Engineering 138
Introduction to Earthquake Engineering
David J. Odeh, P.E.
December 10, 2002
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Overview
Introduction
Earthquake Risk
Earthquake Effects on Buildings
Seismic Design of Buildings
Lessons Learned from Recent Earthquakes
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Overview
Introduction
Earthquake Risk
Earthquake Effects on Buildings
Seismic Design of Buildings
Lessons Learned from Recent Earthquakes
© Odeh Engineers, Inc. 2002
4
Why do Earthquakes Happen?
California
z Plate boundary/Pacific and
North America
z Earthquakes on well defined
“faults”
New England
z Center of North American
plate
z Earthquakes can occur
anywhere
z No known relation between
faults and earthquake
locations
Types of Fault Systems
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Magnitude vs. Intensity
Magnitude
z Measured by the Richter Scale
z Total energy released by the shock
Intensity
z Measured by ground acceleration, Modified Mercalli
Intensity, spectral acceleration
z Depends on distance from main shock, soil conditions,
regional geology
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Northeast earthquakes are a real risk!
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New England earthquakes
(1538 – 1999)
Source: New England
Seismic Network
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New England earthquakes with M>4.0
since 1975
Source: New
England Seismic
Network
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Selected New England Earthquakes
Location Year Magnitude
(estimated)
Ossipee, NH 1940 5.5
Cape Ann, MA 1755 6.0
Kingston, RI 1951 4.6
Middlebury, VT 1962 5.0
Narragansett Bay, RI 1960 4.7
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Seismic Hazard Maps
National Earthquake Hazard
Reduction Program
(NEHRP)
Codes use these maps to
establish ground
acceleration levels for design
NEHRP National Earthquake Hazard
Map (for comparison)
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10%/50 yrs. Seismic Hazard Map
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5%/50 yrs. Seismic Hazard Map
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2%/50 yrs. Seismic Hazard Map
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Overview
Introduction
Earthquake Risk
Earthquake Effects on Buildings
Seismic Design of Buildings
Lessons Learned from Recent Earthquakes
© Odeh Engineers, Inc. 2002
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Equation of Motion - Free Vibration
Mu + Cu + Ku = 0
u = displacement
M = mass
K = stiffness
C = damping coefficient
u = displacement
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Building Response
Simplify the problem
z Single degree of
freedom structure
Natural period of vibration:
Μ
T = 2π
Κ
M = mass
K = stiffness
for example, stiffness of a cantilever column:
3EI
K= 3
L
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Building Response
Equation of Motion
Mu + Cu + Ku = −Mug
u = deformation
M, Mass (kips)
z All dead loads from
supported floors and
roofs
z Permanent loads (usually
15-20% of live load)
z Snow loads over 30psf ug = ground motion
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Building Response
Mu + Cu + Ku = − Mug
K, Lateral Stiffness
z Shear walls
z Braced frames
z Moment resisting frames
C, Damping
z Reduces overall response of building
z Related to materials, strain, non-structural elements
z Approx. 2-10% of critical damping (5% typical)
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Building Response
Multiple degree of freedom structures
z More complicated, but can be generalized into a “modes” of
vibration
z Each mode has: shape, period
z Number of modes = Number of DOF
z Response determined by combining modal responses using
response spectrum
z Highest period modes tend to dominate (“fundamental
mode”)
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Natural Period of Typical Structures
Low rise
building, Tn =
0.1-0.3 sec Medium rise building,
High rise buildings,
Tn = 0.5-1.0 sec
Tn = 2.0 – 6.0 sec
Taller, flexible structures have longer natural periods
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Response Spectrum
Maximum acceleration of a single degree of freedom structure
subjected to a given ground motion
Design spectra: normalized response spectra used to design
buildings
Procedure:
z For each mode/period, read maximum response from
spectrum
z Scale mode shape by maximum response
z Add modes together using some combination technique (e.g.
square root of sum of squares)
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Unreduced Design Spectra
0.400
0.350
Spectral Acceleration (g)
0.300 2%/50 years
10%/50 years
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100
0.050
0.000
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
Period (sec)
Design spectra for Providence Marriott
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Completed Providence
Courtyard by Marriott
Hotel (2000)
Simple 3D computer
model of tower structure
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Longitudinal fundamental mode shape (T=1.1s)
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Transverse fundamental mode shape (T=.53s)
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Torsional fundamental mode shape (T=0.51s)
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How can resonance occur in real buildings?
Wind
z “Galloping Gertie” – so-called
“vortex shedding” caused a
harmonic excitation of a very
slender bridge deck in
Tacoma Narrows bridge,
which subsequently
collapsed very dramatically
Earthquake motions
Walking/running
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Earthquake ground shaking – example excitation
Earthquake ground motion is random
Frequency content of ground motion may excite certain natural frequencies of a building
1994 Northridge, CA Earthquake Waveforms (source: EERI CD-ROM)
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Overview
Introduction
Earthquake Risk
Earthquake Effects on Buildings
Seismic Design of Buildings
Lessons Learned from Recent Earthquakes
© Odeh Engineers, Inc. 2002
30
Building Code Design Philosophy
Structure should survive major earthquake without
collapse
Reasonable damage expected
Unlike wind design, structure is expected to behave
inelastically during earthquake
Important considerations: ductility, load path
continuity, regularity, collapse protection
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Nonductile Construction
source: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
Northridge Earthquake Reconaissance Report
Kaiser Permanente Building, Granada Hills
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Equivalent Static Lateral Forces
Determine design base shear based on seismic
hazard, building use group, total building mass, and
building fundamental period
Distribute base shear to building stories based on
story masses and elevations
Design for story forces applied in each orthogonal
direction
Also, ensure inelastic story drift does not exceed
code requirements
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Base Shear
BOCA 1996 Base Shear
Formula:
V = CsW
1.2 Av S
Cs = 2
RT 3
Av = Peak velocity-related acceleration (g)
S = Soil amplification factor
R = Reduction factor (for inelasticity)
T = Building fundamental period (sec)
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Seismic Hazard
Av, effective peak acceleration from 10%/50 yr NEHRP map
(=0.12g in RI, =0.4g in CA)
Alternatively, can develop a site-specific response spectrum for
the 10%/50 yr ground motion using computer simulation (e.g.
SHAKE by R. Seed, U.C. Berkeley)
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Soil Effects
Site coefficient
z S1 – rock (S=1.0)
z S2 – 200 ft. of stable soil layer (S=1.2)
z S3 – 20-40 ft. of soft to med-stiff clays (S=1.5)
z S4 - >40 ft of soft clays or silts (S=2.0)
Can also include the damping effects of soil-structure interaction
(optional)
“Softer” soils require design for higher seismic forces
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Reduction Factor R and Inelastic Story Drift
Greater inelastic action allowed in more ductile systems
z Higher reduction coefficient
z Larger deflection amplification factor
Height limitations for more restrictive performance categories
Certain systems not permitted (unreinforced masonry,
nonductile concrete frames)
Inelastic story drift = elastic story drift * deflection amplification
factor (Cd)
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Comparison of Steel Framing Systems
Factor CBF EBF MRF
R 5 7 4.5 (Ord.)
8 (Sp.)
Cd 4.5 7 4 (Ord.)
5.5 (Sp.)
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Building Classification
Seismic Hazard Exposure Group
z Based on use and importance of facility
z Group I (non essential)
z Group II (substantial public hazard)
z Group III (essential, emergency facilities)
Higher importance facilities have stricter design requirements
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Building Classification
Seismic Performance Category
z Based on Exposure Group and Ground Motion Hazard
z Category C for all groups in Rhode Island
z Category D for Group III buildings in Mass.
Seismic performance category determines the height limitations
and required design considerations for the building
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Structural Irregularities
Horizontal (plan) Vertical
z Torsion z Stiffness - soft story
z Re-entrant corners z Weight
z Diaphragm discontinuity z Geometric
z Out-of-plane vertical z In-plane discontinuity in
element offsets vertical lateral force
z Nonparallel systems resisting elements
z Strength - weak story
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Soft Story Vertical Irregularity
source: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
Northridge Earthquake Reconaissance Report
Northridge Meadows Apartment Complex
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Overview
Introduction
Earthquake Risk
Earthquake Effects on Buildings
Seismic Design of Buildings
Lessons Learned from Recent Earthquakes
© Odeh Engineers, Inc. 2002
43
1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake – Soil Liquefaction
Loma Prieta Collection, Earthquake Engineering Research Center,
University of California, Berkeley.
Soil failure locations in the Marina District
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1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake – Post Earthquake Fires
Marina District fires due to
gas main rupture
Loma Prieta Collection, Earthquake Engineering Research Center,
University of California, Berkeley.
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1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake: Lifeline
Vulnerability
Loma Prieta Collection, Earthquake Engineering Research Center,
University of California, Berkeley.
Collapsed section of the Bay Bridge
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1994 Northridge Earthquake: Blind Thrust Faults
© Odeh Engineers, Inc. 2002 source: U.S. Geological Survey
1994 Northridge Earthquake “SMRFs”
LA Times: “Quake Cracks Typical cracking Inspection of welded
Steel Buildings” connections
source: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
© Odeh Engineers, Inc. 2002 Northridge Earthquake Reconaissance Report
1994 Northridge Earthquake: Load Path
Discontinuity
source: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
Northridge Earthquake Reconaissance Report
Cal State University Northridge Parking Garage: built in 1991
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Examples of Base Isolated Buildings
Base isolation involves placing very flexible bearings on building foundations.
The flexibility of the bearings effectively reduces the natural frequency of the
building, greatly reducing the response.
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