2 Mechanical

Non-Traditional
Machining Operations
and Machine Tools

2.1 JET MACHINES AND OPERATIONS

In jet machining, high-velocity stream of water (WJM) or water mixed with abrasive
materials (AWJM) is directed to the workpiece to cut the material. If a mixture of
gas and abrasive particles is used, the process is referred to as abrasive jet machining
(AJM) and is used in machining and fnishing operations such as deburring, clean-
ing, and polishing.

2.1.1 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING

2.1.1.1 Process Characteristics and Applications
In abrasive jet machining (AJM), a fne stream of abrasives is propelled through a
special nozzle by a gas carrier (CO2, Ni, or air) of a pressure ranging from 1 to 9 bar.
Thus, the abrasives attain a high speed ranging from 150 to 350 m/min, exerting
impact force causing mechanical abrasion of the workpiece (target material). The
workpiece is positioned from the nozzle at a distance called the stand-off distance
(SOD), or the nozzle tip distance (NTD) as shown in Figure 2.1.
In AJM, Al2O3 or SiC abrasives, of grain size ranging from 10 to 80 µm, are used.
The nozzles are generally made of sintered carbides (WC) or synthetic sapphire of
diameters 0.2 to 2 mm. To limit the jet faring, nozzles may have rectangular ori-
fces ranging from 0.1×0.5 mm to 0.18×3 mm. The optimum jet angle is determined
according to the ductility or brittleness of the workpiece material to be machined,
Figure 2.2.
AJM is not considered as a gross material removal process. Its removal rate when
machining the most brittle materials such as glass, quartz, and ceramic is about 30
mg/min, whereas only a fraction of that value is realized when machining soft and
ductile materials (Youssef, 2005). Due to the limited removal rate, and also the sig-
nifcant taper, AJM is not suitable for machining deep holes and cavities. However,
the process is capable of producing holes and profles in sheets of thicknesses com-
parable to the nozzle diameter. AJM is applicable for cutting, slitting, surface clean-
ing, frosting, and polishing. The process advantages and limitations are listed below.

7
8 Non-Traditional and Advanced Machining Technologies

FIGURE 2.1 AJM terminology (El-Hofy, 2005).

FIGURE 2.2 AJM inclination angle (Düniβ, Neumann, and Schwartz, 1979).

Advantages
• Capable to produce holes and intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials
• Used to cut fragile materials of thin walls
• Heat-sensitive materials such as glass and ceramics can be machined with-
out affecting their physical properties and crystalline structure, since no or
little heat is generated during machining
• Safe in operation
• Characterized by low capital investment and low power consumption
• Can be used to clean surfaces, especially in areas which are inaccessible by
ordinary methods
• Produced surfaces after cleaning by AJM are characterized by their high
wear resistance

Limitations
• The application of AJM is restricted to brittle materials. It is not recom-
mended for machining soft and malleable materials.
• Abrasives cannot be reused because they lose their sharpness and, hence,
cutting ability.
• Nozzle clogging occurs if fne grains with a diameter dg <10 µm are used.
• The process accuracy is poor due to the faring effect of the abrasive jet.
• Deep holes are produced by signifcant taper.
Mechanical Non-Traditional Machining Operations 9

• Sometimes, machined parts have to undergo an additional operation of

cleaning to get rid of grains sticking to the surface.
• Excessive nozzle wear causes additional machining cost.
• The process tends to pollute the environment.

Fields of Applications
AJM has been successfully applied in the following domains:

• Defashing and trimming of parting lines of injection molded parts and

forgings
• Cleaning metallic molds and cavities
• Cutting thin sectioned fragile components made of glass, refractoriness,
mica, and so on
• Cleaning surfaces from corrosion, paints, glue, and contaminants, espe-
cially those which are inaccessible
• Marking on glass
• Frosting interior or exterior surfaces of glass tubes
• Engraving on glass using metallic or rubber masks

Some typical applications are:

• Beveling of electronic wafer disk composed of silicon disk (0.4 mm thick)

welded to a tungsten disk (0.7 mm thick), Figure 2.3a. A trimming rotat-
ing fxture is shown in Figure 2.3b. The disk rotates slowly (n = 5–10 rpm),
while the nozzle is directed at an angle of 45°. One minute is required to
bevel a disk.
• Engraving registration numbers on glass windows of cars
• Deburring fne internal intersecting holes in plastic components needed for
medical applications
• Deburring of surgical needles and hydraulic valves
• Deburring parts of nylon, Tefon, and derlin

2.1.1.2 Work Station of Abrasive Jet Machining

Figure 2.4 shows a typical work station of AJM which is connected to a gas supply
(gas bottles or compressed air). The carrier gas must not fare excessively when
discharged from nozzle to atmosphere. Furthermore, it should be non-toxic, cheap,
available, and capable to be dried and fltered. Air is widely used owing to its
availability. In small stations, CO2 and N2 gas bottles are commonly used. After
fltering, the pressure of the compressed gas of 7 to 9 bar is regulated, to suit the
working conditions. The gas is then introduced to the mixing chamber containing
the abrasives. The chamber is equipped with a vibrator providing amplitude ξ of 1 to
2 mm at a frequency fr from 5 to 50 Hz. The abrasive fow rate is controlled through
the adjustment of ξ and fr. From the mixing chamber the gas/abrasive mixture is
directed to the nozzle that directs the jet onto the target or workpiece. The jet velocity
of 150 to 350 m/min depends upon the gas pressure at the nozzle, the orifce diameter
of the nozzle, and the mixing ratio. The fow rate of a typical working station is about
0.6 m3/hr which is controlled through a foot control valve.
10 Non-Traditional and Advanced Machining Technologies

FIGURE 2.3 Edge trimming by AJM: (a) Wafer disk (silicon/tungsten) and (b) trimming
fxture (Benedict, 1987).

The nozzle is mounted in a special fxture, and sometimes held in hand,

depending on the type of operation required (cutting, trimming, engraving, frosting,
and cleaning). When machining thin-walled fragile materials, it may be necessary
to control the relative motion between the nozzle and the work by a cam and
pantograph depending upon the required size and shape of cut. The AJM station
must be equipped by a vacuum dust collector to limit the pollution. Strict measures
and precautions should be undertaken in case of machining toxic materials such as
beryllium to collect produced dust and debris.

2.1.1.3 Process Capabilities

The performance of AJM in terms of material removal rate (MRR) and accuracy is
affected by the selected machining conditions. The MRR for a certain material is
mainly affected by the kinetic energy of the abrasives, i.e. the speed with which the
abrasive bombards the work material. This speed depends upon:

• Gas pressure at nozzle

• Nozzle diameter
• Abrasive grain size
Mechanical Non-Traditional Machining Operations 11

FIGURE 2.4 Typical AJM workstation (El-Hofy, 2005).

æ abrasive flow rate ö

• Weight mixing ratio bm ç ÷
è air flow rate ø
• Stand-off distance (SOD)

MRR attains a maximum value at a mixing ratio βm = 0.15 (Düniβ, 1979), and a stand-
off distance from 15 to 17 mm (Verma and Lal, 1984). It increases with increasing
gas pressure at the nozzle. The type of material to be machined, and the abrasive
grain size, have an infuence on the MRR. The latter increases with increasing grain
size (Machinability Data Handbook, 1980). Sharp-edged abrasives of irregular
shape, dry, and well classifed (non-commercial) are best suited to perform the job.
The limiting size of abrasive grains which permits the grain to be suspended in
the carrier gas is about 80 µm. SiC and Al2O3 abrasives are used for cutting and
slitting operations, whereas sodium bicarbonate, dolomite, and glass beads are used
for cleaning, frosting, and polishing.
When selecting the best working conditions (βm = 0.15, abrasives Al2O3 of grain
size 50 µm, SOD = 14 mm, nozzle pressure = 7 bar), the MRR achieved in case of
machining is in the order of 30 mg/min (Machining Data Handbook, 1980).The
accuracy improves by selecting smaller SOD, Figure 2.5, which reduces the material
removal rate. The grain size is the decisive factor for determining the surface fnish.

2.1.2 WATER JET MACHINING (HYDRODYNAMIC MACHINING)

2.1.2.1 Process Characteristics and Applications
Over the last fve decades, a number of studies using high-pressure water jets (pulsed
or continuous) in mining applications have been made (Farmer and Attewell, 1965;
12 Non-Traditional and Advanced Machining Technologies

FIGURE 2.5 Effect of SOD on kerf width and accuracy (From Machinability Data Center
Machining Data Handbook, Cincinnati, OH, 1980).

Brook and Summers 1969). Franz (1972) of the University of Michigan succeeded in
cutting wood using high-velocity water jets; he reported the importance of improved
coherence of the water jet with the addition of polymers. Since then, the cutting
capability of liquid jets has been reported for a wide spectrum of target materials,
including lead, Al, Cu, Ti, steels, and granite. It is hard to believe that a jet of water
may successfully cut steel and granite. However, in scientifc terms, this is acceptable,
as illustrated in Figure 2.6, where a stream of water is propelled at high pressure
(2000–8000 bar) through a converging nozzle to give a coherent jet of water of high
speed of 600 to 1400 m/s. At the target, the kinetic energy of the jet is converted
spontaneously to high-pressure energy, inducing high stresses exceeding the fow
strength of target material, causing mechanical abrasion. WJM has the following
advantages and limitations.

Advantages
• Water is cheap, non-toxic, and can be easily disposed and recirculated.
• The process requires limited volume of water (100–200 l/hr).
• The tool (nozzle) does not wear and, therefore, does not need sharpening.
• No thermal degrading of the work material, since the process does not
generate heat. For this reason, WJM is best suited to explosive environments.
• It is ideal for cutting asbestos, glass fber insulation, beryllium, and fber-
reinforced plastics (FRP), because the process provides a dustless atmosphere.
For this reason, the process is not hazardous and environmentally safe.
• The process provides clean and sharp cuts, free from burrs.
• It is applicable for laser refective materials such as, glass, copper, and
aluminum.
Mechanical Non-Traditional Machining Operations 13

FIGURE 2.6 WJM terminology (El-Hofy, 2005).

• Starting holes are not needed to perform the cut.

• Wetting of the workpiece material is minimal.
• Noise is minimized as the power unit and intensifer can be kept away from
the cutting station.
• While AJM is commonly used to cut only brittle materials, it is applicable
to machine both brittle and ductile materials.
• The workpiece is subjected to a limited mechanical stress, as the force
exerted by the jet does not generally exceed 50N. Therefore, cutting is
performed without the need of using elaborate fxturing of the workpiece.
• WJ approaches the ideal single point tool.

Limitations of WJM
• WJM is not safe in operation if safety precautions are not strictly followed.
• The process is characterized by a high production cost due to:
• High capital cost of the machine
• The need of highly qualifed operators
• WJM is not adapted to mass production because of the high maintenance
requirement.

Applications of WJM: It is used in many industrial applications comprising the

following:

• Cutting of metals and composites applied in aerospace industries

• Underwater cutting and shipbuilding industries
• Cutting of rocks, granite, and marble
• It is ideal in cutting soft materials such as wood, paper, cloth, leather,
rubber, and plastics
14 Non-Traditional and Advanced Machining Technologies

• Slicing and processing of frozen foods, baked foods, and meat. In such
cases, alcohol, glycerin, and cooking oils are used as alternative cutting
fuids
• WJM is also used in:
• Cleaning, polishing, and degreasing of surfaces
• Removal of nuclear contaminations
• Cleaning of tubes and castings
• Surface preparation for inspection purposes
• Surface strengthening
• Deburring

2.1.2.2 Equipment of WJM

Figure 2.7 visualizes a simplifed layout of WJM equipment. It consists of the fol-
lowing stations:

1. Multi-stage fltering station: The function of which is to flter the solid

particles down to 0.5 µm. In this stage, it is also recommended to perform
deionization and demineralization of water to allow for better performance
of machine elements and extended nozzle life. After fltering, water is
mixed by polymers to obtain a coherent jet.
2. Oil pump and water high pressure–intensifer station: It consists of a
hydraulic pump powered by an electric motor that provides oil at about
120 bar. Such a pressure is needed to drive a double acting plunger pump
(intensifer) that pumps water from 4 bar to about 4000 bar or more.
Figure 2.8 illustrates the operation of the high-pressure intensifer that
consists of two terminal small cylinders for water and a large central cylinder
for oil. A limit switch, located at each end of the terminal cylinders, signals
the electronic controls to shift the directional control valve and reverses the

FIGURE 2.7 Simplifed layout of WJM equipment (König, 1990).

Mechanical Non-Traditional Machining Operations 15

FIGURE 2.8 HP intensifer (Nordwood and Johnston, 1984).

piston direction. As one side of the intensifer is in the inlet position, the
opposite side generates an ultrahigh pressure output, and vice versa. The
ultrahigh-pressure water is delivered to an accumulator tank, Figure 2.7, to
provide the water pressure free of fuctuation and hydraulic spikes to the
cutting station. During idle times, the water is stored in the accumulator
under pressure to be ready at any time to perform the cutting. The intensifer
offers complete fexibility for both cutting and cleaning applications. It also
supports single or multiple cutting nozzles for increased productivity.
3. Cutting station: The conversion cutting nozzle, Figure 2.9, converts the
ultrahigh pressure (about 4000 bar) into a high speed of 400 to 1400 m/s.
The nozzle provides a coherent water jet stream for optimum cutting. The
jet coherency can be enhanced by adding long chain polymers such as
polyethylene oxide (PEO) with a molecular weight of four million. Such
addition provides the water with higher viscosity and hence increases the
coherent length up to 600 dn, where dn is the nozzle orifce diameter that
falls between 0.1 and 0.35 mm. For optimum cutting, the stand-off distance
(SOD) is selected within this range. Even if SOD is selected beyond this
range, the stream is still capable of performing non-cutting operations
such as cleaning, polishing, degreasing, etc., due to the existence of the
concentrated liquid cone in the growing spray envelop, (Youssef, 2005).

Nozzles are generally made from very hard materials such as WC, synthetic sapphire,
or diamond. Diamond provides the largest nozzle life, whereas WC gives the lowest
16 Non-Traditional and Advanced Machining Technologies

FIGURE 2.9 Nozzle assembly of WJM equipment (Youssef, 2005).

one. About 200 hours of operation is expected from a nozzle of synthetic sapphire,
which becomes damaged by particles of dirt and the accumulation of mineral
deposits if the water is not fltered and treated. High-pressure tubing, Figure 2.10,
transports pressured water to the cutting nozzle. Thick tubes of diameters ranging
from 6 to 14 mm and of diameter ratio 1/5 to 1/10 are used, Figure 2.10a. For severe
pressure which may exceed the yielding stress of the tube material, shrink-ft tubes
should be used, Figure 2.10b. To achieve the best sealing conditions, metal-to-metal,
line (not surface) contact should be used in high-pressure tube fttings. It is preferable
that the on-off valves for such machines operating at high pressures are of the needle
type. The compact design of the nozzle head promotes integration with a motion-
control system ranging from two-axis x–y tables to sophisticated multi-axis CNC
installations.

FIGURE 2.10 High-pressure tubing: (a) Thick-wall tubing and (b) shrink-ft tubing.
Mechanical Non-Traditional Machining Operations 17

The cutting station must be equipped with a catcher which acts as a reservoir for
collecting the machining debris entrained in the jet. Moreover, it absorbs the rest
energy after cutting which is estimated to be 90% of the total jet energy. It reduces
the noise levels (105 dB) associated with the reduction of the water jet from Mach 3
to subsonic levels. Figure 2.11 shows a schematic illustration of the WJM equipment.

2.1.2.3 Process Capabilities

The material removal rate, accuracy, and surface quality are infuenced by the
workpiece material and the machining parameters. Brittle materials fracture, while
ductile ones are cut well. Material thickness ranges from 0.8 mm to 25 mm or more.
Table 2.1 illustrates the cutting rates for different material thicknesses. For a given
nozzle diameter, the increase of pressure allows more power to be used, which in
turn increases the penetration depth or the traverse speed. The quality of cutting
improves at higher pressures and lower traverse speeds. Under such conditions,
greater thicknesses can be cut.

2.1.3 ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINING

2.1.3.1 Process Characteristics and Applications
Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) is a hybrid process (HP) since it is an
integration of AJM and WJM processes. The addition of abrasives to the water
jet drastically increases the range of materials which can be cut with a water jet

FIGURE 2.11 Schematic illustration of WJM equipment (El-Hofy, 2005).

18 Non-Traditional and Advanced Machining Technologies

TABLE 2.1
Traverse Speeds and Thicknesses of Various Materials
Cut by Water Jet
Material Thickness (mm) Traverse Speed (mm/min)
Leather 2.2 20
Vinyl chloride 3.0 0.5
Polyester 2.0 150
Kevlar 3.0 3.0
Graphite 2.3 5.0
Gypsum board 10.0 0.6
Corrugated board 7.0 200
Pulp sheet 2.0 120
Plywood 6.0 1.0

Source: (Tlusty, 2000).

and maximizes the material removal rate of this hybrid process. The MRR is
based, therefore, on using the kinetic energies of the abrasives and water in the
jet. Intensive research works have been carried out during the last three decades
to explore the capabilities of this new process. It has been reported that the AWJM
process is capable of machining both soft and hard materials at very high speeds
compared with those realized by WJM. It cuts ten to 50 times faster than the WJM
process. Moreover, the cuts performed by AWJM have better edge and surface
qualities.
AWJM uses a comparatively lower water pressure than that used by WJM (about
80%) to accelerate the AWJ. The typical mixing ratio of abrasive to water in the jet
is about 3/7 by volume, Figure 2.12. Abrasives (garnet, sand, Al2O3, and so on) of a
grain size 10–180 µm are often used.
As previously mentioned, apart from its capability to machine soft and hard
materials at very high speeds, the AWJM process has the same advantages of WJM.
However, it has the following two limitations:

• Due to the existence of the abrasives in the jet, there is an excessive wear in
the machine and its elements.
• The process is not environmentally safe as compared to WJM.

The AWJM process has many felds of application such as:

• Cutting of metallic materials: Cu, Al, Pb, Mo, Ti, W

• Cutting carbides and ceramics
• Cutting concrete, marble, and granite, Figure 2.13a
• Cutting plastics and asbestos, Figure 2.13b
• Cutting large casting with very narrow kerf which reduces material and
energy wastages, Figure 2.13c
Mechanical Non-Traditional Machining Operations 19

FIGURE 2.12 AWJM elements terminology (El-Hofy, 2005).

• Cutting composites such as FRP, and sandwiched Ti-honeycomb without

burr formation. The latter is used in the aerospace industry
• Cutting of acrylic and glass

In the feld of machining technology, AWJM has two promising applications as

illustrated in Figure 2.14. These are milling of fat surfaces and turning of cylindrical
surfaces.
Abrasive water jet cutting is extensively used in the aerospace, automotive, and
electronics industries. In the aerospace industry, parts such as titanium bodies for
military aircrafts, engine components (aluminum, titanium, heat-resistant alloys),
aluminum body parts, and interior cabin parts are made using abrasive water jet
cutting. In the automotive industry, parts such as interior trim (head liners, trunk
liners, door panels) and fberglass body components and bumpers are made by this
process. Similarly, in the electronics industry, circuit boards and cable stripping
are made by abrasive water jet cutting. The process is also applicable in deburring
(AWJD), sharpening of grinding wheels, and surface strengthening to increase the
fatigue strength.

Advantages of AWJM
• In most of the cases, no secondary fnishing required
• Can cut both hard and soft materials
• No cutter-induced distortion
20 Non-Traditional and Advanced Machining Technologies

FIGURE 2.13 Cutting by AWJM: (a) Marble and (b) plastics and asbestos (Ingersoll-Rand,
1996); (c) abrasive water jet cutting of cylinder casting (Dhakal, 2007).

Cross-sectional view

Cutting head Traverse direction

Milling pass
Traverse direction
Traverse direction

Material removed
Machined surface
in one pass Cavity caused by
reversal of the
traverse direction

Rotation of Workpiece

(a)
(b)

FIGURE 2.14 Two promising applications of AWJM: (a) Milling and (b) turning (Hoogstrate
and van Luttervelt, 1997).
Mechanical Non-Traditional Machining Operations 21

• Low cutting forces on workpieces

• Limited tooling requirements
• Little to no cutting burr
• Smaller kerf size reduces material and energy wastages
• No heat-affected zone
• Eliminates thermal distortion
• No slag or cutting dross
• Precise, multiplane cutting of contours, and bevels of any angle

Limitations of abrasive water jet cutting

• Cannot drill fat bottom
• Cannot cut materials that degrade quickly with moisture
• Surface fnish degrades at higher cut speeds which are frequently used for
rough cutting
• The major disadvantages of abrasive water jet cutting are high capital cost
and high noise levels during operation

2.1.3.2 AWJM Equipment

The equipment of AWJM does not differ greatly from the basic WJM equipment. So,
it is composed of:

1. Water Filtering Station

It is the same as that of the WJM, but in AWJM cutting polymers are not
commonly used because the general opinion is that the increased coherence
of the jet prevents the abrasive particles from being mixed with the water
jet and, therefore, the accelerating process of the abrasive is less effcient,
although Swiss glass manufacturers and French crystal manufacturers
are of a different opinion and use a polymer additive in combination with
abrasives, thereby increasing the cutting speed considerably and reducing
the abrasive consumption drastically. Research in this area is still needed.
2. Pressure Generation Station
A double acting intensifer is designed to deliver less pressure than that used
in WJM. The usual range of pressure in AWJM is from 250 to 350 MPa at
a discharge rate of 5 l/min, accordingly the pressure loss is decreased, and
the system piping is less stressed.
3. Cutting Station
The cutting nozzle in the machining station of WJM equipment is replaced
by what is called the jet former in AWJM equipment.

Jet former: In the jet former, the pressure energy of the water is frst converted into
kinetic energy of the water which in turn is partially converted into kinetic energy of
the abrasive particles. Figure 2.15a illustrates a jet former of Ingersoll-Rand, while
Figure 2.15b illustrates a sectional view of the same jet former. At the end of the
high-pressure tubing, an orifce is installed, which consists commonly of a hexago-
nal-rhombohedral sapphire Al2O3, a ruby, or diamond with a hole of 0.08 to 0.8 mm
inner diameter. Diameters under 0.25 mm are mainly used in high-pressure pure
22 Non-Traditional and Advanced Machining Technologies

FIGURE 2.15 Jet former: (a) Ingersoll-Rand (1996) and (b) cross-sectional view.

water jet cutting applications. Orifce diameters between 0.25 and 0.40 mm are used
in AWJM applications. Diameters over 0.40 mm are mainly used in low-pressure
cleaning applications of AWJ cleaning (Hoogstrate and van Luttervelt, 1997).
Through the orifce, Figure 2.15b, the high-pressure water is expelled, and pure
water jet is formed and directed into the mixing chamber. Through the interaction
of the pure water jet and the surrounding air a vacuum is created in the mixing
chamber causing airfow from outside through the abrasive channels to the mixing
chamber. In the mixing chamber, the jet loses its coherency; therefore, a focusing
tube, Figure 2.15b, is installed below the mixing chamber to restore the coherency
of the AWJ. The resulting diameter of the AWJ is nearly equal to the focusing tube
diameter. Figure 2.16 illustrates an assembly chart of the jet former of Ingersoll-
Rand. The design of the jet former is specifed by the following parameters:

• Water orifce diameter

• Distance along jet axis from orifce to entrance point
• Entrance direction (angle) of abrasives
• Cross-section of the abrasive feed channel
• Mixing chamber length/diameter ratio
• Diameter of focusing tube
• Length of focusing tube

Focusing tube (also called abrasive tube or accelerator tube): The performance of
the focusing tube depends upon:

• Geometry of the inlet zone

• Inner diameter of the tube: The smaller this diameter, the more concentrated
the total energy is. For reliable functioning, the focusing tube diameter
should be at least fve times the particle diameter.
Mechanical Non-Traditional Machining Operations 23

FIGURE 2.16 Assembly chart of jet former AWJM (Ingersoll-Rand, 1996).

• Length of the tube: Longer tubes produce a more coherent jet but cause
more friction between the jet and the tube wall, resulting in lower abrasive
jet velocities. Longer tubes are also more diffcult to align.

Mixing abrasives with water: Due to the complex turbulent nature of the mixing
process, not much modeling has been carried out. However, an acceptable theory
for the mixing of the particles and the jet in the focusing tube was developed. It
is assumed that each particle enters the water jet with a negligible velocity. It is
accelerated and pushed out of the water jet, hits the inner wall of the focusing tube,
rebounces and enters the water jet again. This happens until the velocity direction
24 Non-Traditional and Advanced Machining Technologies

of the particle is nearly parallel to the direction of the water jet, Figure 2.17. As a
consequence of this acceleration process, two effects are encountered:

1. The abrasive particles are fragmented due to collisions with the focusing tube
and other abrasive particles. This causes a signifcant diameter reduction of the
abrasive particles after the focusing process, Figure 2.18. Recycling of abrasives
does not seem interesting due to this particle fragmentation. Nevertheless,
abrasive recycling units have been recently introduced into the market.
2. The focusing tube is exposed to extremely abrasive conditions. Therefore,
it should be made of advanced wear-resistant materials which provide a

FIGURE 2.17 Abrasive acceleration in the focusing tube (Hoogstrate and van Luttervelt, 1997).

FIGURE 2.18 Wear of garnet grit in AWJM (Schmelzer, 1994).

Mechanical Non-Traditional Machining Operations 25

reliable and stable cutting over a longer service life as shown in Figure 2.19.
An intelligent nozzle system is proposed, in which a wear monitoring
system is implemented using a grid pattern of electrical conductive wires,
Figure 2.20, which is mounted on a focusing tube-tip to record the wear of
the inner diameter of the tube (Kovacetic, 1994). When the tube diameter
wears out, the wires will successively be interrupted which can be easily
signaled. This diameter information can be used to trigger the end of the
focusing tube life.

FIGURE 2.19 Wear of focusing tubes made of different materials (Product Information of
Allf AG, 1997).

FIGURE 2.20 Wear sensor for focusing tube exit diameter (Kovacevic, 1994).
26 Non-Traditional and Advanced Machining Technologies

Important characteristics of the AWJ: Five important AWJ characteristics must be

realized to perform effectively:

• Jet velocity determines the cutting capability

• Jet coherence determines the kerf shape and the quality of cut
• Abrasive/water mass ratio ensures optimum cutting effciency
• Rotational jet symmetry determines cutting capability in different directions
• Establishing a time-independent jet structure gives a uniform quality along
a cut in a workpiece

Computerized WJ and AWJ machines are now available on the market. They are
capable of loading a CAD drawing from another system, and to determine starting
and end points and the sequence of operations. Other CNC machines operate with
a modem and CAD/CAM capabilities that permit transfer from AUTOCAD, DXF
formats.

2.1.3.3 Process Capabilities

The typical machining variables of the AWJM process include:

• Water pressure
• Water nozzle diameter
• Geometry of focusing tube (length and diameter)
• Stand-off distance (SOD)
• Size and type of abrasive grits
• Abrasive/water ratio
• Hardness and strength of the workpiece material
• Type of workpiece material (metallic, non-metallic, or composite)

When machining glass by AWJ, a cutting rate of about 16–20 mm 3/min is

achieved. An AWJ cuts through 360-mm-thick slabs of concrete or 76-mm-thick
tool steel plates at a traverse speed of 38 mm/min in a single pass. When cutting
steel plates (or metallic materials), the surface roughness Rt ranges from 3.8 to
6.4 µm while tolerances of ±130 µm are obtainable. Repeatability of ±40 µm,
squariness of 43 µm/m, and straightness of 50 µm per axis are expected. Sand
and garnet are frequently used as abrasive materials. However, garnet is preferred
because it is 30% more effective then sand. A carrier liquid consisting of water
with anticorrosive additives contributes to higher acceleration of abrasives
with a consequent higher abrasive speed and increased material removal rate
(El-Hofy, 2005). The penetration depth increases with increasing water pressure
and decreasing traverse velocity, provided other working conditions are being
constant.
The stand-off distance (SOD) has an important effect on MRR and the accuracy.
It attains values between 0.5 and 5 mm. The smallest value (0.5 mm) realizes
higher accuracy and smallest kerf width, whereas the largest value (5 mm) realizes
the maximum MRR. Beyond 5 mm, the jet gradually loses gradually its cutting
Mechanical Non-Traditional Machining Operations 27

capability till it reaches 50 to 80 mm, at which the jet is used effciently in surface
cleaning and peening.
Table 2.2 illustrates the traverse velocities when cutting different materials of
different thicknesses using AWJ. Accordingly, it can be depicted that:

• Pure metals (Ti, Al) have the same machinability.

• Glass is cut at eight to ten times faster than metals and alloys.

Surface roughness depends on the workpiece material, grit size, and type of abra-
sives. A material with a high removal rate produces large surface roughness. For this
reason, fne grains are used for machining soft metals to obtain the same roughness
as hard ones. Additionally, the larger the abrasive/water ratio, the higher the MRR
will be (El-Hofy, 2005).
In the domain of composites, the abrasive water jet machining process is particularly
good as the cutting rates are considerably higher, and it does not delaminate the
layered material. A comparison study was carried out by König and Schmezler (1990)
to investigate the performance of WJM and AWJM when cutting a 5-mm-thick plate
of fber-reinforced plastic (FRP) under optimum working conditions:

WJ and AWJ
Water pressure = 300 MPa
Nozzle diameter = 0.225 mm
SOD = 5 mm
AWJ
Abrasives: Garnet # 80 mesh
Abrasive fow rate = 300 g/min

The outcome of this study shows that AWJM has realized a traverse velocity of
2000 mm/min, which is 40 times that realized by WJM. The surface roughness
as obtained by AWJM (Ra = 4.4 µm is about 30% less than that obtained by WJM
(Ra = 6.4 µm).

TABLE 2.2
Traverse Velocity (mm/min) when Machining Different Materials by AWJM
Material Thickness 6 mm 15 mm 19 mm 25 mm 50 mm
Titanium 250 150 100 50 16
Aluminum 250 150 100 50 16
FRP 500 280 130 75 25
Stainless steel 200 90 60 40 15
Glass 2000 1000 700 500 150

Source: (Youssef, 2005).