in the central and southern islands of the Nicobar
group.
3. Grasslands occur only in the Nicobars, and while deciduous forests are common in the Andamans, they are al-
most absent in the Nicobars. The present forest coverage is claimed to be 86.2% of the total land area.

Chapter 6: WATER RESOURCES

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Introduction

Rain, rivers, lakes, ponds are important source of water in India.

India receives 2nd highest rainfall for a country of its size. 1st is Brazil.

Water availability is 2000 cum/person/year and by 2050 it will be 3500 cum/person/year but availability shall be
1200 cum/person/year.

Rivers are also important water source. The Himalayan and peninsular rivers are the two types of rivers.

Himalayan River Peninsular river

Perennial Seasonal
Antecedent Superimposed
Flood prone Not flood prone
Large, huge flood plain, low slope and No shifting of course – due to hard
forms meander. rock surface, no shifting of course,
small catchment area.
Easily navigable Waterfalls at any course
Can be diverted for irrigation Can’t be diverted for irrigation without
pumps as river basin located on higher
plateau
Waterfalls at youthful stage only Waterfalls at any stage

TABLE 1: HIMALAYAN AND PENINSULAR RIVER

Page 106 of 193
Groundwater resources:

Aquifer is the storage pool for groundwater. It stores rainwater that percolates through the soil or cracks. When all pores
are filled it’s called saturation zone. Upper layer of the saturation zone is called water table.

Fig 1: Groundwater resources

Groundwater capacity of India is 30-40 million hectares. It is found in selected locations only:

1. Northern alluvial plains. Peninsular river basins and deltas of rivers.

2. Bhabhar [foothills of the Himalayas]
3. Eastern and western coastal plains
4. Peninsular granite and gneissic rocks.

Ganga rivers groundwater reserve is highest at 17 million hectares. Indus river has a ground water usage rate of
80%.

Page 107 of 193

India’s groundwater use is more than the replenishment rate and so aquifers are drying up. 60% of India's irrigation
through tube wells and dug wells. This hurts the water resources. Also unplanned urbanization, increasing population,
overuse affect it.

Flouride, arsenic, nitrate fertilizers are affecting underground water resources.

Fig 2: Hydrological map of India

Page 108 of 193

Watershed:

Geo hydrological unit that drains at a common point. E.g: A main river and its catchment area.

Fig 3: Watershed
In watershed management we construct small check dams to stop flow of water so it can percolate. No large dams and
no stopping of the river flow.

Afforestation on river banks, soil conservation are other methods.

Drought-prone area Program + Desert development program + integrated wasteland development program = In-
tegrated watershed Management Program under the department of land resources, ministry of rural develop-
ment.

Watershed management can work successfully under community participation, decentralization and strong Pan-
chayati Raj system.

TYPES OF LAKE'S

• A lake is a natural depression filled with water. They also help in the prevention of sudden floods and droughts.
The lakes of India have different origins. Some of the important lakes of India have been described briefly in the
following section:
•
◦ The Tectonic Lakes:These are formed due to the fractures and faults in the earth's crust.
◦
◦ The Crater Lakes:Crater lakes are formed when the craters and calderas are filled with water.
◦
◦ Glacial lakes:These lakes are the result of glacial erosion
◦
◦ Fluvial lakes:Fluvially originated lakes are generally temporary and are soon obliterated.
◦
Page 109 of 193
 ◦ Aeolion lakes:These are small temporary hollows or depressions lying on the wind blown sand surface.
◦
◦ Dissolution lakes:These lakes are formed due to a depression of the surface by underground dissolu-
tion of soluble rocks like limestone and gypsum.
◦
◦ Lagoons:These are formed by deposition of sandbars along the sea coast.
◦
◦ Landslide lakes:These lakes are produced by landslides and rock-falls causing obstruction in the
course of streams.
◦

River Description

Bhimtal Situated near the town of Bhimtal in Kumaun Divison of Uttarakhand, it is

a fascinating lake with an island in the centre.

Chilka Lake It is the largest coastal lake in India. The lake was formed due to the silting
action of the Mahanadi River which drains into the northern end of the
lake.

Dal Lake Dal is a famous lake in Srinagar.

Kaliveli Lake The lake is one of the largest wetlands in the peninsular India.

Kolleru Lake The lake was an important habitat for an estimated migratory birds such
as Grey or Spot-billed pelicans. Rich in flora and fauna, it attracts birds
from Siberia and eastern Europe between the months of October and
March.

Loktak Lake It is also called the only 'Floating Islands Lake' in the world due to the
floating Phundis (floating islands) on it.

Sambhar Lake It is the largest salt lake of India.

Chapter 7: SOILS OF INDIA

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Introduction
Soils with different layers have different physical and chemical properties. Topmost layer is humus or organic matter, top-
soil followed by transition zone, sub soil, weathered rock material and parent rock. In soil erosion topsoil is lost. Subsoil
can’t support plant life.

Soil nutrients:

1. Air – carbon, oxygen

Page 110 of 193

2. Water – hydrogen, oxygen
3. Soil:
a. Macronutrients: nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur
b. Micronutrients: Boron, chlorine, iron, magnesium, iron, copper.

Ideal ratio of N, P and K should be 4:2:1 but India its 8:4:1. Urea is out of Nutrient based subsidy and so is misused. Due
to the high misuse of urea there is nitrate pollution in ground and water.

Soil health card are issued by the government for providing information on the nutrient status of the soil and recommen-
dation on appropriate dosage of nutrients.

Implications:

1. Soil and water pollution.

2. Eutrophication of lakes.

3. Nitrate poisoning in ground water leads to stomach cancer

4. Without humus, chemicals harden the soil and make it infertile.

Organic farming:

1. Paramparagat krishi vikas yojana to promote organic farming, discourage use of chemicals as inputs and promote
bio-fertilizers, vermin compost, sustainable practices like crop rotation, water efficiency.
2. Green manure are sowing of crop seeds, sun hemp and guar then mulching and ploughing them into soil to enrich
N, P in the soil.

Vermi compost:

Mixture of earthworms and organic waste. The earthworms break down the matter to give nutrient rich, water soluble,
moist organic fertilizers. It increases soil aeration, water retention, root growth, microbial matter and also its affordable.

Soil forming factors are:

1. Rock
2. Climate
3. Relief
4. Biota
5. Time

Rocks:
Soil made up from erosion of soft rocks. It provides soil material, texture, porosity and pH value. Soft rocks means better
soil formed than hard rocks.

Climate:
Wind, water, glaciers are agents of erosion. Climate determines the type of erosion and its intensity.

Relief:
Steep gradient gives underdeveloped soil and plain area gives well developed soil.

Biota:
Microbes enrich the soil. Roots from plants help in weathering of rocks and humus content from plants enriches the soil.

Time:
Soil formation is a long term process. Time decides maturity of the soil.

Page 111 of 193

Transportation in soil:

1. Capillary:
a) Upward movement of minerals.
b) Hot and dry climate causes this.
c) Salts within the soil come to the surface. This results in soil salinity.

2. Leaching:
a) Downward movement of minerals.
b) Seen during humid climate.

c) Silica moves downwards but iron and aluminum remain on top. Thus we get laterite soils which are acidic and
reddish.

3. Gleying:
a) In swamps peaty soil is formed.
b) Excessive potassium is seen.

Soil Conservation:

Structural solutions for soil conservation:

1. Construction of retaining walls. Strengthen slopes of river banks using stone pitching or wire netting.
2. On rivers contruction of multi purpose dams. Construction of tri-pods, tetra-pods and groins to prevent erosion.

Non structural solutions:

1. Afforestation.
2. Discourage cultivation on marginal lands.
3. Agro forestry.
4. Along slopes: Contour bunding, terrace farming, basin listing, soil mulching, crop rotation, relay farming, strip farm -
ing, organic farming, use of bio fertilizers.
5. To control wind erosion transverse farming and shelter belts.

Page 112 of 193

 Fig : Shelter belt

Soil Salinity:
Causes:
1. Arid regions are created due to salts on upper layers of the soil.
2. Bad drainage due to basin topography and black cotton soil
3. Faulty agriculture practices like over irrigation, cultivation of water intensive crops.
4. Sea water intrusion into ground water reserves.
Implications:
1. Salts of sodium, potassium, manganese come to the top soil.
2. Soil fertility is reduced.
3. Choice of crops is reduced to only salt resistant varieties like cotton, barley
4. Quality of fodder reduced.

5. Reduced infiltration of water into ground.

Solutions:
1. Soil is flushed with water and salts are dissolved and removed but this methods cant be used in india.
2. Laying drainage pipes underground to pump out excessive water.
3. Lining of canals to avoid seepage.
4. Use of agents like gypsum and sodium pyrite to recover soil.
5. Discourage use of ground water and encourage rain water harvesting, agro climatic farming.

Desertification:

1. Extreme form of land degradation in semi arid or sub humid areas. Expansion of desert areas.
2. It cant be reversed only prevented.
Solutions:
Page 113 of 193
 1. Constructing retaining walls.
2. Growing grass on sand dunes.
3. Cultivation of trees on margins
4. Transverse farming

Types of Soils:

Fig 1: Soil profile of India

1. Alluvial Soil
· Covers 42% of India.
· Deposited by rivers. Well drained. Most fertile.
·
· Covers northern plains. Fertility and productivity decreased but productivity increased. These soils are both
well drained and poorly drained. In general, they have an immature profile in undulating areas, while in the leveled areas
they have a well developed and mature profile. The Khadar type solis are low-lying, frequently inundated by floods during
the rainy season. Thus, the khadar occupies the flood plains of the rivers and is enriched by fresh silt deposits every
Page 114 of 193
year. The khadar tracts are generally rich in concretions, and nodules of impure calcium carbonate or Kankar. In the drier
areas, it also exhibits stretches of saline and alkaline efflorescences. The Bhangar type of soil is above the flood level. It
is generally well-drained but contains concretion (kankars] of impure calcium carbonate. The soil texture varies from
loamy soil to clayey-loam. It is well drained and rich in humus, phosphoric acid, lime and organic matter. Alluvial soils
are, however, deficient in potash.
2. Red Soil
· Covers 25% of country.
· Formed due to erosion of granite and gneissic rocks. Best drained soil, least susceptible to water logging.
Most vulnerable to soil erosion.
· Lacks nitrogen, phosphorous. Supports max crop diversity. Their colour is mainly red because of the pres-
ence of ferric oxides. Generally, the top layer is red, while the horizon below is yellowish in colour. The texture of red
soils varies from sand to clay and loam. Their other characteristics include porous and friable structure, absence of lime,
kankar and carbonates and small quantity of soluble salts. In general, these soils are deficient in lime, phosphate, mag-
nesia, nitrogen, humus, and potash. Intense leaching is a menace to these soils. In the uplands, they are thin, poor, grav-
elly, sandy, or stony and porous, light-coloured soils, but in the lower plains and valleys, they are rich, deep, dark
coloured fertile loams.
3. Black soil

· Covers 15% of India.

· Formed from erosion of volcanic rock. Lacks nitrogen and phosphorous.
· High water retention. Cracks when dry so self ploughing and sticky when wet. In general, these soils have
clayey texture and are rich in iron, lime, calcium, potash, aluminium and magnesium. They are, however, deficient in or-
ganic matter. When the soil is wet, it becomes difficult to plough the field as the plough gets stuck in mud. It is a matured
soil and also known as Regur (cotton soil) soil.
4. Laterite soil
· Found in areas with alternate wet dry season. Used for making bricks. The red colour of the soils is due to the
presence of iron-oxide. These soils developed mainly in the highland areas of the plateau. The soils in the higher areas
are generally more acidic than those in the low-lying areas. These soils are rich in iron and aluminium, but poor in nitro -
gen, potash, potassium, lime and organic matter. Although they have low fertility, they respond well to manuring.

5. Mountainous soil
· Immatured soil. Cant support agriculture due to steep slope but can grow grass and shrubs.
· Good for lumbering.
· Leaves of coniferous trees hard to degrade. Cold climate slows bacterial growth.
6. Desert soils
· Sandy, loose and friable with low water retention capacity. It cant support agriculture.

· But Indian desert soil is suitable for agriculture under irrigation as its made of aluminum deposits. The desert
soils are sandy to gravelly with low organic matter, low nitrogen and varying percentage of calcium carbonate. These
soils contain high percentage of soluble salts, but have low moisture content and low water retaining capacity.
7. Mangrove soils
· Bluish green color due to sulphide.
· Cant support plants but only mangroves. Present in coastal areas of all states.

Karewa Soil

• Karewas are the lacustrine deposits in the Valley of Kashmir. These are the flat topped mounds that border the
Kashmir Valley on all sides. They are composed of fine silt, clay, sand, and bouldery- gravel. They are charac-
terised with fossils of mammals and at places by peat.
•
• The karewas are mainly devoted to the cultivation of saffron, almond, walnut, apple and orchards. The karewas,
devoted to saffron cultivation are fetching good income to the growers.
•

Snowfields

Page 115 of 193

 • The area under snow and glaciers is about 4 million hectares. The high peaks of the Greater Himalayas, Karako-
ram, Ladakh, and Zaskar {Zanskar} are covered by ice and glaciers.
•
• The soils in these areas is immature, generally without soil erosion, It remains frozen and is unsuitable for the
cultivation of crops.
•
Soil alkalinity:
1. Calcium salts in upper layer causes moderate salinity. But in next stage sodium, potassium salts in upper layer.
2. This is due to bad drainage and over irrigation.

Land use in India:

1. India home to 17% of the population but 2.4% of land of the world.

TABLE 1: LAND USE IN INDIA

Land use Percentage

Net sown area 46
Forests 23
Land not available for agriculture [cities, 15
development infra]
Fallow land 12.5
Pastures 3.5

Miscellaneous
• Desired land use wants to increase forest cover to 33%. Development land should be increase and fallow land
reduced.
• India also has highest percentage of dairy animals but isn't a leading exporters of dairy products.
• India's Net Sown Area [NSA] is 10% of worlds agricultural area but low productivity is seen.
• India has more natural potential for agriculture than china.
• India's NSA is more than china. India's Gross sown area [GSA] is 199 million hectares. Irrigated land = 61 million
hectares.
• Cropping intensity = G.S.A / N.S.A = 140% target = 160%

Chapter 8: IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA

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Introduction
Agriculture + fisheries + livestock + forests contribute 13.9% to India's GDP. India's 51% population dependent on these
activities.

Green Revolution in India

• Green Revolution is a term coined to describe the emergence and diffusion of new seeds of cereals. Norman
Burlaug is the Father of Green Revolution in the world, while Dr. M.S. Swaminathan is known as the Father of
Green Revolution in India.

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 •
• Some experts of agriculture use it for referring to a broad transformation of agricultural sector in the developing
countries to reduce food shortages. Others use it when referring to the specific plant improvements, notably the
development of HYV s.
•
• The diffusion of HYVs, however, became fully operational in the Country in the Kharif season of 1965-66. The
diffusion of the new seeds was mainly in the Satluj-Ganga Plains and the Kaveri Delta. Subsequently, a number
of varieties of wheat and rice were developed by the Indian scientists and adopted by the Indian farmers.
•

Merits of the High Yielding Varieties

• Shorter Life Cycle: This enabled the farmers to go for multiple cropping.
•
• Economize on Irrigation Water:Though the HYV need more water ut the returns they fetch on the water that is
utilized is far better than traditional varieties.
•
• Generate more Employment:The High Yielding Varieties under optimal conditions require more labour per unit
area and thus, help in generating more employment.
•
• The High Yielding Varieties are Scale Neutral:One of the main advantages of the High Yielding Varieties is
that they benefit an category of farmers in the same proportion. In other words, the new seeds are not biased to -
wards the big and the small farmers.
•
• Easy to Adopt:The adoption of High Yielding Varieties does not require any special skill for adoption. The farm-
ers of different socio economic and cultural backgrounds can adopt the new seeds without any difficulty
•
However, the benefits come with their own disadvantages too. The farmers need to invest in chemical fertilizers, pesti-
cides, mechanized equipment's, irrigation facilities, storage and he should also possess capital for all these factors. The
availability of quality extension services like trained personnel to help the farmers during the harvest seasons etc too
make a difference.
The adoption of High Yielding Varieties have created intra-regional inequalities also. All the farmers, even in the states of
Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and Kaveri Delta have not been benefited equally. It is the large, progressive
and educated farmers who gained much from the High Yielding Varieties. The early adopters reaped much dividends
from the new seeds. By the time the majority came to adopt the new seeds, income gains realised by the early adopters
generally disappeared. The average, small and marginal farmers could not gain much, while the late adopters gained al-
most nothing. Thus, the High Yielding Varieties have had a discriminatory impact in which the large and early adopters
were benefited and the small and marginal farmers who adopted these seeds late could not achieve much.
The production and productivity of wheat, rice, maize and bajra have gone up. There are however, several cereal and
cash crops (pulses, small millets, barley, oilseeds) which are not performing satisfactorily. It is in the case of kharif pulses
where the performance needs much improvement. Development of High Yielding Varieties of pulses for each of the agro-
climatic region is the pressing need of the day.

SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION

• The overall production of the cereal and non-cereal crops has reached almost the plateau stage. The growth rate
of agricultural sector is only about two per cent. Looking at the growing demand of agricultural produce, there is
an urgent need for undertaking agriculture to a higher trajectory of four percent annual growth rate.
•
• This can be done with the Second Green Revolution which could focus on areas like:
•
◦ (i)To raise agricultural productivity to promote food security
◦
◦ (ii) More emphasis on bio-technology
◦
◦ (iii) To promote sustainable agriculture
◦
◦ (iv) To become self sufficient in staple food, pulses, oil seeds, and industrial raw material
◦

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 ◦ (v) To increase the per capita income of the farmers and to raise their standard of living.
◦

DRY FARMING

• The spread of the dry farming is in the regions where the average annual rainfall is less than 75 cm and irrigation
facilities are not available. About 60% of the net-cultivated area is under dryland and rainfed cultivation in India,
which contributes 40% of the total agricultural production.
•
• Agriculture in the dry farming regions belongs to fragile, high risking and low productive agricultural ecosystem.
The areas in which more than 75 cm of average annual rainfall is recorded are known as the areas of rain-fed
agriculture
•
• In India dry-lands cover about 32 million hectares or about 60 per cent of the net arable land.
•
• These areas having scanty rainfall and high variability of rainfall are adversely affected by erratic precipitation,
frequent droughts, high temperature, and high wind velocity resulting in soil erosion.
•

Significant Features of Dry Farming

• Moisture conservation is basic to dry farming. In order to achieve this objective, the field is ploughed repeatedly,
especially during the rainy season
•
• Sowing of crops in alternate years. or fallowing of land after each harvesting of crop. The fallowing of agricultural
land helps in the recuperation of soil fertility.
•
• Pulverisation of the soil before sowing.
•
• Regular hoeing and weeding of the crop to control weed growth and! to conserve moisture. Hoeing is generally
done before sun-rise so that the night dew may be mixed into the soil to provide moisture to the crops
•
• Covering of the land with straw to prevent evaporation of the soil moisture and to control soil erosion.
•
• Livestock keeping and dairying are also important allied agricultural activities in the dry farming regions,
•

Strategy for Development

• In dry farming areas, water harvesting should be done. The government and other non-government agencies
should provide the necessary guidance to the people. Seeds of food crops which are drought resistant should be
provided to the farmers at a subsidized rate. Efforts should be made to check soil erosion by adopting soil con-
servation practices,
•
• The farmers should space their crops at a wide gap and there should be regular weeding and hoeing. Seeds of
the quick and short duration maturing crops should be developed. Cultivation of crops requiring more moisture
should be done in the low lying areas, especially in the lower parts of the catchment.
•
• In addition to these, there are many other practices like contour-ploughing, contour-bunding, and field-bunding
that help water conservation measures, Practice like mulching prevents evaporation from the soil. Deep place-
ment of manures and fertilisers would help the roots to penetrate deep layers. This, along-with weed control,
will help in increasing the yield. The latest advance technology of dry farming is to lay stress on soil moisture and
its conservation.
•
• It should be noted that in the dry areas, soils suffer from nutrient deficiency, particularly nitrogen. Band place-
ment of fertilisers in sub-soil layers is a good method of helping the roots to go deep for exploiting the conserved
moisture.
Page 118 of 193
 •

CROPPING PATTERNS

• Cropping pattern means the proportion of area under different crops at a given point of time.
•
• The cropping patterns of a region are closely influenced by the geo-climatic, socioeconomic, and political factors.
In any region, the prevalent cropping patterns are the cumulative results of the past and present decisions of in-
dividuals, communities or government and their agencies. These decisions are usually based on experience, tra-
dition, expected profit, personal preferences and resources, social and political pressure.
•
• In addition to physical environment, the land ownership, the land tenancy, land tenure, size of holding and fields
also influence the cropping patterns. A farmer with small holding prefer the cultivation of labour intensive crop,
while a large holding farmer goes for the capital intensive agricultural practices.
•
• The relative yield index and the relative spread index for the determination of suitability of crop may be calcu-
lated with the help of the following formula:
•
◦ Relative Yield Index = (Mean yield of the crop in a component areal unit) * 100 / (Mean yield of the
total area)
◦
◦ Relative Spread Index = (Area of the crop expressed as percentage of the total cultivated area in
the areal unit) x 100 / (Area of the crop expressed as percentage of the total cultivated area)
◦

CROP CONCENTRATION

• Crop concentration means the variation in the density of any crop in a region at a given point of time.
•
• The concentration of crops in an area largely depends on its terrain, climate, and soils and agricultural practices
of the farmers. Each crop has a maximum, minimun and optimal temperature. The crops have a tendency to
have high concentration in the areas of ideal agro-climatic conditions and the density declines as the geographi-
cal conditions become less conducive.
•

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

• Agricultural productivity is a synonym for agricultural efficiency. The yield per unit area is known as agricultural
productivity. Agricultural productivity is generally the result of the physical, socioeconomic, and cultural factors.
•
• High Agricultural Productivity:High agricultural productivity is found in the Satluj-Ganga Plain, the Brahmapu-
tra Valley, the delta regions of Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers. In these areas either the irrigation facilities
are well developed or there is adequacy of rainfall over greater part of the year. Wheat, rice, maize, pulses, sug-
arcane, and oilseeds are the main crops grown in the high agricultural productivity regions. The farmers, espe-
cially that of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh are no longer subsistent as most of them are doing
agriculture as agri-business.
•
• Medium Agricultural Productivity:The agriculture in these regions is mainly subsistent. Non-availability of irri-
gation is a major barrier in the enhancement of agricultural productivity.
•
• Low Agricultural Productivity:These areas are deficient in irrigation and characterised with low rainfall condi-
tions. In fact most of these areas are susceptible to droughts or floods, and are the less rainfall recording areas.
The intensification of agriculture in these states is low. Agriculture is mainly rain-fed practiced to meet the family
requirements. It is in these areas where the agrarian community is generally at a low level of subsistence and
many of them are committing suicides.
•

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AGRICULTURAL INTENSITY

• Cropping intensity has been defined as the ratio between the net sown area and the gross or total cropped area.
•
• The agricultural intensity depends on the geo-climatic, pedological, socio-cultural, and mfrastructural factors.
Thus, the agricultural intensity is generally high in the well irrigated alluvial plains like Punjab, Haryana, and
western Uttar Pradesh. Contrary to this, the agricuhural intensity rs low in the less rainfall recording areas.
•
• Agricultural intensity = Gross (cropped) area * 100 / Net cultivated area.
•

CROP COMBINATIONS

• Crops are generally grown in combinations and it is rarely that a particular crop occupies a position of total isola-
tion.
•
• The study of crop combinations constitutes an important aspect of agricultural geography. In fact, it provides a
good basis for agricultural regionalization and helps in the formulation of strategy for agricultural development.
•

Features of Indian agriculture:

1. Subsistence agriculture
2. Low productivity
3. Rain fed

4. Food crop dominant

5. Low agriculture investments.
6. Poor forward and backward linkages. Under developed food processing. Low agriculture mechanization.

Agriculture Performance Ratios:

• Agriculture efficiency:- Agriculture output / Agriculture input
• Agriculture productivity = weight / area
• In Indian agriculture system, the high productivity areas are those where cheap labor, good rainfall and
fertile land is available e.g. Lower Ganga plains, east coast.
• High productivity areas are those where good investment in input, machinery and High yielding seeds
are available like Punjab, Haryana, Kashmir.

Agriculture Productivity issues and solutions:

To improve productivity:
1. Seeds
2. Nutrition

· Judicious use of chemical fertilizers

· Use of organic fertilizers
3. Irrigation
4. Finance
5. Water use efficiency

· Rain water harvesting

· Watershed management
6. Modernization
· Modernization should be aimed at post harvest [storage, food processing] not at pre harvest [sowing, weeding]
else would lead to job loss.

Major crops of india:

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 1. Kharif – monsoon season; all except rabi crops
2. Rabi – winter season; wheat, gram,linseed, gram, pea and mustard.
3. Zaid – dry summer; vegetables and fruits.

Rice:

Highest area under rice in the world. Water intensive and major staple food.

Wheat:

Productivity highest amongst crops in india. Not water intensive.

Pulses:

Due to high MSP on rice and wheat the production of pulses declined. But due to high demand the imports dependence
increased.

To encourage pulses cultivation the Rajiv krishi vikas yojana and national food security mission have included
pulses.

Millets:

These crops need less rainfall but grown as fodder crops or subsistence farming.

Jawar:

It is a kharif and rabi crop. Suitable for dryland or rainfed areas. Third most important crop after rice and wheat.

Cotton:

Dry crop so not much water needed. Highly water retentive black cotton soil is most suitable for growth. Maharashtra,
kaveri basin are famous cotton.

Textiles:

1. One of the most important industry which is self sufficient. Labor intensive with backward linkages with agriculture.

2. Maharashtra is known for cotton due to black cotton soil in Deccan plateau. Financial requirements are met from
Parsis and Gujarathis.

3. Cheap labor from surrounding areas.

4. Mumbai was an agglomeration so inertia. Also ports for exports.

Sugarcane:

Tropical sugarcane areas are the northern plains. Sub tropical variety has low sugar content. Sugar factories shut in win-
ter. From northern plains the factories shifted to Punjab, Haryana, South India and Western India.

Western India sugarcane is an important crop because:

Page 121 of 193

1. Temperature is moderate due to sea which is favorable for sugarcane.

2. Skilled labor needed and western and South India have strong cooperative movement

3. Sugar from tropical varieties has high sugar content.

Oilseeds:

Demand is high but production has dropped due to farmers not preferring oilseeds over rice and wheat. Reasons are
high gestation period, low R&D in this sector, low MSP than rice and wheat, preference of consumers to palm and soy-
abean oil as they are cheaper.
Government started Yellow Revolution to promote oilseeds cultivation.

Tea:

Tea needs high rainfall but cant tolerate water logging. It needs cool tempertature in morning. High labor requirements as
mechanization isn’t possible. Its Preferably grown in mountain slopes. Darjeeling is famous for tea due to cheap labor,
proximity to ports, sloping land, heavy rainfall and cool temperature.

Jute:

Its grown in high rainfall and humid areas as its water intensive. Initially was the highest foreign exchange earner for in -
dia but demand declined abroad as synthetic variety was developed. However jute is more ecological and safe. Hence
promotion of jute based products is needed.

Spices:

India has been famous for spices since ancient times. The hot ,humid climate is suitable. Spices also need heavy rainfall
and laterite soil. This conditions are found in western ghats.

Government Program:

• Seed Mission:
• It was started by the 12th plan by the ministry of agriculture.
• Objectives:
• 1. To enhance seed replacement rate.
• 2. Upgrade quality of farm seed saved .
• 3. Increase reserves of quality seeds at regional levels to meet requirements during calamities.
• 4. Upgrade PSU seed producing agencies.

Swaminathan Report: National Commission on Farmers (2006)

• Chaired by - Prof M S Swaminathan

•
• The NCF is mandated to make suggestions on issues such as:
•
◦ To a medium-term strategy for food and nutrition security to move towards the goal of universal food se-
curity over time; protect farmers interest; increase productivity and rural credit;
◦
• The NCF recommends that "Agriculture" be inserted in the Concurrent List of the Constitution.
•
• The major causes of the agrarian crisis are:

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 •
◦ Unfinished agenda in land reform, quantity and quality of water, technology fatigue, access, adequacy
and timeliness of institutional credit
◦
◦ opportunities for assured and remunerative marketing.
◦
◦ Adverse meteorological factors.
◦
• Distribute ceiling-surplus and waste lands; Prevent diversion of prime agricultural land and forest to corporate
sector for non-agricultural purposes. Ensure grazing rights and seasonal access to forests to tribals and pastoral-
ists, and access to common property resources.
•
• Establish a National Land Use Advisory Service, which would have the capacity to link land use decisions with
ecological meteorological and marketing factors on a location and season specific basis.
•
• Set up a mechanism to regulate the sale of agricultural land, based on quantum of land, nature of proposed use
and category of buyer.
•
• MSP should be at least 50% more than the weighted average cost of production.
•
• State Agriculture Produce Marketing Committee Acts [APMC Acts] relating to marketing, storage and processing
of agriculture produce need to shift to one that promotes grading, branding, packaging and development of do-
mestic and international markets for local produce, and move towards a Single Indian Market.
•
• Conserving, enhancing and improving crops and farm animals as well as fish stocks through breeding;
•
• Encouraging community-based breed conservation (i.e. conservation through use);
•
• Allowing export of indigenous breeds and import of suitable breeds to increase productivity of nondescript ani-
mals.
•

Solved Question Papers

Q.The FAO accords the status of ‘Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS)’ to traditional agricultural sys-
tems. What is the overall goal of this initiative?
1. To provide modern technology, training in modern farming methods and financial support to local communities of iden-
tified GIAHS so as to greatly enhance their agricultural productivity
2. To identify and safeguard eco-friendly traditional farm practices and their associated landscapers, agricultural biodiver-
sity and knowledge systems of the local communities
3. To provide Geographical Indication status to all the varieties of agricultural produce in such identified GIAHS
Select the correct answer using the code given below (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. 1 and 3 only
2.
3. 2 only
4.
5. 2 and 3 only
6.
7. 1, 2 and 3
8.

Ans . B

Page 123 of 193

Q.With reference to ‘Initiative for Nutritional Security through Intensive Millets Promotion’, which of the following state-
ments is/are correct?
1. This initiative aims to demonstrate the improved production and post-harvest technologies, and to demonstrate value
addition techniques, in an integrated manner, with cluster approach.
2. Poor, small, marginal and tribal farmers have larger stake in this scheme.
3. An important objective of the scheme is to encourage farmers of commercial crops to shift to millet cultivation by offer -
ing them free kits of critical inputs of nutrients and micro irrigation equipment.
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. 1 only
2.
3. 2 and 3 only
4.
5. 1 and 2 only
6.
7. 1, 2 and 3
8.

Ans . C

Q.Which of the following is/are the advantage /advantages of practising drip irrigation?
1. Reduction in weed
2. Reduction in soil salinity
3. Reduction in soil erosion
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. 1 and 2 only
2.
3. 3 only
4.
5. 1 and 3 only
6.
7. None of the above is an advantage of practising drip irrigation
8.

Ans . A

1. Drip irrigation wets less ground, hence less weed seeds germinate.
2. Irrigation salinity is the rise in saline groundwater and the buildup of salt in the soil surface in irrigated areas.
Avoiding over-irrigation of crops by using techniques such as drip irrigation is a solution.

Q.Why does the Government of India promote the use of Neem-coated Urea’ in agriculture? (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. Release of Neem oil in the soil increases nitrogen fixation by the soil microorganisms
2.
3. Neem coating slows down the rate of dissolution of urea in the soil
4.
5. Nitrous oxide, which is a greenhouse gas, is not at all released into atmosphere by crop field
6.
7. It is a combination of a weedicide and a fertilizer for particular crops
8.

Ans . B

1. Neem has properties that check nitrogen loss at each stage. It slows down the process of nitrate formation and
hence excess nitrate is not available for denitrification.

Page 124 of 193

Q.With reference to ‘Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana’, consider the following statements:
1. Under this scheme, farmers will have to pay a uniform premium of two percent for any crop they cultivate in any sea-
son of the year.
2. This scheme covers post-harvest losses arising out of cyclones and unseasonal rains.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC CSAT 2016)

1. 1 only
2.
3. 2 only
4.
5. Both 1 and 2
6.
7. Neither 1 nor 2
8.

Ans . B

1. There will be a uniform premium of only 2% to be paid by farmers for all Kharif crops and 1.5% for all Rabi crops.
In case of annual commercial and horticultural crops, the premium to be paid by farmers will be only 5%.

Q. Consider the following towns of India:

Bhadrachalam
Chanderi
Kancheepuram
Karnal
Which of the above are famous for the production of traditional sarees / fabric? (UPSC CSAT 2014)

• 1 and 2 only
•
• 2 and 3 only
•
• 1, 2 and 3
•
• 1, 3 and 4
•

Ans . B

1. Chanderi is a tehsil of Ashoknagar district, main occupation of the people of Chanderi is handicraft. Chanderi sa-
rees are famous all over the world”
2. Temple towns like Kancheepuram are renowned for their magnificent heavy silk sarees of bright colours with sil-
ver or gold zari works
Chapter 9: LAND ISSUES IN INDIA
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Introduction
1. Net sown area is 141 million hectares. Per capita land holdings – 2 ha. World average – 2 ha.
2. British era land revenue system led to fragmented holdings, Zamindari systems, domination of moneylenders, large
land holdings, landless laborers were exploited.
3. After independence land reforms focused on elimination of intermediaries, tenancy reforms, ceiling on holdings, co-
operative farming, land to the tiller, prevent further fragmentation, consolidation of holdings.
4. However only southern states and Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra have been partially successful other state still fac-
ing problems of exploitation by intermediaries.

Agro climatic planning:

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Farming based on suitability of climate of the place and physio-graphical situation of the place. Agro - climatic divisions of
the country are based on climate, soil, water availability and terrain.

Objectives:
1.Maximizing productivity
a. Agro practices should be suitable
b. Technology should be used
2.Conservation of resources
a. Water use efficiency

b. Choice of crops
3.Economic benefits to farmers.
a. Diversification within agriculture
b. Non crop options.

Irrigation issues:
Types of irrigation:
1. Canal [30%] – oldest method of irrigation. But easy to construct in northern plains than peninsular plateau. But effi-
ciency very low. Problems of canals are high seepage, evaporation losses and silting. Also not all farmers can afford field
application channels from canal.
2. Tube wells [60%] – most popular technique as it can be used in any region. No additional infrastructure or evapora-
tion losses. But can lead to overuse and deplete ground water resources.

3. Tank [4%] – artificial ponds of 3 - 4 ha and more are located in southern India and peninsular plateau. These too are
susceptible to evaporation losses.

Command area development program: [Min of Water resources]

1. Development of on field infrastructure
2. Supply of improved seeds, fertilizers
3. Development of agro - credit infrastructure and services

4. Post harvest infrastructure development and forming Paani panchayats.

Schemes for irrigation:
1. Neeranchal – watershed development in the country [Min of rural development]
2. PM Krishi sinchayi yojana - expedite small and major irrigation projects [Min of agriculture]

Green revolution:
Launched in 1965-66 as high yielding variety program by Norman Borlaug. M. S. Swaminathan brought H.Y.V seeds to
India.
Objectives:
1. Manage food crisis
2. Achieve self sufficiency in agriculture

3. Modernize agriculture
4. Develop Agro - industry interface
Phase 1: Modernize agriculture practices
Use of H.Y.V seeds, chemical fertilizers, mechanization, pesticides, irrigation.
Phase 2: Crop specific and region specific
Target wheat crop and region Punjab, Haryana and western UP.
Benefits of green revolution in India:
1. Not a single incidence of famine after green revolution

2. Productivity increased four times after 4 decades.

3. Tube well revolution, agro income increased.
4. Development of cold storage infrastructure, fertilizer industries, irrigated lands, markets.
Disadvantages of green revolution:
1. Crop specific and region specific. Increased disparity of non wheat crops.

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 2. Rich farmer became rich and green revolution didn’t reach small, poor farmers outside the western zone like
north east, east UP, Bengal.
3. Extensive use of fertilizers, over irrigation led to salinity, erosion.
Green revolution needs to spread to other areas. This would need modification of technologies and selection of
crop. Need for creation of infrastructure, regulations, monitoring and awareness. Also focus on all crops and
non agro activities too. Avoidance of input intensive agriculture practices.

Government Programs
National food security mission:
Ministry of agriculture is handling it. It was started under the 12th 5 year plan in 2007. It has 5 components:
1. Rice – 10 million tons production targeted

2. Wheat– 8 million tons production targeted

3. Pulses– 4 million tons production targeted
4. Millets– 3 million tons production targeted
5. Commercial crops

Farm field schools to be setup for:

1. Farm mechanization
2. Resource conservation technique
3. Efficient water application tools

4. Cropping system based training

Agriculture extension:
1. Agriculture education and awareness
a. Farmer scientist linkage

b. Training and demonstartion

2. Veterinary education and research
3. Information dissemination
4. Training and capacity building

a. Agro education
b. Entrepreneurhip skill development
c. Arya – create opportunities for youth in agro.
Finance:

1. Kisan credit card scheme – gives crop loans, term loans and consumption loans. Can be used as an ATM card. In-
surance against death and disability provided.
2. National crop insurance program: Available for all farmers and against all calamities and it will cover all crops. 10%
subsidy for small and medium farmers. Subsumed schemes for individual crops.
3. NABARD’s initiative:

a. Long term rural credit fund: refinance cooperative banks and Regional rural banks
b. Price stabilization fund – mitigate price volatility in agriculture markets.
Markets:
1. Amend APMC act to amend direct contract farming.

2. Kisan mandi to allow direct selling of agriculture products to consumers

3. FPO- direct marketing of produce. Cooperative marketing
4. Unified agriculture market – eliminate interstate barriers for selling.

5. Storage augmentation: Private entrepreneur guarantee scheme by FCI with guaranteed full capacity storage for 10
years to a godown constructed by an individual entrepreneur.
6. Finance: State warehouse corporation and central warehouse corporation registered warehouses can issue ware-
house negotiable receipt to farmers who store produce in these godowns. These receipts can be used to obtain loans
at commercial rates or to trade at commodity exchanges.
7. Forward market commission setup AGMARKNET, an online portal to give real time prices of agriculture commodi-
ties.
Page 127 of 193
Solved Question Papers

Q.In a particular region in India, the local people train the roots of living tree into robust bridges across the streams. As
the time passes these bridges become stronger. These unique ‘Living Root Bridges’ are found in (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• Meghalaya
•
• Himachal Pradesh
•
• Jharkhand
•
• Tamil Nadu
•

Ans . A

1. Meghalaya’s double-decker and single-decker root bridges are unique in the world and are a sight to behold. The
bridges are tangles of massive thick roots, which have been intermingled to form a bridge that can hold several
people at a time. Khasi people have been trained to grow these bridges across the raised banks of streams to
form a solid bridge, made from roots. The living bridges are made from the roots of the Ficus elastic tree, which
produces a series of secondary roots that are perched atop huge boulders along the streams or the riverbanks to
form bridges.
2. The root bridges, some of which are over a hundred feet long, take ten to fifteen years to become fully functional,
but they’re extraordinarily strong – strong enough that some of them can support the weight of fifty or more peo-
ple at a time. The bridges are alive and still growing and gain strength over time.

Q.With reference to ‘Changpa’ community of India, consider the following statement:

They live mainly in the State of Uttarakhand.
They rear the Pashmina goats that yield a fine wool.
They are kept in the category of Scheduled Tribes.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (UPSC CSAT 2014)

• 1 only
•
• 2 and 3 only
•
• 3 only
•
• 1, 2 and 3
•

Ans .

1. Changpa under ST category from Jammu Kashmir

2. Pashmina: The Kashmir Shawl and Beyond follows the origin of the fibre right to the Changra goats, which are
specially reared by the nomadic Changpa tribes of Ladakh, and then its refinement at the hands of the Kashmiri
artisans and subsequent export and consumption by the rest of the world.
3. Changpa tribe’s present population is less than 9,000, and the adverse climatic conditions which force them to
keep moving 10 to 12 times a year. In Ladakh, merchants pay Rs.1,200 to 1,500 for a kilogram of raw Pashmina

Chapter 10: LIVESTOCK AND FISHERIES

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Introduction

Page 128 of 193

India accounts for 17% of the World's Cattle population.. 64% of the buffalo population and 4% is rate of increase in milk.
The per capita availability of milk is 281 gm/day. World average is 284 gm/day.

Rise of Amul
Amul

It started as a cooperative due to effort of Sardar Patel in Kheda. Dr. Vergese kurien led the cooperative during the white
revolution from 1950-1973. Amul became the first to make cheese and baby products from buffalo milk.

National dairy development board

It was founded in 1964 by Lal Bahadur Shastri with Vergese Kurien as its chairman and HQ at Anand. The NDDB
launched Operation Flood to replicate Anand pattern in other parts of India. This made India the leading producer of
milk in the world.

Operation Flood

• Phase 1: Mother dairies in four metros where production, collection, marketing from rural areas to metros.
• Phase 2: Thousands of sheds and outlets by milk cooperatives covered. Vaccination developed for animal
health.
• Phase 3: Increase infrastructure for procurement. R&D in animal health and nutrition. Feed, veterinary service,
artificial insemination and dairy education for union members.

Outcomes:

1. Increased milk production and increased rural incomes of small and marginal farmers.
2. Women empowerment as NDDB with SEWA established 6000 dairy cooperatives run by women.
3. NDDB developed indigenous expertise in field of animal nutrition, health, dairy engineering, food technology, arti-
ficial insemination.

NATIONAL LIVESTOCK MISSION

To meet the needs of fodder and feed stock for animal nutrition. The ministry of agriculture launched this in 2014-15.

Feed security bill:

1. Milk pricing policy and milk credit cards at minimum interest rates.
2. Gobar bank
3. Marketing for cow products.
4. Collection center for cow urine to enhance farmer income.

Veterinary issues:
Page 129 of 193
 1. Shortage of veterinary colleges and institutes.
2. Poor condition of semen banks

3. Need for universal vaccination for cattle.

Indigenous breeds are facing threat of extinction. Currently 83% of cow population in indigenous but this had
declined by 8% since 2007. This is due to cross breeding, farm mechanization, cultivation of cash crops, decline
of grazing areas.

The Indian breeds are better as they are suitable for arid conditions, drought related work, tolerant to diseases, can be
fed agricultural wastes and though milk yield is less but nutrition quality is better.

Schemes for protecting indigenous breeds: Ministry of Agriculture

1. Rashtriya Kamdhenu Breeding Centers

· Center for certified genetics and repository of germplasm.
· One each in north and south India.

2. Rashtriya Gokul mission

· Conserve Indian breeds in a scientific manner.
· Enhancing productivity of Indians breeds and upgrading germplasm.

Indian Fishery:
1. Marine fishery of India is lagging as Indian ocean is least explored of all oceans for fishery. 75% of marine fishery
comes from west coast. [Gujarat > Kerela > Maharashtra]

2. India's offshore fishery bad due to poverty among fishing community. Low use of technology and poor infrastructure
for storage and packaging. In addition, monsoon and cyclones hinder fishing.
3. Inland fishery production is more than marine also growth rate is higher [WB > Gujarat > Kerela > Andhra > Maha-
rashtra]. Reasons are large delta of Ganga and high demand, extensive lakes and lagoons or strong cooperative move-
ment.
4. India is the second largest inland fish producer and seventh largest in terms of marine fish production. Overall India is
the second largest fish producer.

Blue revolution in 5th FYP in 1970

The development of a fish breeding development agency for brackish water was created. The goal was to develop new
techniques of fish breeding, cultivation, export and marketing.

This led to increase in shrimp production. Nellore, AP became shrimp capital of the world.

Potential:
1. Breeding of high value fin fish or shell fisheries

2. Ornamental fishery
3. Development of organic aqua culture, water recirculating units, technology for inland saline areas.

Modernization:

1. Mechanization
· Finance
· Information awareness

2. Trade
· H.A.C.C.P and codex norms to be followed.
Page 130 of 193
· Packaging and cold storage infrastructure development
3. Quality control

· Hygiene at ports.
· Sustainable practices.
· Ban on fishing during breeding seasons, not using fine size nets.

Chapter 11: INDIAN MINES AND MINERAL WEALTH

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Mineral Belts of India

• The Chotanagpur Belt:

•
◦ This region contains almost 100% of kyanite reserves, 93% of iron ore, 84% coal, and 70% of chromite
of the country.
◦
• The Midland Belt:
•
◦ This belt sprawls over the states of Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
This belt is rich in manganese are, bauxite, mica, copper, graphite, limestone, lignite, marble, and lime-
stone.
◦
• The Southern Belt:
•
◦ It stretches over the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. This belt is rich in gold, iron
ore, chromite, manganese, lignite, mica, bauxite" gypsum, asbestos, dolomite, china-clay, and lime-
stone.
◦
• The Western Belt:
•
◦ This belt stretches over the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat,and Maharashtra. The belt is rich in non-ferrous
metals.
◦
• The South - Western Belt:
•
◦ This belt sprawls over Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. It contains the deposits of iron ore.
◦
• The Himalayan Belt:
•
◦ In general, the Himalayan belt is poor in metallic minerals.
◦
• The Indian Ocean:
•
◦ The continental shelf of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal are rich in mineral oil and natural gas.
◦
◦ The seabed also contains high grade nodules (poly-metallic nodules) of manganese, phosphate, barium,
aluminium, silicon and iron. The best quality of nodlules are found at a depth of about 4000 metres.
◦

Page 131 of 193

Introduction

Indian metallic and non-metallic mineral wealth:

1. Iron
2. Manganese
3. Copper
4. Mica
5. Chromite

Page 132 of 193

 Energy reserves:
1. Coal
2. Petroleum

3. Uranium
4. Thorium

Correlation between shield regions and metallic mineral regions:

1. Shield region: Aravalli, Singhbhum, Dharwad

Fig 1: Shield regions and Rift valleys of India

Page 133 of 193
 2. Metal mines: Chotanagpur and Dharwad plateau

Coal reserves are located around the rift valleys like Damodar, Mahanadi, and Godavari.

Page 134 of 193

 Fig 3: Coal reserves of India

Petroleum reserves are located along the Saurashtra shelf, KG basin, Bengal Bangladesh shelf, Brahmaputra
shelf.

India has 22 refineries 17 are public sector, 3 are private and 2 are joint venture. India imports crude oil and ex-
ports petroleum products. India’s refining capacity is more than the demand.

Fig 4: Petroleum reserves of India

Mineral regions:

1. Peninsula – bauxite

2. Himalayas – anthracite coals, limestone

3. Coastal areas – salt, thorium

The mineral rich belt in India has five locations:

Page 135 of 193

 1. Chotanagpur plateau
· Kynite, iron, chromium, mica and coal.
· Assam petroleum reserve.
2. Chattisgarh region
· Iron, limestone and coal field in Godavari - Wardha belt

3. Southern belt – East Karnatak + AP

· Iron – Bellary
· Lignite – Neyveli
· Mica, lignite, coal – Nellore
4. South west belt

· Iron – Ratnagiri, Goa, Dharwad

5. North west belt
· Petroleum – Rajasthan and Gujarat
· Pyala lake – depression in desert filled with water. When water dries salt and minerals are left.

Types of Iron ore:

1. Magnetite : electronic industries [70% - iron]

2. Hematite : iron and steel industries [2nd largest producer after Russia] [ 65% - iron]

3. Limonite : pigment for manufacture of paints [50% - iron]

4. Siderite : source of manganese and magnesium

Iron reserves located in:

1. Jharkhand – Hazaribag, Singhbhum

2. Odissa
3. Maharashtra – Ratnagiri
4. Goa
5. Karnatak- Bellary, Chitradurga
6. Chattisgarh – Bailadila

Manganese:

1. Jharkhand – all iron producing regions, Chaibasa – biggest

2. MP – Balaghat

Mica:

Odissa – Kodarma [largest in the world]

Uranium:

NPCIL extracts uranium and processes it to get yellow cake which is magnesium diurnate. Yellow cake then pro-
cessed to uranium dioxide in hyderabad [nuclear fuel complex]. NFC sends it to all reactors.

India's three step nuclear program:

Nuclear reactions:

Page 136 of 193

 1. Fission: U-235 is hit by neutron and it breaks into barium, krypton and energy also neutrons are released. This is
the reaction for nuclear reactors, atom bombs.

Natural uranium is 99.3% fertile i.e. U-238 and 0.7% fissile i.e. U-235. The fissile element has the ability to fission
in excited state. The fertile has to be converted to fissile by adding neutron i.e. Pl-239.

TABLE 1: INDIAN REACTORS

Heavy water reactor Light water reactors

Natural uranium as fuel Fissile uranium as a fuel
Coolant is deuterium oxide Coolant is distilled water
[collides neutrons and hydrogen and [absorbs more neutrons than needed
slow them down, this induces future and so enrichment of uranium
fission's] necessary frequently]
By product is plutonium, tritium By product is plutonium, tritium
Frequent refueling, less heat generated More energy/unit ; expensive
enrichment

Criticality of Reactions:

If more than one neutron available for collision then reactor is super-critical; if only one is available then critical and less
than one means sub critical. To reduce the rate of reaction a neutron absorbent like boron or cadmium is inserted.

Thorium is present in largest quantities in India. It is used in thorium based reactors to get energy.

India's three step nuclear program:

Step 1: P.H.W.R use uranium + D2O to get plutonium + energy

Step 2: Fast Breedor Reactors use plutonium + uranium oxide to get U-233 + energy

Step 3: Thorium based reactors use Thorium+U-233 to get energy

BARC processes used fuel in P.H.W.R to get reactor grade plutonium for fast breedor reactors. FBR use liquid
sodium as coolant and produce more fuel than they consume. FBR to be at kalpakkam.

Thorium based reactors can be constructed only after successful operation of FBR for 30-40 years.

Nuclear liability law in India:

1. Required for US companies to get insurance in their countries.
2. Supplier of defective parts can be sued for damages by the operator [N.P.C.I.L]

Page 137 of 193

3. The problem with the law is India is a signatory to international convention for supplementary compensation [I.C.S.C]
that doesn’t allow this. Private parties may not have the capacity to bear such damages. But this shall save tax payers
money in case of nuclear calamities.
4. To counter this deadlock the nuclear insurance pool was created with Rs.1500 crore by government and state
owned insurance. Now suppliers need to pay the premium. The pool will cater to operators and suppliers.
5. In case of damage, pool will be used to cater to victims, the government will bear additional liability of Rs.1100
crore and additional liability shall be borne by I.C.S.C.

Fusion:
Hydrogen atoms merge to form helium and enormous energy is released. This is the prinicple for hydrogen bomb and
energy from sun.

Indian coal:

a. It is Gondwana formation. Not coking coal or metallurgical coal

b. It has high ash fusion temperature

c. It has low sulphur content and high ash content.

d. It has low calorific value.

Problems:

a. Low and good quality coal found together. this leads to selective mining which is wasteful

b. Not enough high grade coking coal and imports are needed

c. Washing, dressing, blending of coal is needed as by washing the ash content goes down and transportation is eas-
ier.

d. Open cast mining leads to pollution and smuggling

e. Deep mining techniques are primitive so high casualty

f. Coal field contain coal bed methane but no policy for allowing joint exploration of both. Hence methane allowed to
escape this is wasteful.

g. Poor connectivity of coal to consumer locations. The productivity of mines is less as output per man shift is less
than that of developed countries.

Coal Gasification:

It is a technique of extracting coal from deep, unrecoverable mines where manual mining is costly or impossible.

Two wells are dug:

a. Injection well: water + oxygen + gasification agent pumped from one well.

b. Production well: Synthetic gas comes out.

Page 138 of 193

Advantages:

a. Synthetic gas is used for generating electricity, making fertilizers and hydrogen

b. Toxic wastes remain underground

c. Less water needed than conventional mining and hydraulic fracking.

Natural Gas

• It is found in sedimentary rocks where other hydrocarbons are trapped. It is either found alongside other hydro-
carbons like crude oil or alone.
• Constituents:
• 1. Methane – major constituent
• 2. Propane
• 3. Butane
• 4. Ethane
• 5. Hydrogen sulphide – waste
• Propane and butane are used in LPG.
• It needs airtight trucks for storage and leak proof pipes for transport. This increases capital cost. Natural gas oc-
cupies four times the space of a gasoline equivalent substance. In India natural gas exists alongside oil. No ex-
clusive reserves are found and sometimes natural gas has to be re-injected in the field to get the oil to come to
the surface.
• LNG terminals – NG is liquefied then transported to long distances. Liquefaction plant is at exporting country
and re-gasification at importing countries.
• Tight gas sands:
• They are present in the deep sedimentary sands. The reservoirs have no natural fractures so hydraulic fracturing
technique is used to extract gas. Initially drilling is done where a fluid is injected by which the gas comes to the
wells. Gas requires an expensive transport network in terms of pipes.
• Cross border pipelines:
• 1. Turkmenistan – Afghanistan – Pakistan – India [TAPI] – the pipeline passes through hostile regions. Inter-
national agency not willing to take responsibility to lay the pipeline. Since Turkmen law doesn’t allow that agency
to get a stake in the gas field that shall feed the pipeline.
• 2. Iran Pakistan India [IPI] – Iran constructed pipeline on its part and gave loan to Pakistan for construction of
pipeline. But due to US sanctions on Iran the loan was cancelled. This pipeline too passes through hostile region
of Baluchistan and the supply of gas can be cutoff by Pakistan anytime.
• 3.A deep sea pipeline from India to Iran is also being discussed. Another gas pipeline via Russia and central
Asia via TAPI line to India are in discussions.

Page 139 of 193

 Fig 5: Proposed Pipelines of Natural Gas

Solved Question Papers

Q.In India the steel production industry requires the import of (UPSC CSAT 2015)

• saltpeter
•
• rock phosphate
•
• coking coal
•
• All of the above
•

Ans .

1. Saltpetre (Potassium nitrate) is not used in the production of steel.

2. It requires 0.8 tonnes coking coal to produce one tonne of steel.

Chapter 12: INDIAN INDUSTRIES

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EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIES

Page 140 of 193

 • Industrial development is considered as one of the important indicators of socioeconomic and human develop-
ment. Before the rise of modern industries, India was known all over the world for its cottage and household in-
dustries. Indian muslin, silk goods, and artistic pottery were in great demand the world over.
•
• The arrival of English resulted in the decay of traditional handicrafts. The East India Company developed a policy
of export of raw material from India to Britain and the import of finished products to India from Europe. It was be-
cause of this policy that no industry could be developed in India before 1854.
•
• The industrial development in India started after 1854 when some cotton and jute mills were established by the
British in Mumbai and Calcutta (Kolkata) respectively. The cotton textile industry expanded during 1870s when
there was civil war in America.
•
• After the First World War, the Indian industries got:a good boost as India became the main supplier of cotton and
woollen textiles and liquors. The government gave protection to some of the industries.
•
• The period during the Second World War was a time of crisis as India got involved into war. After the Second
World War, the production fell down due to decreasing demand for industrial products, lack of capital, political
unrest, transport bottlenecks, and labour strikes.
•

COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY

• Textile industry includes cotton, jute, wool, silk, and synthetic fibre textiles. India is one the the leading producers
of textile goods. It is one of the largest and most important sector in the economy in terms of output, foreign ex-
change earning, and employment in India
•
• India enjoyed monopoly in the production of textile goods from 1500 BC to 1500 AD. Indian cotton and silk tex-
tiles were in great demand all over the world. It was the arrival of the British in India and the Industrial Revolution
in Britain in 1779 which led to the downfall of the Indian manufacturing.
•
• The industry suffered a setback in 1947 as good quality cotton growing area went to Pakistan. Consequently, In-
dia had to import cotton from the African countries.
•
• Cotton being a pure raw material provides a chance to establish textile mill either in the areas of raw material or
in the market. In India, most of the textile mills are in the cotton growing areas or in the neighbouring cities and
towns.
•
• The location of cotton textile industry is mainly affected by:
•
◦ raw material,
◦
◦ proximity to market,
◦
◦ moist weather,
◦
◦ capital, skilled and cheap labour,
◦
◦ transport, sea-port, export facility and the domestic and international markets.
◦
• The trend of growth in cotton textile industry has been
•
◦ Cotton mills and factories: earlier production was in the mills however it has moved to powerlooms
◦
◦ Powerloom :The decentralised power-loom sector played a vital role in meeting the clothing needs of
the country. The powerloom industry accounts for almost 83 per cent of the total cloth production.
◦
◦ Handloom :The handloom sector provides over 12 per cent of the total production.
◦
Page 141 of 193
Location factors for cotton in India

Maharashtra

• Availability of raw material: The state of Maharashtra is one of the leading producers of cotton.
•
• Climate: The city of Mumbai where most of cotton mills are located has a mild climate with enough moisture in
the air; so the thread does not break frequently.
•
• Mumbai is close to Egypt, Sudan, and east African countries from where the long staple cotton is imported for
the production of good quality of cloth.
•
• Labour: Cheap skilled labour is available in the state.
•
• Electricity: Cheap electricity is available and there is not much power breakdown in the state.
•
• Market: There is a large market of cotton products, both in India and abroad.
•
• Seaport: The seaport of Mumbai is well connected by rails and highways.
•
• Investment: There is no dearth of money investment in this industry.
•
• Entrepreneurs: Mumbai being the commercial capital of the country enjoys the presence of entrepreneurs who
are always willing to invest in this industry.
•
• Early Start: The state of Maharashtra and the city of Mumbai got the advantage of an early start in cotton textile
industry.
•

Problems of the Cotton Textile Industry

• Shortage of Raw Material: There is a shortage of raw material especially of good quality cotton to meet the
growing demand of the Indian textile industry. The fluctuating prices and uncertainties in the availability of raw
material lead to low production and sickness of the mill
•
• Obsolete Machinery: Most of the Indian textile mills are working with obsolete machinery. The outdated ma-
chinery cannot compete with sophisticated equipments.
•
• Erratic Power Supply: Power supply to most ofthe factories is inadequate and erratic which adversely affects
the production of goods.
•
• Strikes and Lockouts
•
• Competition in Foreign Market:
•
• Heavy Excise Duties: The cotton textile industry suffered because of heavy excise duties. The high rate of duty
on imported cotton has increased the cost of production of clothes
•
• Competition with Synthetic Fibres: The poor people of the COW1try prefer to use synthetic fibre clothes which
are rriore durable and attractive.
•
• Sick Mills: The machinery of these mills is obsolete which can only be replaced with heavy investment. The
slow pace of modernisation, outdated machinery, and old technology are some of the long-term problems which
need to be addressed.
•
Page 142 of 193
Iron Ore:

The iron ore is mined and then purified by smelting using limestone and coking coal. The pig iron obtained is then melted
using oxygen furnace. Here oxygen blows through it to get melted iron. Then other metals are added to get various
steels.

The location of steel industry depends on:

1. Source of raw material: the weight of finished steel is lower than the raw materials needed. Hence to lower cost of
transportation the steel industries are located near iron ore mines.

Earlier technique of steel manufacturing was coking coal intensive. Hence steel plants were located near coal
mines. The new technique is iron ore intensive and coal requirements are less.

2. Port based steel plants are located near ports due to ease of exporting to foreign markets. It is also feasible to im -
port raw materials usually coking coal from foreign countries for steel making.

3. Market based plants are located near consumers. These are mini steel plants and produce mild steel, alloy steel
and stainless steel. The gestation period of these plants is less and energy requirements are also less. They account for
30% of steel production in the country.

India is the largest producer of sponge iron in the world. Per capita finished steel consumption is 39kg less than
world average of 150 kg. China’s annual steel production is 10x that of India.

Cement:

One of the most advanced industries which is important for housing and infrastructure development.
India is 2nd largest producer of cement after china.

Fig 1: Cement demand in Indian Sectors

Raw materials for cement:

1. Limestone -65%, silica – 20%, alumina -5%

2. Slag from steel and fertilizer plants

Page 143 of 193

 3. Sea shells and gypsum, bauxite.

Cement is located based on the source of the raw material limestone. The limestone of weight 1.5 tons is needed for 1
ton of cement. Coal too is highly important as its mixed with limestone to get clinker.

Fig 2: Cement statistics of India

Solved Question Papers

Q.Consider the following pairs of National Highway and Cities connected

1. NH 4 -> Chennai and Hyderabad
2. NH 6 -> Mumbai and Kolkata
3. NH 15 -> Ahmedabad and Jodhpur
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC CSAT 2014)

• 1 and 2 only
•
• 3 only
•
• 1, 2 and 3
•
• None
•

Ans . D

1. NH4: Thane to Chennai via Pune belgaum Hubli Banglore and Ranipet
2. NH6: Dhule to Kolkatta via Nagpur- Raipur- sambalpur
3. NH15: Pathnkot and kandla via Amritsar- Ganganagar- jaisalmer
Chapter 1: CHINA AND JAPAN
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Page 144 of 193

China:

Plateaus of china are Tibetan plateau, Yunnan plateau and loess plateau. 1/3rd of china is mountainous and 90% of
china lives on the eastern coast.

Fig 1: Plateaus of China

Page 145 of 193

Climate of China:

Climate of northern china is Laurentian type in the north and china type in the south.

China type climate sees rainfall throughout the year, in summer intense heating in central Asia which attracts the south
east monsoon rain. In winter the Siberian plateau becomes high pressure zone and cold air flows outwards as northwest
winds lead to snowfall and rain on windward side of mountains.
Rainfall is also due to typhoons in late summer.

Fig 2: Rainfall in China

Vegetation in China:

High rainfall, long growing season and warm temperature are seen in china type climate. Evergreen vegetation have
broadleaved forest with grass, fern, bamboos and palms.

Intensive agriculture is practiced and China is the largest producer of rice, wheat, rapeseed, silk, cotton and groundnut.
Around 10-15% of China is arable.

Page 146 of 193

Rivers:

Huang He (yellow river) is a perennial river cutting across the loess plateau. It is the highest sediment carrying river in
the world that shifts constantly. It is important for wheat cultivation.

Yangtze river is responsible for half of China's agricultural produce. 35% population of China lives along it. Highest navi-
gable river in China. Shanghai is the world busiest container port and financial center of China. Hydroelectricity is gener-
ated by dams on the river.

Manchurian basin to the north of China is a major cultivation area. It has rich black soil and is major producer of soya
bean, wheat. Petroleum, coal, uranium are found in this region.

Fig 3: Rivers of China

Political Map of China:

There are 23 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 centrally administrative region and 2 special administrative region.

Coal reserve of China:

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Coal reserve of China is present in the eastern region. 2Nd largest reserve of coal in the world. 2/3rd of the coal reserves
are present there. Iron and petroleum reserves are located also in the east.

China is the largest producer of tin in the world

Rare earth elements are produced by China and it has a monopoly. 90% of it comes from China. Rare earth metals are
used in gadgets, camera lenses, magnets, solar panels and missile defense systems.
However refining the rare earth reserve of China a large amount of toxic acids are needed. 2000 tons of waste is gener -
ated for 1 ton of rare earth metals. China imposing tariff restrictions on rare earth to generate funds to reduce the envi-
ronmental damage. India is 2nd largest rare earth element producer.

Japan:

China and Japan are separated by the Korean strait, sea of china and la Perouse strait. Japan is at the junction of three
plates which have collided. The ocean ocean plate collision has created volcanic mountains in japan. The possibility of
earthquakes and tsunamis are higher in japan.

Fig 4: Japan
Most of the population lives on the eastern coast of japan. 80% of the topography is rugged. No large river system in
japan.

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 Fig 5: Japanese demography

Climate:

• The northern part of china is Laurentian type and southern part of japan is china type.
• Rainfall from south east monsoon in summer and north west monsoon in winter is seen.
• 20% land is cultivable so indoor farming is practiced. LED's are used for photosynthesis.
• Fishery sector of japan is well developed. It is one of the largest in the world. Deep sea fishing, aqua culture, arti-
ficial insemination and modern hatching techniques.
• Large continental shelf, temperate waters, indented coastline and meeting of warm and cold currents have led to
this.

Mineral wealth:

Japan is the largest importer of coal, natural gas and oil. 95% of iron, tin, copper needed for domestic demand is im-
ported. Copper, petrol, iron reserves are seen in japan.
Chapter 2: RUSSIA AND SOUTH EAST ASIA
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Introduction
RUSSIA:

It is the biggest country in the world with total 8 time zones. The ports of Russia allow it access to Baltic sea, Caspian
sea, sea of japan and Barents sea. Ural mountains separate Asia from Europe.

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West Siberian region is the extensive region of Russia. It is a source of natural gas and petroleum for the world. Central
Siberian region is extensive petroleum reserve.

The rivers are navigable but only in summer. They freeze at the mouth of the arctic region. Lake Baikal is the largest
freshwater lake in the world.

Fig 1: Russia topography

Russia has arctic climate most prevalent – Tundra and Taiga.

Potato is an important staple food and crop of Russia. Agriculture has limited growing period.

Russia is the largest diamond producer and 2nd in arms export. It has the largest reserve of natural gas and 2nd
largest in coal. It is the largest exporter of crude oil. 40% of nickel reserve.

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 Fig 2: Coal fields

Fig 3: Oil fields

Page 151 of 193

South east Countries:

Fig 4: South east Asia

Myanmar:

It has three main rivers Irrawaddy [rice bowl of Myanmar], Chindwin and Salween [largest]. Tropic of cancer passes only
through Myanmar in South east Asia.

Thailand:

It was never colonized. The main geographical regions are Korat plateau, Dawna range and isthmus of Kra. The
Mekong river [longest in SE Asia; known as lifeline of Cambodia] forms boundary between Thailand and Laos.
The other river is Chao Phraya [lifeline of Thailand].

Philippines:

The Philippines has 7500 islands with manila located on the largest one. Manila is the HQ of Asian development bank.
Worlds highest disaster risk country.

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Indonesia:

Largest archipelago in the world with 13500 islands. Java is the most populated island of the world. 2/3rd area is un-
der forest. Coffee, rubber and oil plantations are seen. Only this country has land south of equator in the SE countries.

Malaysia:

Western peninsula is more populated than the east. Oil, gas reserves and rubber plantations are famous.

Singapore:

Highest population density in the world. It is a city state and located on the straight of Malacca.

SE Asian countries receive rainfall from south west monsoon. Island nations get equatorial climate. Typhoons in summer
are seen.

Economy of SE Asian countries

Agriculture is the main occupation except in Singapore and Brunei. Wet paddy cultivation is done. Rubber, palm oil, co -
coa are crops grown here. Malaysia and Thailand have advanced agricultural practices but not in Cambodia, Laos and
Vietnam.

Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia are responsible for half of the tin production in the world.

Solved Question Papers

Q.What is the correct sequence of occurrence of the following cities in South-East Asia as one proceeds from south to
north? 1.Bangkok 2.Hanoi 3.Jakarta 4.Singapore Select the correct answer using the code given below. (UPSC CSAT
2014)

• 4-2-1-3
•
• 3-2-4-1
•
• 3-4-1-2
•
• 4-3-2-1
•

Ans . C
Chapter 3: WEST ASIA
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Introduction

Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, turkey, Bahrain, Qatar are countries. Arabian
peninsula is the largest in the world. In the eastern parts there is salt desert, western parts there is sandy desert.

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 Fig 1: West Asia

Tigris and Euphrates are lifelines of Iraq. Jordan river forms boundary between Israel and Jordan. But its a shallow, me-
andering river which cant be used for navigation.

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Fig 1a: Bosphorus strait between Turkey and Europe
Strait of Hormuz is between Iran and UAE connects Persian gulf with Gulf of Oman and then Arabian sea.

Page 155 of 193

Fig 2: Strait of Hormuz
Gulf of Aqaba connects red sea with Israel, gulf of Suez connects red sea with Mediterranean sea.

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Fig 2: Gulf of Aqaba and Suez

Countries on the western part have Mediterranean climate and on eastern part have tropical climate.

More than ½ of World's oil reserve and 40% of worlds natural gas reserve is found here. India's has top sources of crude
oil are Saudi Arabia and then Iraq. Top natural gas sources are Qatar and Egypt.

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Fig 3: Oil, Natural Gas in Middle east and World

Solved Question Papers

Q.Which one of the following countries of South-West Asia does not open out to the Mediterranean Sea? (UPSC CSAT
2015)

• Syria

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 •
• Jordan
•
• Lebanon
•
• Israel
•

Ans . B

Q.The area known as ‘Golan Heights’ sometimes appears in the news in the context of the events related to: (UPSC
CSAT 2015)

• Central Asia
•
• Middle East
•
• South-East Asia
•
• Central Africa
•

Ans . B

Q.Turkey is located between (UPSC CSAT 2014)

• Black Sea and Caspian Sea

•
• Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea
•
• Gulf of Suez and Mediterranean Sea
•
• Gulf of Aqaba and Dead Sea
•

Ans . B

Chapter 4: AFRICA
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Introduction

Atlas mountain range is the only mountain range in Africa. It is to the north. Sahara, Namib, Lubian, Libyan and Kalahari
Desert are present in Africa. Chad, Sudan and Congo basin are present in the central region.

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Fig 1: Africa

It lies mostly in the northern hemisphere. But only continent throughwhich both the tropic lines and the equator
pass through.

Rivers and Lakes

Nile river is the longest river. It is the lifeline of Egypt. Nile originates at lake Victoria and empties into the Mediterranean
sea.

Lake Victoria is at the border of Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania.

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Fig 2: Important rivers

Lake Tanganyika is between Congo, Zambia, Burandi and Tanzania and Lake Malawi is between Malawi, Tanza-
nia and Mozambique.

Lake Victoria, the second largest fresh water lake in the world by area. It is the largest tropical lake in the world.
Lake Tanganyika, the world's second largest fresh water lake by volume and depth. It is the worlds longest freshwater
lake.
Collectively, they contain about 25% of the planet's unfrozen surface fresh water.
Islands between Africa and Latin America are all British overseas territories.

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Fig 2: Great lakes of Africa

Economy

Cultivable lands are three times more than those currently under cultivation.

Low productivity and subsistence farming goes on in Africa and most of the land is un-irrigated.

Also there is low access to fertilizer and no awareness of soil conservation. Cocoa is the most exported agro product
comprising 70% of total exports.

Central African region has 50% of the water resources but only 20% of the population.

Foreign investment led to expulsion of local people. There were instances of land grabbing.

Chapter 5: AUSTRALIA
Page 162 of 193
Share Quote
Introduction

It is a Continent country with 6 states. It’s the Smallest continent but largest island.

The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated in the eastern states and on the coast.

Fig 1: Australia demography

Artesian basin of Australia is confined groundwater storage. It is the largest and deepest freshwater storage in
the world and responsible for water supply to the central region of Australia.

Murray and darling river basin are found in south Australia. Their basin forms the temperate grassland called downs. It is
known for dairy farming and wheat cultivation.

Sheep rearing of merino breed is done as they give high quality wool.

Australia has the world’s largest known uranium reserve. 10% of gold reserve of world is here. Argyle diamond
mine is one of the largest in the world. It has valuable pink and red diamonds.

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 Fig 2: Coal, Uranium and Natural gas reserves.

Great Barrier Reef: largest coral reef system. Coral is important part of marine ecology. It is also a world heritage site.

The maximum population is seen in the eastern part of Australia. Perth in west, Darwin in north are other major cities.

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Fig 2: Australian climate

New Zealand:

It has a north island and south island separated by cooks straight. Mount Tauhara is the dormant volcano with Lake
Taupo in it.

Climate of north island is china type and south island is Laurentian type.

Meat, wool processing and dairy industry are known here.

Chapter 6: EUROPE
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Introduction
In the east the Ural mountains range is present. Then the north European plain followed by plateau and then Iberian
peninsula. Below the plateau is the alps mountain range.

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Fig 1: European landforms
In the north we have the Bay of Biscay, English Channel, North Sea and the Baltic sea from west to east. In he south we
get the Mediterranean sea which is connected to the Atlantic ocean by the strait of Gibraltar.

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Fig 2: Gibraltar strait
Ruhr – Rhine region is one of the largest industrial regions in the world. Ruhr has bituminous coal, steel, manufacturing
and chemical factories.

Climate of Europe is steppe type in east, Mediterranean type in south, British type in north and taiga type in Scandina-
vian region.

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Fig 3: Climate zones in Europe

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Fig 3: Forest in Europe
European countries are largest growers and consumers of wine.

Brent Crude Oil:

Sweet light crude oil. Sweet means low sulfur content. Light means produces higher amount of petrol, diesel after refin-
ing. Major oil price benchmark for Atlantic basin crude oil.

Other oil: West Texas Intermediate [W.T.I] – sweetest and lightest oil.
Chapter 7: NORTH AMERICA
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Introduction

The continent has Rocky mountain ranges to western side and Appalachian mountains to the eastern coast. In between
the ranges the Great plains are present called Prairies “Granaries of the World”.

Prairies lie in USA and 3 states of Canada. They are temperate grasslands with nutritious grass known for wheat cultiva-
tion and animal rearing.

This continent has the largest coastline.

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 Fig 1: North America landforms

Shale gas reserves are found in huge proportions in the US.

The US has overtaken Russia as the largest gas producer and Saudi as the largest oil producer. This led to low
imports for US and boosted manufacturing there.

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Fig 3: Oil and natural gas reserves

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Fig 4: Shale gas reserves

Agriculture

Agriculture pattern from east to west is cotton and tobacco, followed by corn and soybean belt and then wheat belt in
prairies.

The Appalachian mountains are old fold mountains which are a source of coal – bituminous, anthracite.

Ocean continent collision led to ocean plate Farallon subdued under north American plate. This led to extensive volcan-
ism and formation of rockies. Colorado plateau is also seen.

San Andreas fault was formed due to transverse plate movement i.e. the north American plate moving south west and
pacific plate moving north west.

Rivers

Rivers of USA are Mississippi river, Colorado, Hudson, Rio Grande and Columbia river. The Rio Grande is at the border
of USA and Mexico. Mississippi is the most important river system in USA. It is the second largest river after Missouri
and empties into the Atlantic ocean.

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Great lakes are at the boundary of USA and Canada. Lakes are superior, Michigan, Hudson, Ontario and Erie. It is a
largest, freshwater glacial system. Together holds almost 1/5th of the earths fresh water.

Lake Michigan is the largest lake fully within a country.

USA has 4 deserts, 3 on the west coast and 1 along Mexican border. It has 50 states and 9 time zones.

Canada has a flourishing paper and lumber industry. This is due to temperate forests, hydroelectricity from rivers and la-
bor. It also has a large uranium reserve [22% of the world]. Climate is tundra and taiga type.

Fig 5: North American climate zones

Miscellaneous
1. Mexico city is the largest city in North America.
2. Only continent that has all types of climate and all types of biomes i.e. grassland, marine, desert etc
3. 24 countries are in it.
4. Mount McKinley, Alaska is the tallest mountain.
5. Death valley, California is the lowest point on it.
6. US second largest coal producer after China. India is 4th largest.Chapter 8: SOUTH AMERICA
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Introduction

Page 173 of 193

South America has three topographical regions: Eastern region, western highlands and Paraguayan region below the
eastern region.

In the north, llanos grasslands are seen. These are treeless Savannah with swampy grass. Salves are equatorial forests.

Amazon river system is the main river system. Petroleum reserves are present at the mouth.

Patagonia desert located on the rain shadow region of the Andes range.

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Fig 1: South American landforms

Equatorial crops are cocoa, avocado, coffee, pineapple and rubber. Tropical regions grow crops like corn, potato,
tomato, tobacco. Mediterranean climate is seen in middle Chile where viticulture and livestock farming is seen.

Andes is the longest mountain range. Angel waterfalls, Venezuela is the highest waterfalls.

Miscellaneous
1. Fourth largest continent and fifth in terms of population.
2. Sao Paulo, Brazil is largest city. Brazil is largest country.
3. Amazon is the second longest river after Nile but largest in terms of volume of water it carries.
4. Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia is the highest commercially navigable lake in the world and largest in
South America.
5. Atacama desert in Chile is driest in the world.
6. Puerto Toro, Chile is the southern most inhabitated place in the world. Ushuaia, Argentina is the southern most
city in the world.
7. La Paz, Bolivia is the highest capital city in the world.
8. Amazon rainforest is the largest in the world.
Chapter 1: INDUSTRIAL LOCATION FACTORS - TIMBER, PULP & PAPER
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Introduction
The important factors that determine whether a particular place is suitable for development of industries are distance
from raw material, nature of raw material, market demand, labor, energy, transport, capital availability and Government
policy.

Timber based Industries

Factors affecting the location of timber industries are:
1.

1. Raw materials: The raw material needed for timber industries are wooden logs. These are high weight loss raw
materials as only 40% of the weight of logs are converted to timber and the rest is discarded as waste. Thus to
save the cost of transporting waste materials the timber industries are located in jungles near the source of raw
materials.
2. Rivers: The transportation of logs is difficult hence flow of rivers is used for this purpose. The rivers have to
clean and pollution free. Thus transportation also determines the location of timber factories.
3. River direction: This should be towards the market.
4. In temperate forest the commercial exploitation is easier as small number of species are located in a region.
Softwood trees are found that are easier to chop.
5. The forest areas are connected by roads. Ground is covered by snow making it easier to push logs.
6. The winter seasons make agriculture tough. Hence farmers find lumbering as suitable alternative. The lumbering
activity is highly mechanized due to which small manpower is needed.
7. The proximity to markets e.g. US meant that demand would be there.
8. Government policy on Silviculture and strict regulation of timber industry ensure that reforestation takes place
and forests grow back.

Lumbering in tropical regions is difficult as:

1. Unlike temperate regions tropical forests have large number of tree species in a particular location. This made
commercial exploitation tough.
2. The hardwood trees found in such areas are difficult to float on water and thus difficult to transport.
3. The market areas are also far from these regions.

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 4. Transportation of timber to market is difficult due to inadequate facilities.
1.

Paper and Pulp Industry

Canada is one of the major newsprint producers of the World.

Factors:

1. The forest area is large enough to supply timber needed for the pulp and paper mills.
2. The fast flowing rivers ensure availability of cheap hydro-electricity and so pulp and paper mills that are highly
mechanized can run without problems.
3. Due to the low population density of Canada the availability of labor is a problem but high mechanization means
that industry can be located even in remote regions.
4. The rivers ensure fast transportation of timber to the factories and so easy availability of raw materials for the in-
dustry.
5. The World's largest consumer of paper is US and so paper manufacturers are assured of good demand.

Pulp and paper industry developed in Britain too due to cheap pulp imports from neighbouring countries. The pulp and
paper mills were located at ports to minimize transportation cost. Norway, Sweden and Finland too have a good produc-
tion of paper due to presence of rivers for transportation, availability of cheap hydro-electricity and mechanization due to
labor shortage.

Commercial Fishing Industry

The fishing industry is highly developed in the Northern Hemisphere in places like North America, Europe, Japan and
Norway.

Factors:

1. Plankton growth is needed for fishes to feed on. Plankton grows in continental shelves as the sea is shallow and
sunlight can penetrate till the bottom. Planktons also thrive in coastal waters due to high mineral content and
prefer cooler water.The best fishing grounds are located near continental shelves. The indented coastlines in the
Northern hemisphere means a larger continental shelf and more fisheries.
2. The other places where fishing grounds of the world are located where hot and cold currents meet like Off the
coast of Japan and US,Canada coast.
3. Market for fish was high in mountainous regions of Asia and Europe.The low scope for agriculture made fish the
chief diet in these regions. The demand for cod liver oil was great,whale oil was a chief source of fuel. Also since
fish gutting caused significant weight loss the processing was done near the vessels or around the coastal
plains.
4. The other factors are temperate climate is suitable for preservation of fish, indented coast provides site for ports
and hilly terrain makes it unsuitable for agriculture so people prefer fishing.
5. The lack of capital for investment in mechanized boats and large trawlers isn't available in tropics so fishing in -
dustry not developed.
6. The tropical fishes are of multiple varieties but in small groups so commercial exploitation easier. The oil content
of tropical fishes is higher so less desirable for eating.
The reason why fishery is developed in Northern hemisphere is also since the north has a higher population and so more
demand, it also has larger continental shelf.

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Fig 1: Continental shelf of the world

Fig 2: Major fishing grounds on World

Questions for UPSC Mains

Explain the reasons for the location of pulp and paper industry in Canada and US
Explain the reasons for the why fishing industry is well developed in Northern hemisphereChapter 2: INDUSTRIAL LO-
CATION FACTORS - COTTON, TEXTILE INDUSTRY
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Introduction
Cotton is a non perishable raw material with no weight loss when converted to yarn or textile and so proximity to source
of raw materials doesn't bring any benefit. The factors that determine the location of cotton industry are labor, proximity

Page 177 of 193

to markets, energy supply and availability of capital or finance. Climate to is a factor as dry climate not suitable for mass
production as cotton threads break and manually have to be joined again.

Textile Industry in Mumbai and Japan

Similar factors led to the development of textile industry in Mumbai and Japan. Both regions had black cotton soil needed
for manufacturing short, medium staple cotton. Port location in both these areas made import of cotton staple and export
of finished textiles suitable. The presence of skilled labor in Mumbai and connectivity via road, rail and sea was present.
Energy needs were met and water too was present for dyeing and bleaching. Population in Mumbai was high so market
for the textiles existed. The capital needed for investment was obtained by huge profits earned during American Civil
War.

Osaka in Japan too was a port location with humid climate. Labor was skilled but not abundant and so mechanization
was high. River water was used for dyeing and bleaching. Energy needs were met and since indigenous demand was
less textiles could be exported to other locations.

Rise and fall of British Textiles

Industrial revolution enabled Britain to get a dominant position in the textile trade. It imported raw cotton from India and
sold finished products to colonies. Humid climate in Britain and presence of Liverpool and Manchester port made textile
manufacturing possible. Mechanization reduced demand for labor. Energy needs were met initially from water and then
coal. Soft water for dyeing and bleaching was also obtained from rivers.

However dependence on foreign colonies for raw materials cost it. After the World Wars the dominant position in the
colonies was gone and market was no longer available. Cheaper textiles were obtained from other Asian colonies and
Britain textiles industry no longer got larger orders. The Business moved towards more profitable businesses like light
engineering, ship building and heavy chemicals.
The textile industry of Britain soon faded away.

American Textiles Industry

USA has two major regions for textile industry: New England belt in the North East and Southern Belt. In New England
proximity to New York and Boston meant that domestic demand as well as export could be done. The immigrants to New
York were used as cheap labor. However due to mountainous regions the factories couldn't be expanded. Today it
serves as a center for high end specialized fashion products.

The Southern belt however covered a vast area. It used slave labor but later moved to mechanization. Today the paper
mills could be used to manufacture rayon from pulp so even synthetic industry developed. This regions manufacturers
textiles for consumption of the masses.

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Fig 1: Cotton belt in USA.

Silk Industry and Development

Silk development or sericulture needs cheap and abundant labor. China and Japan during the medieval times had poor
peasants who could use silk production as a secondary income source. The European nations too saw silk production
but it didn't succeed except in Lyon, France. The European peasantry wasn't able or interested in the pain staking work.
France saw an epidemic that wiped out the silkworms and the silk industry never recovered. However Lyon is known for
silk garments even though there is no local production. This is due to presence of fashion designers and skilled labor in
France. Natural silk was non bulky, non perishable and easy to import from China. The high demand for silk accessories
also meant that market was available.
America too failed in the silk experiment as its farmers found more profit in other crops.
Japan was a major producer of silk but today accounts for less than 0.5% of production. This is because:
1. Labor in Japan moved towards more productive occupations like industry.
2. Demand declined as silk garments were now replaced by other clothes. The silk kimono is now worn in festivals
but this low demand can be met by imported silk.
3. As demand declined land, capital and labor from silk industries moved towards automobile industry e.g. Toyota.

Currently China is responsible for 80% of Silk production and India is responsible for 18%.

Factors for Chinese domination:

1. China is a leader in univoltine, bivoltine and polyvoltine silk varieties. The availability of cheap, abundant labor is
favorable factor.
2. Government policy allows formation of Silk Communes which have standard procedure and better output than in-
dividual farmers. The training and extension services too are provided.

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 3. Scientists had developed silkworm that could rear 7 times a year. The proximity to Shanghai port means that ex-
port is easier.
4. Sericulture and fish farming is done together and waste from sericulture is given to fishes.

Factors for Growth in India:

India has high demand for silk garments like sarees but the supply is limited hence it has to import from China. The
Southern states grow Mulberry silk and North and NE states grow non mulberry silk like Eri,Tasar, Muga. Mulberry tree
can be grown in any soil and weather condition. Labor need not be skilled and capital needs aren't high. Hence Silk pro -
duction is suitable for India.
1. Karnataka is leading in silk production due to climate being favorable to Mulberry plantation. The hybrid silk
worms used rears 6 times a year. The labor is also available. Japanese agency is providing technical coopera-
tion.
2. Kanchipuram has a good silk industry due to generation of silk weavers so traditional skill. Supply is from Kar-
nataka and good demand for sarees are there in India.

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Fig 1: Silk map of India

SILK TEXTILE

• Silk textile was essentially a household industry in the early stage of its development. The Mughals were very
much fond of silk clothes. The cotton goods used to be exported to the countries of south-west Asia and Europe.
The first silk mill was, however, located at Haora by the East Indlia Company in 1832. The industry made
tremendous progress after Independence.
•
• The state of Karnataka is the largest producer of silk textile.
•
• India is one of the important exporters of silk textile. Silk and silk products are exported to USA, UK, Kuwait, Rus-
sia, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and UAE.
•

Questions for UPSC Mains

Factors for the growth of cotton in mumbai, manchester
Rise of China as the world's silk capital?

Chapter 3: INDUSTRIAL LOCATION FACTORS - WOOL, JUTE, WHEAT AND CORN INDUSTRY
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Wool Industry
Wool industry needs favorable climatic condition like dry climate. The damp,cold conditions in Northern hemisphere are
unsuitable for it and so Southern hemisphere leads in wool production. In countries like Australia the climate is dry and
so agriculture not feasible. Sheep rearing has better opportunities as sheep can survive in adverse conditions. The high
number in which sheep breeding was done meant better economies of scale i.e. less cost per unit due to high quantity of
rearing.Thus Australia became dominant in the wool trade.
However due to low demand in Australia for woolen clothes most of the wool is exported. Australia doesn't have the
skilled labor for making woolen garments.

Rise and Fall of Wool Industry in Britain

Yorkshire was known for wool industry due to local source of raw material. Water supply and electric supply also pro-
vided. But later the wool manufacturing declined as it couldn't compete with wool imports from southern hemisphere.

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Indian industry also was concentrated in the northern parts as market for woolen clothes was in north. The Indian wool
was coarse and had to be mixed with Australian wool for making garments.Wool was non perishable and non bulky and
weight loss wasn't a factor so the manufacturers could be located independent of the raw material location. Hence indus-
try was concentrated close to the market.

WOOLLEN TEXTILES

• Woollen textile is. one of the oldest industries of India. During the ancient and medieval periods woollen clothes
were manufactured at the cottage industry level.
•
• India is not self sufficient in quality wool production. Good quality wool is, however, imported from Australia.
•
• This industry provides employment to 27 lakh workers in the wide spectrum of activities
•
• Problems of the Woollen Textile Industry:
•
◦ Shortage of quantity and quality of wool
◦
◦ Obsolete machinery
◦
◦ Competition with more advanced countries
◦
◦ Competition with synthetic fibres
◦
◦ Shortage of power
◦
◦ Low quality of goods, Lack of market and Strikes by the workers
◦

Jute Industry
Jute was grown prior to partition in India in Bengal. It was the only crop that could withstand flooding in the region. The
energy requirements for jute processing were met from coal fields near Bengal. The labor intensive technique was possi-
ble due to cheap and abundant labor from nearby states. Kolkata was the Capital of India till 1911 and so no shortage of
financial institutions for capital needs.Water requirement for dyeing, bleaching of jute cloth met from Hoogly river.

JUTE TEXTILE

• India is the largest producer and second largest exporter of jute goods in the world, contributing about 35 per
cent of the total output of the world. It is a labour intensive industry which directly and indirectly provides job to
more than 4 lakh people. The industry is, however, facing a tough competition from synthetics and its export
market is shrinking.
•
• The industry made tremendous progress in the later part of the 19th century. Subsequently, the industry was
boosted by the two world wars. The industry suffered a serious setback in 1947 due to the partition of the sub-
continent. After partition about 80 per cent of the jute growing areas went to East Pakistan (Bangladesh), while
nearly 90 per cent jute mills remained in India.
•
• Jute industry is mainly a raw material based industry. Most of the jute mills are in the jute producing areas of
the country. West Bengal alone accounts for-85 per cent of the tota] jute production of the country. The high
concentration of Jute mills in West Bengal is because of the following factors:
•
◦ Availability of raw material: Jute cultivation needs highly productive, well-drained soils and hot and hu-
mid climate. These conditions are ideally available in many tracts of West Bengal and lower Assam.
◦
◦ Cheap and skilled labour is available in West Bengal, one of the most densely populated state of the
country.
Page 182 of 193
 ◦
◦ Cheap water transport through the Hugli river.
◦
◦ Availability of coal from the Raniganj coal-mines.
◦
◦ Export facility through the port of Kolkata and Haldia.
◦
• Jute industry in India is essentially export-oriented. India stands second after Bangladesh in the export of jute
and jute products.
•
Challenges:
1. Majority of jute growing areas went to Pakistan after partition.
2. Due to opposition from labor unions Indian businessmen became reluctant to invest in modernization.The
Bangladesh industry grew and began to compete with Indian products.
3. Competition from cheaper synthetic fibers.
1. Lack of marketing strategy to showcase the benefits of biodegradable jute products to environmentally
conscious users in foreign markets.

Wheat Industry
Prairies are known as "Granaries of the World".

Factors:

1. Soil of prairies has high phosphorous content and so good for wheat. The centuries of rotting grass has made
the soil fertile. Topography suitable for wheat cultivation as wheat cannot tolerate stagnant water. Large land-
holdings mean that machines can be used at every stage this is important as laborers are less unlike in Asia.
2. Rail and road connectivity is high and even produce from remote regions can reach market.
3. Food processing infrastructure present at railways e.g. Grain elevator storage where wheat is cleaned, graded,
processed and sold. Railways are also connected to waterways for transport and export.
4. Canadian wheat board is a statutory body that is sole purchaser and exporter. Farmers are given schedules to
minimize price fluctuations and distribution inefficiencies. Quality control for exported wheat is seen.

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Fig 1: Wheat producing areas.

Rice Industry in China

China is major producer of rice
Factors:

1. The climate is humid and good rainfall ensures two sowing seasons for rice.
2. Sericulture is done alongside rice farming and waste from sericulture is given to rice farming.
3. Shanghai port is important for export and Yangtze river is an important waterway and connects many cities.
4. Labor is abundant.
5. Diesel operated tractors for ploughing, special rice planters and high yielding varieties of seeds.
6. Collectivization system promoted by the Government: Tier I was commune that had 3000 households and was
responsible for supervision of tiers below it. Tier II had 300 households and worked to lease land to teams, infra-
structure development etc. Tier III was team with 30 households that grew crops as per quota.
7. Reforms were made in this system and credit was given directly to farmers, if grains produced in excess of quota
then it could be sold in market. Farmers were allowed ownership of agro-machinery.
China has more area under irrigation and grows food crops on its best lands unlike India that grows cash crops.

US Corn and Livestock Belt

US farmers prefer to grow corn over wheat as it has higher productivity than wheat. The corn is used to fatten animals.
The meat is then exported.
Government also subsidizes inputs to agriculture. Farm holdings are large so mechanization is employed at every stage
e.g: Combines for threshing, aeroplanes for spraying insecticides.
Road, rail connectivity to farms and markets is high. Exports to foreign markets can be done from New York ports.
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Apart from corn soya bean too is grown as it has many applications.

Fig 2: Corn belt in USA

Questions of UPSC Mains

Why China is the major producer of Rice?
Why Jute industry flourished in India?
Factors needed for the growth of wool industry
Factors needed for the growth of wheat industry
Factors needed for the growth of US Corn and livestock industryChapter 4: INDUSTRIAL LOCATION FACTORS -
DAIRY, BEVERAGE INDUSTRY
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Dairy Industry
Milk is a perishable commodity and so has to be consumed soon after manufacturing. The cattle to be raised for milk
doesn't need large amount of space. Thus dairy farmers stay close to markets. The same goes for poultry products and
vegetable farms. As the demand for these is high and shelf life low the producers are located closer to the market. How -
ever when markets are located far away from markets the production policy changes. Milk is converted into more con-
centrated items that have higher shelf life like butter,cheese, ice-cream etc. This has an added advantage that price per
unit item is higher and can withstand cost of transportation and remain competitive. Dairy products when produced give
skimmed milk as a by-product and so this is used as feed for pigs. Therefore dairy regions are also known for pork, ba-
con products.
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Concentration is higher if the distance from market increases. 1 pound Cheese needs 10 pounds milk and 1 pound butter
needs 20 pounds of milk but milk to ice-cream doesn't have much weight-loss.

Dairy Industry: Zones

New Zealand
The climatic zone has led to formation of long plains of undulating grass which is nutritious and grazing can be done
throughout the year. The cattle rearing has been an occupation for generations so NZ has traditional skill. Government
policy of strict quality control over exports mean that products are respected in international market. Scientific breeding
practices, vaccination of cattle and infrastructure for storage and transportation of milk is available. Since the domestic
demand is low milk is converted to products like cheese, butter etc and exported.
European Nations
Countries like Holland, Denmark, Norway are known for dairy products. Here too the grass is nutritious and traditional
skill is present. Quality infrastructure for storage and transportation of milk is available.

However Mediterranean countries are net importers of milk as the grass is wiry and low nutritive value.
Africa
African nations are lacking in the transport and storage infrastructure. The dairy farmers don't have training or use scien-
tific practices. Tropical cattle have low milk yield and even if temperate cattle are imported their survival is difficult.
USA
The dairy belt and the corn belt are interdependent. The corn is used as cattle feed and the cattle are used for dairy and
beef. Chicago is the location of slaughter-houses. USA dairy industry is highly mechanized to compensate for labor
shortage. Cattle is reared as climate and terrain don't permit agriculture. Indoor cattle rearing is done. Farmer coopera-
tives own cooling and transportation infrastructure. The capital needed for investment is available from banks.

Meat Industry
Meat industry is based on cattle,pigs and sheep's. In areas of rough terrain agriculture is uneconomical so cattle are bred
and then sent to slaughter houses. USA is known for its beef industry that extends from West to East. The western states
have to rear cattle indoors and use corn to fatten them. Cattle are used for beef and dairy products. Slaughter houses in
Chicago then transport them to major cities or export them. But due to high weight loss cattle are now slaughtered in
western states and meat is sent to east.

Pig rearing in China is done closer to market like cities where demand is high. This is because pork is staple food. Pigs
can be bred indoors or outdoors. They can be fed anything. They multiply faster and can be prepared for slaughter
houses sooner.

However in New Zealand pigs are reared closer to dairy regions are skimmed milk obtained from converting milk to other
products is used for fattening pigs.

Poultry farming in India is done closer to markets as there is high demand for poultry products. It is also done in rural ar-
eas away from markets as it is a cheap source of proteins for people.

In USA too the farmers rear poultry in rough terrain where agriculture is difficult. The soil conditions don't affect poultry
rearing. Also contract farming is carried out by farmers for MNC's.

Horticulture
Fruits and vegetables are perishable items and so grown closer to market areas. Just like dairy and poultry products
there is a good demand for horticulture products too. Therefore farmers prefer locations closer to markets. Farmers lo-
cated away from market prefer growing of food grains as they have higher shelf life and can withstand cost of transporta -
tion.
California and Florida both grow oranges but in California they are sold and in Florida they are turned into juice. This is
because California has a good demand for oranges and Florida is located far from markets so has to concentrate fruits
into products that have higher shelf life and can withstand cost of transportation.
Factors affecting location of horticulture industry apart from markets are transportation and storage infrastructure.

Viticulture
Grapes can be cultivated in areas where cold isn't present and hence tropical weather is most suitable. The Mediter -
ranean regions have dense population and generations of experience and so skilled labor is available. This is needed as

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Grapes need personal attention and slight change in handling,manure, temperature, pressure make a difference in taste.
Also unlike USA mechanization isn't possible in Europe as terrain is rough.

Since Grapes are perishable they are turned into Wine. This makes them more valuable and liquor is in high demand
anywhere. The Geographical Indicator tag means the brand name is preserved.
Beer is made from barley this is grown in places that are too cold for grapes. Whiskey is made from rye in countries
where grapes can't grow. Both barley and rye can't be used for good bread and so instead of exporting the raw product
as food grains. It is converted to beverage that higher cost and can withstand transportation.

Questions for UPSC Mains

Explain factors needed for growth of Dairy sector?
Explain factors needed for growth of Viticulture sector?
Explain factors needed for growth of Horticulture sector?
Explain factors needed for growth of Meat sector?

Chapter 5: INDUSTRIAL LOCATION FACTORS - PLANTATION INDUSTRY

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Plantation Industry
Plantations are of three types: Tree plantations like oil, coconut, rubber, cocoa and coffee. Field crops like sugarcane
and banana. Annual crops like cotton, jute, tobacco and groundnut. Tree plantations have high gestation period and un-
like annual crops land has to kept unproductive for years. Hence it is not preferred by small farmers.

Cocoa Plantations

Cocoa needs wet and warm climate which is available in Ghana as it lies in the equatorial belt. Large labor force is
needed as mechanization can't be used cocoa fruit needs to be plucked with hand. Ports available for export to high de -
mand markets like Europe and US. Ghana doesn't have the market nor the infrastructure or skilled manpower needed for
cocoa processing into finished products. It doesn't process cocoa before exporting as cocoa loses flavor quickly so im-
porting nation needs to do processing.

Rubber Plantations
Rubber is obtained from Latex which is taken from rubber tree. A delicate incision is made without damaging the tree.
Then sap is collected by cups. This requires high number of cheap and skilled labor. Rubber trees can't tolerate cold
weather so tropical climate suitable also moisture needs are high. Vulcanization process was invented so natural rubber
found many applications. The synthetic rubber was invented by US scientists and it affected demand for natural rubber.
Malaysian Industry
Malaysia is an equatorial country and so climate is suitable for rubber plantations. The research and development has
led to newer techniques for collecting sap. Government policy encourages re-planting of rubber trees as newer trees
yield 3-4 times more rubber. Also strict quality control norms for export mean that quality is stable and product is re-
spected in market.

Sugarcane Plantations
Sugarcane has high weight loss as a raw material for sugar. Only 10% by weight of sugarcane can be converted to
sugar. The sugar mills that manufacture coarse brown sugar use sugarcane as input and so need to be located closer to
the source of raw material. Sugarcane also loses sugar content after cutting so needs to be processed fast. Sugar mills
produce Bagasse [energy source, pulp and paper industry] and molasses [ethanol] along with press mud [waste].
Bagasse is used for energy production.

Sugar refineries use brown coarse sugar and get refined sugar. As weight loss or shelf life isn't a problem refineries can
be located at ports where the use imported sugar or near markets.
Indian sugar industry is located mostly in Maharashtra and UP. Maharashtra has strong labor force and high area under
cultivation. Sugarcane cooperatives are present. Crushing season is longer and sugar content is high as weather is mod-
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erate due to influence of oceans.Capital requirements are met and Mumbai region serves as a port and a market for
sugar.
Cuba : Sugar bowl of the world
Hot climate and North east trade winds made climate suitable for sugarcane. The American capital was heavily invested
in bringing more land under cultivation. Fertile, calciferous soil is present in Cuba. USA and Europe are the world's
largest sugar markets and so demand is high.

Tea and Coffee plantations

Factors affecting Tea plantation:
1. Tea plantation is done in areas having high population density. The task of weeding, pruning, manuring and
plucking needs highly skilled labor. Since tea needs to be grown on hill tops mechanization is needed.
2. Even while drying, rolling, fermentation and packaging of tea skilled manpower is needed. So tea plantation is
done in areas that are having high population density.
3. Tea processing is done in plantation areas as high weight loss is seen.
4. Tea can't tolerate stagnant water so grown on hill tops and also can't tolerate cold.

British Tea industry thrived during the colonization period. Tea was imported from colonies like India, China and exported
to European nations. The post-colonization era was a major problem as colonies now directly exported to European re-
gions.
Tea industry of Darjeeling
1. Darjeeling climate has low temperature and morning fog that gives high grade leaf. Densely populated neighbor-
ing regions and presence of tea estates mean the skilled labor is abundant.
2. Soil is potash rich and has good quality.
3. Demand is high in domestic and foreign markets and proximity to Kolkata ports is a major advantage.
4. Since tea is grown on hills stagnant water isn't a problem.

The Darjeeling tea industry is due to British efforts as they developed an alternate industry as indigo plantations weren't
giving good results.
Coffee industry
Coffee is grown on hill slopes as it can't tolerate water-logging. It needs to be protected from excess sunlight atleast in
the initial stages. The coffee berry has to be hand picked and since plantations are on hill slopes the mechanization is
also not possible. Coffee loses flavor after roasting and so only preliminary processing is done in the home country and
remaining in the importing country.
Brazil Coffee Industry

1. Volcanic soil remains productive for years without any added fertilizers.
2. Labor is abundant in Brazil as it is densely populated.
3. Special rail and road transport for connecting estates with ports and markets.
4. Coffee has universal demand amongst nations.
5. Climate is suitable due to sea breeze and also tall leguminous plants are grown that provide shade to coffee
crops.
Questions for UPSC Mains
Explain the factors responsible for growth of Sugar industry in Cuba and Maharashtra
Explain the factors responsible for growth of Coffee industry in Brazil
Explain the factors responsible for growth of Cocoa industry in Ghana
Explain the factors responsible for growth of Rubber industry in Malaysia
Explain the factors responsible for growth of Tea industry in DarjeelingChapter 6: INDUSTRIAL LOCATION FACTORS -
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
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Iron and Steel Industry

Iron ore when extracted needs two elements for further processing like limestone and coking coal. The other factors are
water for cooling and energy needed for heating. Coal mines are usually located in the middle latitudes hence even iron
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industries developed there. The secondary industries too are located there as most would depend on iron or coalas raw
materials. Tropical latitudes hardly have any significant coal fields and so little industrial development is seen there.

Location:
1.
Near Forests: Charcoal was used as an energy source for heating the furnaces. Thus iron ore factories were located
near forests to ensure supply of wood.

Near Coal mines: Coal mines had the necessary labor available. Besides iron ore was found in coal seams.To get iron
ore of 1 ton we needed 8-12 tons of coal were needed. Hence it was easier to transport iron ore to coal fields than coal to
iron ore.

Near Coastal regions: As iron and coal were depleted the need for imported coal and iron increased. This made factories
to shift to newer areas in the coastal regions. The coastal factories depended on imported iron or coal and lowered cost
of transportation from factory to port.
Iron ore and coal producing regions have a bi-directional relationship. The wagons that transported coal to iron
ore regions would return empty so un-economical use. Hence the wagons would return with iron ore towards
the coal producing regions. Thus in both these areas iron and coal industries flourished. E.g: Pittsburg-Lake Su-
perior, Bokaro-Rourkela.

Technology:
New technologies available for steel production reduced the pull factor of coalmines.

Open hearth system: Scrap steel could be used and this reduced dependency on mines. Even natural gas could now
be used as fuel.

Oxygen converter process and electric smelters used less energy and now such mini-steel plants can be located
away from mines and towards cities.
Integrated Steel plants are located in Eastern India and have a high gestation period. They are integrated complexes
with the entire process from raw material processing to final conversion into alloys and steel products being done. Mini
Steel Plants are located near cities and they recycle waste steel to produce finished products. They avoid competition
with integrated steel plants by locating away from them.

Industrial Inertia
Earlier industries were located near to the coal mines but as mines depleted some have continued to remain in the same
location. This is known as "Industrial inertia".

Reasons:
1. Labor is available abundantly and skilled in industrial areas. But if the industry moves to a newer location such
labor might not be available.
2. Rail, road and transportation facilities towards markets and ports are well developed in the industrial locations.
The same facilities aren't developed in newer locations and so it is more convenient to import raw materials and
modernize operations.
3. Government policy is also in favor of of big industrialists as they have a large work force. The industrialists lobby
the policymakers to get suitable policies passed in their favor.
4. Secondary industries don't shift even when the primary industry might move. So the entrepreneurs are dis-
suaded from shifting their locations as it might affect their market base.
One important factor is strategic location of industries to prevent them from being attacked. This was followed
by USA and USSR after the Second World War as both shifted industries towards more secure locations. India
too used licensing to locate industries in backward areas as they might promote development.

Steel Industry in China

In China, the railways was in a nascent stage and couldn't transport coal to the factories. Electricity too was a problem in
China and so industries moved to location of coal mines i.e. North China.
Chinese steel industry was located at the North in Manchuria, Beijing and Wuhan province. China under Mao's leader -
ship wanted to transform into an industrialized economy from an agrarian economy. Mao ordered all communes to set up
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backyard furnaces and gave them high targets for steel production. However this experiment failed due to inadequate
training provided to the producers. This meant that the steel produced was non uniform quality. The agro laborers were
diverted to steel production and this meant that shortage of agro workers. Thus agriculture productivity declined and led
to famines. Forests were cut for charcoal production and energy source for fuel so this created soil conservation prob-
lems.

Automobile Industry
Automobile industry needs the support of primary industries like ferrous and non ferrous industries and also spare parts.
The production in an assembly line needs continuous supply of these and so automobile industry should be located in ar-
eas that are already established manufacturing locations.
Detroit became the car capital of the world because Pittsburgh steel industry and the Appalachian coal mines provide the
necessary raw materials like steel and coal for energy supply. New York is a major hub and is a market for cars also
Great lakes provide access to markets in Canada. Detroit has a long tradition of building machines and so industries to
support automobile industry like electronics and spare parts have emerged there. Skilled labor too is available.
Toyota Nagoya region also saw a large shift in production from silk to automobiles. Silk demand was declining and many
laborers moved towards automobiles and created abundant supply of laborers.Nagoya a port city facilitated exports and
imports of raw materials. The market also was present in Nagoya. Japanese automobile industry developed by reverse
engineering US manufactured cars.

Shipbuilding Industry
Shipbuilding industry needs the following physical factors viz. coastal area, deep navigable waters. Economic factors
needed are capital, iron and steel industry, market and skilled engineering labor.

Japanese and German industries too have developed due to the same reasons viz, coastal areas / estuaries were
present, Iron and steel industry located close or worked on imported iron. Demand for ships in national and international
market. Mechanization was used or engineering workers were present.
Questions for UPSC Mains
Explain the reasons for the growth of Iron and steel industry
Explain the reasons for the growth of Automobile industry
Explain the reasons for the growth of Shipbuilding industry
Explain the reasons for Industrial inertia
Chapter 7: INDUSTRIAL LOCATION FACTORS - METALS INDUSTRY
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Aluminum Industry

Aluminum industry is located close to bauxite ore regions. Bauxite is the raw material that is refined to get aluminum. The
process of refining is highly weight losing as only 1 ton of aluminum is obtained from 6 tons of bauxite ore. Bauxite is
found in tropics where limestone rocks are weathered.

Step 1: Bauxite ore is crushed, washed and mixed with caustic soda to remove impurities.
Step 2: It is then dried in large furnaces to get alumina.
Step 3: Electrolysis of alumina powder is done to get aluminum as huge amount of electricity is needed such plants are
located close to areas where cheap electricity is available.

The process of converting bauxite to alumina is done at the site of raw material.

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Fig 1: Bauxite Reserves

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Fig 2: Bauxite production

Cheap electricity was the deciding factor for location of aluminum refineries in Canada and Norway as cheap hydro-elec-
tricity is available. Australia has high reserves and also cheap energy so it can have a competitive manufacturing indus-
try. Nations that have high reserves but can't afford production prefer imports from China or Australia.

Copper Industry

Location factor for copper industry is same as aluminum industry however refining stages are different.

Step 1: Copper ore has to be concentrated and sulphur and oxygen impurities have to be removed. It is soaked in water
and mixed in oils. 2.5% of original matter remains and due to high weight loss such industry are located close to source
of raw materials.

Step 2: Concentrated ore is called blister copper and is 99% pure but still can't be used for manufacturing. Gold, silver,
lead and zinc impurities are present and have to be removed. Electrolysis is needed to get these impurities removed. In
this stage too weight loss is low and hence availability of cheap electricity determines the location of industry.

Note: Sulphur dioxide is a by product of concentration process and is useful in manufacturing of phosphoric acid. Rock
phosphate is imported and the sulphuric acid is used to get phosphoric acid. This is needed in phosphate fertilizers.

Challenges of Indian Copper Industry:

1. Special copper alloys are imported as technical know how for manufacturing them isn't available in India.
2. The supply to demand is mismatched and met through imports.
3. The technology for making downstream copper products isn't available and obsolete methods of concentration
and refining lead to air pollution.
4. Scrap metal based copper smelters are still not established in India however they use a fraction of the energy
needed by refineries.
5. Extraction of metals like cobalt and nickel during copper concentration isn't present in India.
6. Average quality of copper produced and high manpower to per tonne of finished copper compared to developed
countries is seen.

Note:
Lead and zinc also are obtained by concentrating ore using certain oils. This concentration is high weight loss
procedure. The second stage involves refining by electrolysis and needs high electricity. So location factors are
same.

Questions for UPSC Mains

Explain factors for the growth of Aluminum industry?
Explain factors for the growth of Copper industry?

Chapter 8: INDUSTRIAL LOCATION FACTORS - ENERGY INDUSTRY

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Petroleum Industry
Petroleum refineries are set up near three locations viz. Raw material site, Market place or Break of the bulk location i.e.
ports or coastal areas were mode of transportation changes from ships to pipelines.

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Location at Raw material

Petroleum industry will become useless after the raw material is exhausted. The cost of transportation saved is only 10-
11% so not much impact. Petroleum is not a high weight loss raw material and all by-products obtained at different
stages are utilized. However refined products have a high rate of evaporation so industry has certain advantages for lo-
cation near site of raw materials.

Areas of raw materials such as Middle east and Africa have seen nationalization and so tough for industries to be located
here. The political situation is also tense.

Location near Ports

Petro-chemical complexes are also located near ports as the facilitation of exports and imports is high there. The regions
like Middle east and South America aren't industrialized and so prefer to export crude oil or refined products. The coun-
tries like Japan that depend on imported oil also have refineries at port location.

Location near Market Place

Petro-chemical refineries located near market place too have advantage as they can switch from getting raw material like
crude oil from one place to another. Improvement in transportation like tankers, pipelines also make supply to market
easy. The by products too are consumed. Metropolitan areas provide unskilled labor and skilled labor for the industries.
Secondary industries too can come up.

Note:

Secondary industry like Nylon, polyester i.e. true synthetic fiber industry depends on petro-chemical industry. Benzene is
a base material needed for manufacturing of true synthetic fibers but this is volatile and toxic hence difficult to transport.
However manufacturing of synthetic fibers is done then the fibers are non volatile and can be transported easily. Hence
such industries are located close to petro-chemical complexes.

Natural synthetic fibers like rayon are made from cellulose or wood pulp. They are present close to pulp mills.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is also a source of energy but it has advantages over petroleum like cheap, no extensive need for refining
and lower carbon emissions. The disadvantages are transportation is difficult, pipelines are cheapest option however the
initial capital is high and once a pipeline is laid it can't be increased. If natural gas isn't consumed it is destroyed by frack -
ing.As it is economical to mine gas only where market is available and pipeline distribution is laid the location of indus-
tries depends on this.

Natural gas is also needed for manufacturing of ammonia. Ammonia is essential in urea based fertilizers. The other con-
stituent of urea based fertilizers is Neptha obtained from crude oil refining. Thus fertilizer industry is located near Natural
gas refineries.

Labor requirement is less and skilled labor is needed. But skilled labor is highly mobile and so can migrate to townships
specifically built for petro-chemical employees.

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