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LITERACY IN INDIA: SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN
A project submitted to
Army Institute of Law, Mohali
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
Degree of B.A L.L.B
Submitted To: Submitted By:
Dr. Amita Sharma Rajat Srivastava
(Sociology) Roll No.2321
Punjabi University Patiala (Punjab)
Session-2023
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DECLARATION
It is certified that the project work presented in this report entitled
“LITERACY IN INDIA: SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN”
embodies the results of the original research work carried out by
me. All the ideas and references have been duly acknowledged.
NAME: RAJAT SRIVASTAVA
ROLL NUMBER: 2321
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In preparation for my assignment, I had to take the help and
guidance of some respected persons, who deserve my deepest
gratitude. The completion of this assignment gave me much
pleasure,
I would like to show my gratitude towards Dr. Amita Sharma for
giving me guidance for assignments throughout numerous
consultations. I would also like to extend my gratitude to all
those who have directly and indirectly guided me in writing this
assignment.
I would also like to thank my family and peers, whose constant
encouragement kept me motivated to work toward the
completion of this project. I would also like to extend my
gratitude towards the Army Institute Of Law, Mohali, and Dr.
Tejinder Kaur, the Principal of, the Army Institute Of Law,
Mohali for giving me this golden opportunity of making a
project on such an interesting and engaging topic.
NAME: RAJAT SRIVASTAVA
ROLL NUMBER - 2321
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INDEX
SERIAL TOPIC PAGE
NUMBER NUMBER
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 Is the Idea of Literacy a Recent 2
Development?
3 Impact of British on Literacy 3
4 Literacy Assessment through Census 4
5 Causes for Low Literacy 6
6 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 7
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY 9
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INTRODUCTION
In our constantly changing world, it's crucial to grasp a fundamental aspect that contributes to
the comprehensive growth of individuals from the very beginning. Developing and enhancing
one's literacy abilities can undoubtedly be viewed as a fundamental aspect of the right to
education, particularly in today's rapidly evolving landscape.
Literacy serves as a catalyst for sustainable progress, facilitating increased engagement of the
entire populace by fostering improved childcare, diminished poverty, and the broadening of
life prospects.
Gaining a precise comprehension of the concept of literacy holds significance. “ Literacy is
the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed
and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of
learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and
potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society1."
As of the 2011 Census data, individuals aged seven and older who possess reading and
writing skills are classified as literate. The overall literacy rate in India is 74.04%. Kerala
boasts the highest literacy rate in the country, reaching 93.91%, whereas Bihar has the lowest
literacy rate at 63.82%. 2The Ministry of Home Affairs carries out a census every decade in
India.
Over a quarter of the nation's population remains unable to read and write. Among this group,
nearly one-fifth of males lack literacy skills, while over one-third of females are in the same
situation. The sluggish progress of improving female literacy in comparison to male literacy
is a serious concern.
Despite various endeavors at both national and international levels, a notable number of
women continue to lack basic literacy, which hinders development initiatives. The
advancement of women's literacy is crucial, as it has the potential to greatly enhance a
country's social progress. Illiteracy hampers not only individual growth but also the progress
of society and the nation as a whole. Literacy plays a pivotal role in diminishing gender
inequality.
1
Definition of Literacy, available at : https://uis.unesco.org/node/3079547 (last visited on September 02,2023)
2
Population Census, available at: https://www.census2011.co.in/literacy.php (last visited on August 31, 2023)
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Is the Idea of Literacy a Recent Development?
No, Education has held significance even during the pre-medieval era. Traditional gurukuls
served as the primary educational institutions, where students received instruction from their
mentors. A multitude of private tutors conducted lessons within households.
Notably, there were learning centers called "tols" or "Vidyapeeth" situated in major urban
centers, dedicated to advanced education in Sanskrit literature. Additionally, "maktabs" and
"madras" provided instruction in Urdu and Persian for both Muslim and Hindu pupils.3
Furthermore, each village possessed at least one educational institution for children. The
traditional panchayats, whose prominence was undermined by British dominance in India,
upheld schools as a significant responsibility.
Historians suggest that prior to colonial influence, education in India was widespread.
Children from various castes and backgrounds participated in these educational
establishments. Apart from schools, there were establishments offering advanced education.
However, these higher education institutions were not uniformly present in every district,
unlike the widespread availability of schools in each village.
While the literacy rates for both males and females have experienced consistent growth over
time, a significant gender disparity remains present. Nevertheless, the recent surge in the
enrollment of girls in primary schools holds the potential to narrow the gender gap in literacy
in the future.
There is still much work to be done to equalize the ratio of boys and girls and to ensure that
no discrimination is based on any gender, caste, or any factors that could hinder the growth
and prosperity of the nation.
The National Literacy Mission 4defines literacy as the acquisition of reading, writing, and
arithmetic skills, along with the ability to use them effectively in one's daily life. Functional
literacy achievement involves
(i) being self-sufficient in the three fundamental skills
(ii) having an understanding of the reasons behind deprivation and the capacity to actively
contribute to improving one's circumstances through involvement in development efforts
3
Literacy and Education, available at: https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/reports_and_publication/
statistical_publication/social_statistics/Chapter_3.pdf (last visited on August 29, 2023)
4
National Literacy Mission, available at: < https://indiaeducation.net/apexbodies/nlm/ > (last visited on Augutst
29, 2023)
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(iii) gaining the skills needed to enhance one's economic and overall well-being
(iv) embracing values like national unity, environmental conservation, gender equality, and
the practice of small family norms.
Impact of British on Literacy
For almost two centuries, Eurocentric scholars have consistently targeted the Indic traditions
through their dominance over public discussions and educational materials. The Gurukul
education system vanished as the British colonial administration assumed control. The
objective to erode India's native knowledge systems was clearly expressed in Macaulay's
well-known memorandum in 1835. 5This memorandum subsequently paved the way for the
establishment of a colonial education system that continues to have an impact.
Macaulay displayed both ignorance and arrogance concerning India. While his notions faced
opposition during his era, they prevailed as they aligned with Britain's agenda to establish a
system that rendered India not only physically but also intellectually subservient. In a
tangible sense, Macaulay's agenda resulted in the dismantling of the conventional village
school system, which had previously granted widespread literacy to the population.
While the village schools undoubtedly had areas for enhancement, they proved highly
efficient and served as vital local power structures. However, when these schools were
replaced by new institutions operated by the British bureaucracy and taught in a foreign
language, which lacked apparent advantages for the common people, children from
disadvantaged backgrounds simply withdrew. Consequently, this resulted in the widespread
loss of literacy among the majority of the Indian populace.
Within the colonial government, the concept of financial gain was substituted with the notion
of serving the British Empire. The introduction of the new education system played a crucial
role in instilling this perspective within society. Additionally, the notion of the spiritually-
focused Indian was actively propagated.
5
A concept note on Stimulating Indian knowledge System, available at: <
https://www.education.gov.in/shikshakparv/docs/Stimulating%20Indian%20knowledge%20system.pdf> (last
visited on August 27, 2023)
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In every census conducted since 1881, there has been a consistent increase in the literacy rate
in the country6. However, due to the high population growth rate, the total number of illiterate
individuals continued to rise with each passing decade.
The period between 2001 and 2011 marked the second instance (following the period
between 1991 and 2001) where the absolute number of illiterate people in India decreased,
with a reduction of 31,196,847 individuals. This suggests that the rate of literacy growth is
now surpassing the rate of population growth.
Literacy Assessment through Census
The 15th official census was conducted in India in 20117. In a nation as diverse as India,
literacy stands as a pivotal pillar for both societal and economic advancement. As British
colonial rule concluded in 1947, the literacy rate stood at a mere 12%. Since then, India has
undergone significant social, economic, and global transformations. Subsequent to the 2011
census, the literacy rate was recorded at 74.04%. Notably, the youth literacy rate surpasses
that of adults by approximately 9%.
Kerala holds the distinction of being the sole Indian state with a 100% literacy rate, with Goa,
Tripura, Mizoram, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Sikkim following suit. Conversely,
the state of Bihar records the lowest literacy rate in the country. When the term Kerala is
mentioned, it's often associated with its impressive literacy rate. Despite having a notably
dense population, Kerala stands out for maintaining a consistently high literacy rate since
early times. Even before the state's formation, the ruling monarchs recognized the
significance of education.
It's imperative to contemplate the reasons behind India's comparatively lower literacy rates in
contrast to more developed nations. Primarily, the sheer size of India's population, ranking as
the seventh largest globally and the most populous, plays a significant role. Furthermore,
persistent poverty continues to affect a considerable portion of the population. Additionally,
there's a lack of awareness concerning the legal provision of free education for children.
6
History of Census of India, available at:
<https://censusindia.gov.in> (last visited on September 01. 2023)
7
Census 2011, available at: < https://www.census2011.co.in/literacy.php> (last visited on August 26,2023)
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The scarcity of educational opportunities and a lack of skill development contribute
significantly to poverty. This, in turn, hinders one's prospects for employment and income
growth in the future. Individuals who possess inadequate literacy skills are more prone to
abandoning their education and encountering difficulties in securing and keeping jobs.
As a result, they face economic instability and poverty. The available job opportunities for
individuals with limited literacy tend to be low-paying, and such individuals often experience
prolonged periods of unemployment. According to the 2012 Programme for the International
Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), 8about 37 percent of Canadian adults with
deficient literacy skills are without a job, in contrast to the 11 percent unemployment rate
among those with stronger literacy skills.
SERIAL State Literacy Male Female
NUMBER (%)
1 Kerala 94 96.11 92.07
2 Lakshadweep 91.85 95.66 87.95
3 Mizoram 91.33 93.35 89.27
4 Goa 88.70 92.65 84.66
5 87.22 91.53 82.73
Tripura
Causes for Low Literacy
Impoverished individuals face restricted educational opportunities despite the presence of
numerous technological advancements. Financial constraints make it challenging for parents
8
Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, available at <
https://nces.ed.gov/statprog/handbook/pdf/piaac.pdf> (last visited on August 29, 2023)
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to enroll their children in school. The costs associated with basic necessities such as school
materials, books, and uniforms can seem prohibitive. Consequently, some choose to prioritize
having children over investing in education. This perpetuates a cycle of poverty, contributing
to subpar educational quality and ultimately resulting in a lower literacy rate in India.
The enduring caste system in the nation results in the exclusion of students from lower castes
from the education system. Instead, these students are compelled to engage in child labor
during what should be their educational years. They frequently encounter reduced attendance
and an increased likelihood of dropping out due to societal barriers.
The persistent discrimination they face gives rise to a range of psychological issues among
these young individuals, including diminished self-esteem and depression. Families
belonging to lower castes often experience financial instability, which can further impede the
prospects of their children even after receiving an education. This creates a cycle where
poverty and caste-based prejudices, accompanied by discrimination, are perpetuated.
As a result of prolonged gender-based oppression, a significant inequality gap has emerged
between men and women. The recognition and prioritization of women's education only
gained prominence after the country's independence. Numerous stereotypes linked to
educated women led to apprehension about providing even fundamental education to
daughters.
The societal transformation occurred primarily through reform movements, facilitating
change in this regard.While child and youth literacy have consistently held a significant place
in the realm of development priorities, the issue of illiteracy among older individuals is
equally urgent.
Older adults lacking literacy skills face heightened vulnerability to health issues, exploitation,
and violations of human rights. Their prospects for unemployment and income are also
compromised, with lower wages being a common outcome. Although Indian policymakers
have not entirely disregarded the education of older adults, it warrants greater focus and
attention.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
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The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 9is an initiative aimed at ensuring that all primary schools
achieve the Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) as mandated by the Indian
constitution. This program is implemented by the Ministry of Human Resource Development
in collaboration with state governments.
In 2009, the 86th amendment to the Indian constitution10 introduced Article 21A, making
education a fundamental right. This amendment enforces compulsory and free education for
children between the ages of 6 and 14. Although the program was originally launched in
2000-2001, it has undergone some modifications following the enactment of the Right to
Education (RTE) Act.
This initiative was created with the aim of achieving Universal Elementary Education within
a specified timeframe. It offers cost-free primary education to all underage individuals across
the country. By ensuring access to basic education for children, this program plays a crucial
role in advancing India's goal of achieving equality and social justice. To efficiently oversee
primary schools, it involves various bodies such as school management committees, village
education committees, Panchayat Raj institutions, parent-teacher associations, and Tribal
Autonomous Councils. The central government collaborates with state and local governments
to carry out the program.
Within the framework of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, a subsidiary initiative called "Padhe Bharat
Badhe Bharat" was launched, with a particular focus on students in grades 1 and 2. This
program provides thorough training in early literacy and numeracy skills. This initiative is
designed to support students who may have missed out on early education opportunities,
helping them excel in language and mathematics. It places a strong emphasis on language
development through engaging activities and fosters an interest in mathematics by using real-
world examples.
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) Program has a set of comprehensive goals that encompass
various aspects of education and administration:
1. Establishing new educational institutions in areas lacking proper educational facilities.
2. Creating alternative educational opportunities.
9
Sarva Sikhsha Abhiyan, available at: <
https://dsel.education.gov.in/sites/default/files/2019-05/Manual_Planning_and_Apprisal.pdf> (last visited on
August 29, 2023)
10
The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002, available at: < https://www.india.gov.in/my-
government/constitution-india/amendments/constitution-india-eighty-sixth-amendment-act-2002> (last visited
on September 01, 2023)
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3. Strengthening existing school infrastructure by providing clean drinking water,
additional classrooms, and restroom facilities.
4. Managing the allocation and utilization of funds for school improvement and services.
5. Supplying students with uniforms and free educational materials.
6. Increasing the number of teachers in schools facing a shortage to enhance the teaching
force.
7. Delivering high-quality primary education and life skills to students.
8. Empowering girls through improved access to education to elevate their status in
society.
9. Facilitating the attendance of children with special needs or disabilities in schools.
10. Promoting equitable educational opportunities for children from marginalized
communities such as SC/ST families, landless farm laborers, and Islamic minorities.
11. Gaining a deeper understanding of the educational requirements of historically
marginalized groups.
12. Bridging the digital divide by offering computer education in schools.
13. Enhancing the skills and capabilities of current school teachers through rigorous
training, funding for the development of teaching materials, and strengthening
academic support systems at various levels, including blocks, clusters, and districts.
In 2014, the SSA (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan) program introduced the 'Padhe Bharat Badhe
Bharat' campaign. This project is designed to improve the reading, writing, and mathematical
abilities of students in Grade I and Grade II. Its primary objective is to enable children to
understand the practical advantages of reading and writing.
The 'Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat' initiative underscores the significance of reading in
nurturing proficient writers and readers among children. This initiative ensures that schools in
India enhance their capacity to deliver top-notch education.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Definition of Literacy, available at: https://uis.unesco.org/node/3079547 (last visited
on September 02, 2023)
2. Population Census, available at: https://www.census2011.co.in/literacy.php (last
visited on August 31, 2023)
3. Literacy and Education, available at:
https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/reports_and_publication/
statistical_publication/social_statistics/Chapter_3.pdf (last visited on August 29,
2023)
4. National Literacy Mission, available at: < https://indiaeducation.net/apexbodies/nlm/
> (last visited on August 29, 2023)
5. A concept note on Stimulating the Indian knowledge System, available at <
https://www.education.gov.in/shikshakparv/docs/Stimulating%20Indian
%20knowledge%20system.pdf> (last visited on August 27, 2023)
6. 6. History of Census of India, available at:
7. <https://censusindia.gov.in> (last visited on September 01. 2023)
8. Census 2011, available at < https://www.census2011.co.in/literacy.php> (last visited
on August 26, 2023)
9. Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, available at <
https://nces.ed.gov/statprog/handbook/pdf/piaac.pdf> (last visited on August 29,
2023)
10. Sarva Sikhsha Abhiyan, available at <
https://dsel.education.gov.in/sites/default/files/2019-05/Manual_Planning_and_Appris
al.pdf> (last visited on August 29, 2023)
11. The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002, available at: <
https://www.india.gov.in/my-government/constitution-india/amendments/
constitution-india-eighty-sixth-amendment-act-2002> (last visited on September 01,
2023)
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