Radwa Ayman
Chapter One: Introduction: linguistic forms and functions
1.1 The Functions of Language
Brown and Yule explore the various roles language plays in communication,
focusing on two primary functions: transactional and interactional. Transactional
language is primarily concerned with conveying information. For example, when a
teacher explains a concept to students, the main goal is to impart knowledge clearly
and accurately. On the other hand, interactional language focuses on building
relationships and managing social interactions. A simple exchange like “How’s
your day?” serves no informational purpose but creates a sense of connection
between speakers.
These two functions often overlap in natural communication. A classroom
interaction, for example, may involve both transactional language (to explain
content) and interactional language (to engage students socially). The balance
between these functions reflects how language serves as both a tool for transmitting
facts and a means of establishing personal connections. Understanding these
functions helps clarify how language operates in different contexts, depending on
the speaker’s purpose.
1.1.2 The Relationship Between Language and Society
In this section, Brown and Yule discuss how language reflects and is shaped by
societal structures. Language is not just a tool for communication but a reflection of
the cultural and social environment in which it is used. For instance, the way people
speak varies depending on factors like social class, profession, and context. In a
formal setting, like a corporate meeting, individuals might use more complex and
formal language, while in informal settings, like a gathering with friends, more
casual speech is common.
The relationship between language and society is dynamic. Language is not only
influenced by societal norms but also has the power to reinforce and challenge
them. For example, the use of gender-neutral terms in the workplace challenges
traditional gender roles. Brown and Yule emphasize that understanding the social
contexts in which language is used is key to understanding its true function.
1.2 Levels of Discourse
1.2.1 The Linguistic Units of Discourse
Brown and Yule describe discourse as composed of different linguistic units,
including sentences, utterances, and turns. Sentences are the most formal and
structured units of language, typically found in written discourse. In contrast,
utterances are the building blocks of spoken language and may not follow the
grammatical rules of written sentences. They are often incomplete or fragmented,
depending on the speaker’s intent and the context of the conversation.
Turn-taking is another essential feature of discourse. In spoken communication,
individuals take turns speaking, and these turns are often managed by social
conventions. For example, in a conversation, speakers use cues such as pauses or
rising intonation to signal when they have finished speaking or when they want the
other person to take a turn. Turn-taking plays a critical role in shaping the flow of
conversation and ensuring that communication is smooth and coherent.
1.2.2 Syntax and Pragmatics in Discourse
Brown and Yule emphasize the interplay between syntax (the structure of
sentences) and pragmatics (the use of language in context). Syntax refers to the
rules that govern sentence structure—how words and phrases are arranged to create
meaningful sentences. Pragmatics, on the other hand, is concerned with the social
and contextual aspects of language use, such as understanding the speaker’s
intention or interpreting indirect speech acts. For example, the question “Can you
pass the salt?” is syntactically a question, but pragmatically, it is a request.
The authors highlight that syntax and pragmatics work together in discourse.
While syntax ensures that sentences are grammatically correct, pragmatics ensures
that the sentences make sense in a specific context. For instance, when someone
says “I’m fine, thanks” in response to “How are you?”, the syntactic structure is
clear, but the pragmatic understanding relies on recognizing that the speaker is not
likely to be offering an extensive description of their emotions.
1.3 Spoken and Written Language
1.3.1 The Characteristics of Spoken Language
Brown and Yule explore the unique features of spoken language, such as its
spontaneity, context-dependency, and informality. Spoken language is often
produced in real-time, and speakers don’t have the chance to plan or edit their
words. As a result, spoken language tends to be more disjointed, with frequent
pauses, fillers, and interruptions. For example, a conversation might include
utterances like “Well, I… um… I think I was going to say…” reflecting the
spontaneous nature of speech.
Context plays a significant role in spoken discourse. In a face-to-face
conversation, speakers rely heavily on non-verbal cues—such as facial
expressions, gestures, and tone of voice—to convey meaning. These cues help to
clarify the intended message and facilitate communication. For example, a sarcastic
remark like “Great job!” is often accompanied by a specific tone of voice and a
facial expression that signal the speaker’s true intent.
1.3.2 The Characteristics of Written Language
In contrast to spoken language, written language is more planned and
structured. Writers have the opportunity to revise and refine their ideas, resulting
in a more formal, coherent presentation of information. Written texts often follow
strict grammatical rules, and punctuation helps to convey meaning that would
otherwise be signaled by intonation or gestures in spoken communication. For
example, the difference between “Let’s eat, Grandma” and “Let’s eat Grandma”
illustrates how punctuation can drastically change the meaning of a sentence.
Brown and Yule note that while written language tends to be more formal and
structured, it lacks the immediacy and interactional features of spoken language.
Writing also requires the reader to interpret meaning without the assistance of face-
to-face interaction, which places more emphasis on clarity and precision in the
language.
1.4 The Role of Context in Discourse
1.4.1 Understanding Context in Communication
Brown and Yule stress that context is a critical factor in understanding discourse.
Context can be categorized into two types: situational context and cultural
context. Situational context refers to the immediate environment in which
communication occurs, including factors like the time, place, and social roles of the
participants. For example, the phrase “Could you open the window?” might be
interpreted as a polite request in one setting and as a command in another,
depending on the social roles of the speaker and listener.
Cultural context, on the other hand, refers to the broader societal norms and values
that influence how language is used. Brown and Yule emphasize that effective
communication requires an understanding of both situational and cultural context.
For example, the use of formal language in some cultures, such as Japanese
honorifics, signals respect and hierarchy, while in other cultures, such as in many
English-speaking countries, informality is more common in everyday interactions.
1.5 Conclusion
In conclusion, Brown and Yule’s first chapter on discourse analysis lays the
groundwork for understanding how language functions in both transactional and
interactional ways. They highlight the importance of syntax and pragmatics in
shaping how language is used, and they emphasize the distinct characteristics of
spoken and written language. By exploring the relationship between language and
society, as well as the critical role of context, Brown and Yule offer a
comprehensive framework for analyzing how communication operates in real-world
settings. Understanding these elements is essential for anyone studying discourse,
as it reveals the complexity of language use in both formal and informal
interactions.
