Chapter 1 Structure of Earth and types of rocks
What is Geography?
• Geography is the study of Earth, its environments, and how people and nature interact and
change over time.
• Geographers look for patterns in natural and human-made changes on the land.
Two Main Parts of Geography
1. Physical Geography:
o Studies natural features like oceans, rivers, weather, and rocks.
o Helps us understand natural disasters like earthquakes and tsunamis.
2. Human Geography:
o Studies people, where they live, and how they make a living.
o Looks at population growth and how humans affect the environment.
Why is Geography Important?
• It helps us make decisions about daily life, like where to live or grow food.
• Teaches us about Earth's history, resources, and problems like climate change.
• Helps us understand the world and find solutions for global issues.
Tools of Geography
1. Maps:
o Show locations of places and how they relate to other places.
o Easy to carry and can be drawn in different sizes (scales).
o Disadvantage: Maps can distort shapes because Earth is round.
2. Globes:
o A 3D model of Earth that shows accurate shapes and distances.
o Not as portable as maps.
3. Map Projections:
o Ways to draw Earth's round surface on flat paper.
o All projections have some distortion, but they are useful for specific purposes.
Geography helps us explore, solve problems, and be informed about our world!
How Are Maps Read?
Parts of a Map
1. Title: Tells what the map shows.
2. Border: Frames the map neatly.
3. Compass: Shows directions (North, South, East, West).
4. Legend (Key): Explains symbols like lines, colors, or shapes used on the map.
5. Scale: Shows the distance on the map compared to real life.
Tools for Making Maps
1. Satellites:
o Landsat: Takes photos of the whole Earth every 16 days.
o GOES: A weather satellite that monitors the same area of Earth for weather
updates.
2. Geographic Information System (GIS):
o Combines digital map data to create special maps.
o Helps find locations for projects like airports or mineral exploration.
3. Global Positioning System (GPS):
o Uses 24 satellites to give exact location (latitude, longitude).
o Helps track objects and find places.
4. Remote Sensing:
o Collects information about an area without touching it.
o Uses cameras and sensors, often from drones or satellites, to create maps.
The Inside of the Earth
Layers of the Earth
1. Crust:
o The outer layer.
o Continental Crust: Thick parts under land (about 35 km).
o Oceanic Crust: Thin parts under oceans (as thin as 8 km).
o Temperature increases with depth, reaching up to 1000°C where it meets the
mantle.
2. Mantle:
o Beneath the crust, thicker and hotter.
3. Core:
o Outer Core: Liquid.
o Inner Core: Solid, extremely hot.
Tectonic Plates
• The crust is broken into pieces called tectonic plates.
• These plates float on the mantle and can move, causing earthquakes and volcanoes.
Why Are These Tools and Maps Important?
• GIS: Helps solve problems and plan better for cities and resources.
• GPS: Tracks locations and monitors changes in the environment.
• Remote Sensing: Helps in disaster management and urban planning.
Understanding maps and Earth’s structure helps us stay prepared and make smart
decisions!
The Mantle and Core
The Mantle
• The mantle is mostly solid and lies between the Earth's core and crust.
• It is 2,900 km thick and makes up 24% of Earth's volume.
• Made of solid but flexible rock that can flow slowly over time.
The Core
• The core has a radius of 3,485 km and is made of iron and nickel (both magnetic).
• Inner Core: Solid.
• Outer Core: Liquid.
• The movement of metals in the core creates Earth's magnetic field, causing the North and
South Poles to shift slightly each year.
• Fun Fact: 780,000 years ago, the magnetic poles were opposite!
Layers of the Earth
Layer Description Material Depth
Continental Thick layer under land, ~35 km Solid rocks (mainly granite
0–35 km
Crust thick and silica)
Thin layer under oceans, ~8–10 Solid rocks (mainly basalt,
Oceanic Crust 0–10 km
km thick denser)
Lithosphere Crust + upper mantle Rigid rock 0–200 km
Asthenosphere Upper mantle, soft and flexible Plastic-like material 200–700 km
700–2,890
Lower Mantle Just above the core, solid but hot Rigid rock
km
2,890–5,155
Outer Core Liquid layer of the core Molten iron and nickel
km
5,155–6,371
Inner Core Solid central part of Earth Iron and nickel
km
Tectonic Plates and Movement
What Are Tectonic Plates?
• Earth’s crust and upper mantle (lithosphere) are broken into large pieces called tectonic
plates.
• Plates float on the soft, flexible layer below them (asthenosphere).
Continental Drift
• In 1912, Alfred Wegener proposed the Continental Drift Theory.
• He said all continents were once part of a supercontinent called Pangaea.
• Pangaea broke apart into smaller continents that drifted away over time.
Theory of Plate Tectonics
• Supported by fossil evidence found on different continents.
• Explains how plates move slowly (0–100 mm per year) over the asthenosphere.
Types of Plate Boundaries
1. Transform (Conservative) Boundary:
o Plates slide past each other without changing the land.
o Example: San Andreas Fault in California.
2. Other Boundaries (not detailed here):
o Plates can move apart, come together, or one can slide under another.
Fault Lines and Plate Boundaries
What Are Fault Lines?
• Fault lines are deep cracks in the Earth's crust.
• They form when tectonic plates move at different speeds or directions.
• Soft rocks compress to form fold mountains.
• Hard rocks break or crack under pressure, creating fault lines.
• These movements often cause earthquakes.
Types of Plate Boundaries
1. Divergent Boundary
o Plates move apart from each other.
o Usually forms between oceanic plates.
o Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge where the African Plate moves away from the South
and North American Plates.
o Magma rises, creating underwater ridges.
2. Convergent Boundary
o Plates push against each other.
o Example: Himalayas, formed by the Indian Plate colliding with the Eurasian Plate.
The Indian Subcontinent and Gondwana
• 200 million years ago, India was part of a supercontinent called Gondwana.
• About 100 million years ago, India broke away from Gondwana and moved northward.
• This movement caused India to collide with Asia, forming the Himalayas.
Key Facts to Remember
• Fault lines: Cracks in hard rocks due to pressure.
• Divergent boundaries: Plates move apart; magma rises to form ridges.
• Convergent boundaries: Plates push together; mountains like the Himalayas form.
The Movement of the Indian Plate
• The Indian Plate moved 5-16 cm per year initially, faster than most tectonic plates.
• It is still moving northwards into Asia, but much slower now.
• This movement causes the Himalayas to rise by 5 cm per year.
• Scientists believe volcanic activity melted part of the Indian Plate, helping it move faster.
What is Rock?
• Rock is the solid material that makes up most of the Earth's surface.
• Porous rocks: Have rounded grains with spaces for water to seep through.
• Non-porous rocks: Grains fit tightly together, so water cannot seep through.
What are Rocks Made of?
• Rocks are made of grains of minerals like quartz, calcium carbonate, and feldspar.
• Minerals are inorganic (not from living things).
• Some rocks, like coal and limestone, contain bits of plants and animals.
Examples of Rocks
1. Coal:
o Formed from dead plants over millions of years.
o Made of carbon (organic material from trees).
2. Limestone and Sandstone:
o Used as construction materials.
o Sandstone is porous and acts as a water filter.
o Often found above aquifers or petroleum reservoirs.
3. Chalk:
o Made of calcite (calcium carbonate).
o Formed when tiny sea creatures' shells compress on the seabed.
o Porous, soft, and crumbles easily.
o Used in chemical industries.
Erosion of Chalk Cliffs
• Chalk cliffs like those at Beachy Head, UK, are 162 meters high.
• Waves erode the base of the cliffs, causing slabs to break off.
• Water freezing in cracks can make the cliffs collapse.
• Example: A large collapse occurred in 2001 after water froze in the cracks.
Key Points to Remember
• Indian Plate: Moves slower now but still raises the Himalayas.
• Porous vs. Non-porous rocks: Porous rocks let water pass; non-porous do not.
• Coal: Formed from plants under pressure over millions of years.
• Chalk: Soft, porous, made of sea creature shells, and used in industries.
• Erosion: Waves and freezing water weaken chalk cliffs, causing collapses.
What Are Sedimentary Rocks?
• Sedimentary rocks form when sand, gravel, and rock pieces are deposited in layers.
• These layers are compacted (pressed together) and cemented (stuck together by
minerals).
• They often form under water like in rivers, lakes, or seas.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
1. Clastic Rocks:
o Made from broken pieces of other rocks.
o Examples: Shale and Sandstone.
2. Chemical Rocks:
o Formed when dissolved minerals are left behind as water evaporates.
o Example: Limestone.
3. Organic Rocks:
o Made from the remains of plants and animals.
o Example: Coal, which forms when dead plants are buried and pressed over millions
of years.
How Are Sedimentary Rocks Formed?
1. Sedimentation: Bits of rock drop onto the bottom of rivers, lakes, or seas.
2. Compaction: Layers build up and press down on the layers below.
3. Cementation: Minerals glue the layers together, forming rock.
Key Facts About Sedimentary Rocks
• Most of the Earth's surface rocks are sedimentary, even though the crust is mostly made
of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• Shale, sandstone, and limestone are the most common sedimentary rocks.
• Sediment can build up very slowly or very quickly, depending on the location.
Limestone
• Limestone is a sedimentary rock made of calcium carbonate.
• It often contains animal skeletons and is soluble in water and weak acids.
• Limestone is used to make cement and is found across Pakistan.
Limestone Landscapes
• Limestone areas have caves, caverns, and sinkholes.
• Water seeps through cracks in limestone, eroding it and forming holes.
• Features like stalactites (hanging from the roof) and stalagmites (growing from the floor)
form when water leaves mineral deposits in caves.
How Do Stalactites and Stalagmites Form?
1. Water drips into a cave and evaporates.
2. Minerals are left behind, forming:
o Stalactites: Hang from the roof.
o Stalagmites: Form on the floor.
3. If they join, they form a pillar.
Interesting Facts
• The Salt Range in Punjab has large deposits of rock salt, also called halite.
• Limestone areas can have disappearing rivers and streams because water drains through
sinkholes.
Importance of Rocks in Everyday Life
• Buildings and Monuments:
o Marble is used in famous landmarks like Quaid-e-Azam's tomb in Karachi and
Naulakha Pavilion in Lahore.
o Marble is also used in homes for tiles and countertops.
o Different regions in Pakistan produce marble in various colours and patterns,
including rare green onyx from Balochistan.
• Making Steel and Tools:
o Rocks like magnetite (iron ore) are used to make steel, used in:
▪ Buildings, bridges, trains, and ships.
▪ Tools, nails, and kitchen appliances.
• Fertilizers:
o Phosphate rock is used to make fertilizers for agriculture.
• Cosmetics:
o Minerals like iron oxide and talc from rocks are used in makeup.
Uses of Different Types of Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks:
• Basalt: Used in construction and statues.
• Granite: Popular for kitchen countertops and flooring because it is stain-resistant and
durable.
2. Sedimentary Rocks:
• Coal: Widely used as a fuel source.
• Limestone: Used in cement, steel manufacturing, and water purification.
• Sandstone: Used for statues, garden benches, and flower beds.
3. Metamorphic Rocks:
• Marble: Used in sculptures, floor tiles, and staircases. Powdered marble is added to
animal feed for calcium.
• Slate: Used for roof tiles.
Mining in Pakistan
• Pakistan has precious minerals like ruby, topaz, emerald, and valuable materials such as
coal, gold, and iron ore.
• Sustainable mining methods:
o Use fewer chemicals.
o Rehabilitate land after mining.
o Ensure resources are available for future generations.
What Is Soil?
• Soil is a mix of:
o Minerals (from rock fragments).
o Organic material (from plants and animals).
• How Soil Forms:
o Soil develops over thousands of years as rocks break down.
o Soil changes as new sediment is added.
Soil Layers (Soil Horizons)
1. O: Organic material from plants and animals.
2. A: Minerals dissolved by water.
3. B: Deposited minerals.
4. C: Weathered rock.
5. R: Solid, unweathered rock.
Fact About Mineral Exploration
• Finding rare minerals is crucial for economies; missing them can be very costly.
• Modern Technology makes it easier:
o GIS (Geographical Information System): Locates minerals.
o ENVIS (Environmental Information Software): Helps identify environmental
impacts.
o GPS: Provides accurate locations for deposits.
Types of Soil
1. Clay Soil
• Particles: Very small, smooth, and sticky when wet.
• Water: Holds water but drains poorly (can become waterlogged).
• Other Features:
o Swells when wet and cracks when dry.
o Holds nutrients well.
o Feels smooth and quiet when rubbed.
2. Silt Soil
• Particles: Medium-sized, silky, and squeaky when rubbed.
• Water: Holds some water but drains better than clay.
• Other Features:
o Forms small lumps that easily fall apart.
o Swells and shrinks a little.
o Holds nutrients moderately.
3. Sand Soil
• Particles: Large, gritty, and scratchy when rubbed.
• Water: Drains quickly and dries fast.
• Other Features:
o Does not hold nutrients well.
o Does not swell or shrink.
o Warms and cools quickly.
4. Chalk Soil
• Origin: Comes from chalk or limestone rock.
• Water: Drains easily but does not hold water.
• Other Features:
o Rich in nutrients.
o Quite alkaline.
o Warms and cools quickly.
5. Loam Soil
• Composition: Mix of clay, silt, sand, and humus.
• Water: Holds water but does not get waterlogged.
• Other Features:
o Rich in nutrients.
o Warms and cools quickly.
o Slightly acidic.
6. Peat Soil
• Colour: Dark brown.
• Composition: Contains lots of decayed plants and animals (organic material).
• Other Features:
o Can hold water well.
o Quite acidic.
o Crumbles easily.
7. Terra Rossa Soil
• Colour: Reddish.
• Origin: Found in the Mediterranean region, formed from chemical weathering of dolomite
and limestone.
• Other Features:
o Clayey or silty texture.
o Rich in nutrients under oxidizing conditions.
