Introduction to Comparative Politics
The words ‘Compare and Contrast’ semantically seem
to mean the same thing; or at best seem to be two sides of
the same coin. As it is difficult to compare without
contrasting, and vice versa. The word and tendency to
compare is as old as mankind. Comparing and contrasting is
a common human mental exercises over time. Every field of
human endeavor whether science, Technology, liberal arts,
or social sciences.
In case of political science, the use of comparisons is very
old, dating in the western world from ancient Greek
philosopher, Aristotle, who analyzed and compared the city-
states of Greece in the 4th century. He compared these cities
according to whether they were ruled by a single individual,
a few people, or all citizens. The modern study of
comparative politics refines and systematizes this age-old
practice of evaluating some features of country X’s politics
by comparing it to the same features of country X’s politics.
I. Comparative Politics
Is a subfield within the academic discipline of Political
science as well as a method or approach to the study of politics.
The subject matter of comparative politics is the domestic
politics of countries. Within the discipline of political science,
comparative politics is one of areas of specialization.
Level of Analysis
Comparisons can be useful for political analysis at several
different levels of a country, such as cities, regions, provinces, or
states. A good way to begin the study of comparative politics is
with countries. Countries are distinct, politically defined territories
that encompass governments, composed of institutions, as well
as cultures, economies and collective identities.
II. Themes For Comparative Analysis
This topic will discuss four themes that is normally employed
to organize the description of political institutions, processes, and
issues. These themes help explain continuous and contrasts among
countries. It provides a guide to understanding many features of
contemporary. The themes are;
q A world of states,
q Governing the Economy,
q The politics of collective identities and
q The democratic idea.
Theme I: A World of States
A world of states, reflects the fact that for about 500 years,
states have been major actors in global politics. There are nearly
200 independent states in the world today. International
organizations such as the UN, private actors like transnational
corporations, such as Microsoft, NGOs such as Amnesty
International may play a crucial role in politics.
THEME 2: GOVERNING THE ECONOMY.
The success of states in maintaining sovereign authority and
control over their people is greatly affected by their ability to ensure
that enough goods are produce and services delivered to satisfy
the needs and demands of their populations. Citizens discontent
with communist states in adequate economy performance where
an important reason for the rejection of communism and
disintegration of the soviet union and its alien in eastern Europe in
1989. In contrast, china’s stunning success in promoting economic
development has generated powerful support for the communist
regime in that country.
Theme 3: The Politics of Collective Identities
The politics of collective political identity involves efforts to
mobilize identity groups to influence political outcomes, ranging from
the state’s distribution of benefits, to economic and educational policy
or the basis for political representation, and even territorial claims.
Identity based conflicts appear in most societies. Politics in democratic
societies involves a tug of war among groups over relative power and
influence, both symbolic and substantive. Issues of inclusion, political
recognition, representation, resource allocation, etc. remain crucial in
many countries.
Collective identities operate at the level of symbols, attitudes, values,
and beliefs and material resources. In most cases groups are
influenced by feelings of attachment and solidarity and the desire to
obtain material benefits and political influence for their members. The
non material benefits of collective identities are ethnicity, religions, etc.
Theme 4: The Democratic Idea
One of the most important and astonishing political
developments in recent years has been the rapid spread of
democracy throughout much of the world. There is powerful
evidence of strong appeal of democracy, that is, a regime in
which the citizens exercise substantial control over choice of
political leaders and decisions made by their governments.
BRITIAN
Location: Western Europe
Capital city: London
Population (2010) 60.8 million
The core of the British political organization is
parliamentary sovereignty. Parliament can make or
overturn any law; the executive, the judiciary or the
monarch do not have any author9ity to restrict, veto, or
otherwise overturn parliamentary action. In a classic
parliamentary democracy, the Prime Minister is answerable
to the House of commons (the elected element of
parliament) and may be dismissed by it.
Second, Britain has long been a unitary state. By contrast to the United states,
where powers not delegated to the national government are reserved for the
states. No power are reserved constitutionally for sub-central units in the
United Kingdom.
Third, Britain has a system of fusion of powers, at the national level.
Parliament is supreme legislature executive and judicial authority and include
monarch as well as the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The
fusion of legislature and executive is also expressed in the function and
personnel of the cabinet U.S. Presidents can direct or ignore their cabinets,
which have no constitutionally mandated function, but the British cabinet
bears enormous constitutional responsibility. Though collective decision –
making the cabinet, and not the independent prime-minister, shapes, directs,
and taken responsibility for government. In the recent time there were
exceptions like Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair, with extra-ordinary influence
over the cabinet.
v Britain is a constitutional monarchy.
The Executive
The term cabinet government, emphasizes the key
functions that cabinet exercises, responsibility for policy making,
supreme control of government, coordination of all government
departments.
Cabinet Government After the general election, the crown
invites the leader of the party that emerges from the election
with control of a majority of seats in the house of commons to
form a government and serve as prime minister. The prime
minster selects approximately two dozen ministers for the
cabinet, prominent among them are the foreign office
[equivalent of the U.S secretary of state], the home office
[internal affairs], ministry of justice or attorney general, the
chancellor of the exchequer [finance minister].unlike U.S and
French constitution which prohibits a cabinet minister from
serving in the legislature, British constitutional tradition requires
overlapping membership between parliament and cabinet. A
member of Parliament (MP) or less commonly, a member of
House of Lords.
Institutional Differences
Among the institutional differences that matter most is the
distinction between presidential system such as the U.S. and
parliamentary system such as the U.K.
In a presidential system, the legislature and executive are
independent. Both the legislature and the chief executive have their
own fixed schedule for election and their own political mandate. The
relationship between the legislature and executive may be cordial or
antagonistic; hence some levels of compromises are expected from
time to time.
Prime Ministers, in contrast must enjoy the support of the majority of
the legislature to stay in office. In parliamentary system the Prime
Minister and the legislators swim or sink together, hence hey tend to
cooperate and work through differences. In a presidential system like
U.S., because the legislature and executive are mutually
independent, one can swim, while the other sinks.
FRANCE
Official Name: French Republic
Location: Western Europe
Capital city: Paris
Population (2007): 63.7 million
Introduction
France is among the world’s formed countries, thank to its temperate climate, large
and fertile land area, rich culture, and prosperous economy. Its natural beauty, super
architecture, culture, and cuisine make France the most popular tourist destination in the
world.
France occupies a key strategic position in Europe. It borders the Mediterranean sea in the
south and shares borders with Belgium, Switzerland, and Germany on the North and East. Spain
lies to the South West, Italy to the South East. With a population of over 63 million, France is
among the most populous countries in Western Europe. But its large area – 211,000sq miles
means that population density is how (about half that of Britain, Germany, and Italy).
French Revolution, 1789 – 1815
The French revolution of 1789 was a political and national
revolution. It installed a republic to replace the French monarchy. This
meant that political offices were supposed to be filled in the basis of
individual talent rather than inheritance. It was an international
revolution. It inspired national uprisings in Europe, although they were
often supported by French armed intervention. It was liberal. It
championed individual liberty in the political and economic spheres, as
well as secularism and religions freedom. It was democratic. It
proclaimed that all citizens have an equal right to participate in key
political decisions.
The revolutionary regime proclaimed liberty, equality and
fraternity while the revolution toppled the ancient regime it strengthened
state institutions. Under Napoleon Bonaparte, state institution were
created to survive about 101 departments that comprise present day
France were created. Each department is administered by a prefect
appointed by the central government.
The Executive
France was the first major country to adopt a semi-
presidential system. After the fall of communism, however,
Russia was inspired by the French example. Many other
countries since then have adopted a semi-presidential system,
including Austria, Finland, Iceland, Pakistan, Portugal, Fri Lanka
and (most recently) Iraq.
Most of the time, the French President possesses more
power than the U.S. President the directs the executive branch
and is independent of the legislature. Yet he controls
parliament’s agenda and can dissolve parliament. When the
same party coalition wins presidential and parliamentary
elections, there is thus united control of the two branches, the
president is more powerful than the chief executive in virtually
any other democratic nation.
The Constitutional Presidency
A candidate for President must be a French citizen at least twenty-
three years old. Presidents serve a five year term. There is no limit to
how many terms a president can serve. There is no office of vice
president if a president dies in office, the president of senate (the
upper house of parliament) acts as interim president. A new
presidential election is held within a short time.
The constitution grants the president the following political powers.
The president names the prime minister, approves the prime minister’s
choice of other cabinet officials, and names high-ranking civil,
military, and judicial officials.
- The president presides over meetings of the council of
ministers. Note that the constitution entrusts the president, not the
prime minister, with this responsibility.
- The president conducts foreign affairs, through the power to
negotiate and ratify treaties. He also names French ambassadors and
accredits foreign ambassadors to France.
- The president direct armed forces, and has exclusive control
over France’s nuclear forces since 1964.
- The president may dissolve the National Assembly and call new
elections.
- The president appoints three of the nine members of the
constitutional council, including its president. He can also refer bills
passed by parliament to the council to determine if they violate the
constitution.
- Article 16 authorizes the president to assume emergency
powers in a grave crisis, however, subject to check by constitutional
council.
- Article 89 grants the president, with the approval of the
Prime Minister, to propose constitutional amendments, subject
to approval of both chambers of parliament, ratified by either
national referendum or a 3/5 with of both houses of parliament
meeting together as a congress.
- The president can organize referendum to approve
important policy initiatives or re-organize political institutions.
- Articles 5 directs the president to be an arbiter to ensure
“the regular functioning of the government authorities, as well
as the continuance of the state.
Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is responsible for translating general
policies intro specific programs and supervising the
implementation of policy.
The Prime-minister shepherds government proposals
through parliament, drums up popular support for the
president, takes the heat on controversial issues, and
supervises the bureaucracy.
Most cabinet members, also known as ministers, are
senior politicians from the dominant parliamentary coalition.
Cabinet ministers direct the government ministries. Positions
in the cabinet are allotted to political parties in rough
proportion to their strength in the parliamentary coalition. An
attempt is also made to ensure regional balance.
United States of America
Location: North America between Canada and Mexico
Capital City: Washington DC
Population: (2010) 308.7 million
Size: 9,826,630 sq km about half the size of South America;
slightly larger than China.
Introduction Geographic Setting
The limited states occupy nearly half of North America. Its only two
neighbours Mexico and Canada, do not present a military threat and are
linked in a comprehensive trade agreement: the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The US territory is rich in natural resources,
arable land, navigable rivers, and protected ports. This abundance has
led Americans to assume they will always have enough resources to meet
national needs. Finally, the US has always had low population identities
and has serve as a magnet for international migration.
European colonialization led to the eventual
unification of the territory from the Atlantic to the
Pacific oceans. This process began in 1500s and
reached its peak in 19th century when rapid
population expansion was reinforced by an imperialist
national ideology (manifest destiny) to expand all the
why to pacific. Native Americans were pushed aside.
The United states experimented with colonialism
around 1900, annexing Hawan’s, Guam, the North
Monanas Islands, and Poverto Rico.
Political System Presidential system.
Regime History: Representative democracy,
Political structure: Federalism, with powers shared between the
national government and fifty state governments; separation
of powers at the level of national government among
legislative, executive and judicial branches.
q Executive: President directly elected (with electoral college
that officially elects president and vice president) for a four
year term, cabinet is advisory group of heads of major
federal agencies and other senior officials selected by the
president to aid in decision-making but with no formal
authority.
Legislature
Bicameral, congress composed of a lower house of
Representatives of 435 members serving two-year terms
and an upper house (senate) of 100 members (two from
each state) serving six-year terms; elected in single-
member districts (or in case of senate by simple plurality
(some states require a majority of voters).
Judiciary: Supreme court with nine justices nominated by
President and confirmed by the senate.
Judiciary
For life time terms, with one of their number appointed
as Chief Justice.
Below Supreme Court, there are about 750 Federal court
judges who must be nominated by the President and
approved by the Senate.
The Supreme Court judges can be removed from office only
for serious dereliction of duty.
Sub National Government
The United States is a federation in which powers are
divided between the national government in Washington
DC and the government of 50 states, each with its own
constitution, elected Governor, and state legislature and
constitutional court.
The federal government is responsible for economic, foreign
and defense policy.
State and Local Governments are responsible are
responsible for managing most of the welfare system,
maintaining the high ways, managing land use, executing
federal laws and regulations, and overseeing education
and policy.
The United States is too big and heterogeneous to be
governed under a kind of unitary system of administration
used in Britain and Japan.
Ø Federalism helps to deal with size and diversity of the
country;
Ø Allows different states to adopt different positions on key
issues that are more in tune with local opinion
Ø Offers citizens more opportunities for participation in
government
Disadvantages of Federalism
Ø It can slow down the process of law making
Ø It can make people too focused on narrow goals and
value rather than looking at the broader national
interest.
Ø It can hamper the ability of the national to reduce
economic and social differences within a country.
NIGERIA
Nigeria: A country in West Africa.
Population: 160 Million.
National Headquarter: Abuja.
Introduction
Nigeria is the biggest country in Africa, with an estimated population of about
145 Million.
Growing annually at 2.4 percent, the population is expected to double within
25 years, straining an infrastructure that is already inadequate.
Nigeria core economic problem is its heavy reliance in oil, which account for nearly 99%
of exports. Not only does this mean that the size and health of the entire economy is
driven by the international price of oil, but also are government revenues.
In social terms, Nigeria has several critical divisions. The most important is
ethnicity. Between 250 and 400 different ethnics groups inhabits Nigeria. The biggest are
the Hausa-Fulani in the North (28-30 percent of the population): the Yoruba in the
Southwest (about 20 percent) and the Igbo in the Southeast (17 percent).
Nigeria is also divided by religion with a mainly Muslim North and
non-Muslim South. Just half of Nigerians are Muslim, 45 percent are
Christians and the rest followed traditional religions.
Nigeria is also divided by region, with a north that is dry and poor
and south that is better endowed in resources and basic services:
Lagos alone has 10 times the elementary school enrollment of the
northern region and 6 times as many hospitals beds. Most of the best
agricultural land is in the heavily populated south, while most of the
northern half of the country is savannah or semi-deserts limiting the
potential for agriculture.
Regional tension have been made worse by oil, most of which lies either
in the South or off coast of Nigeria, but many of the other profits from
which have gone to political elites in other parts of the country.
The Constitution
Nigeria has had nine constitutions since the world War II; namely Clifford
constitution (1922); Richards constitution 1946-47; Macpherson constitution 1951;
Lyttleton constitution 1954; Independence constitution 1960; Republican
Constitution 1963; 1979 constitution to usher in second Republic; 1989 constitution
of Nigeria’s Aborted Third Republican of Babangida era and 1999 constitution of
the Nigeria’s Fourth Republic.
The 1999 Presidential constitution of Nigeria borrows heavily from its
predecessors. Nigeria constitution is both long and detailed in order to minimize
chances of misinterpretation.
For instance Nigeria constitution has 320 articles while the US has just seven.
Nigeria constitution of 1999 has several schedules, lengthy list outlining the policy
responsibilities of the different branches of government, and just in case any one
has any doubts- includes a glossary defining the meaning of terms such as
authority, decision, government and law.
Although there are many similarities with the US model. It contains several
features that reflect the peculiar problems and needs of Nigeria:
National Unity: with emphasis that Nigeria is indivisible and indissoluble.
I. The duty of the state (country) is to offer loyalty, encourage inter-ethnic
marriage, linguistics association or ties, religions harmony etc. it is hard to
imagine this idea being added to the U.S constitution.
II. It also included measures designed to make sure that national government is
not dominated by one region or ethnic group.
For example President must win at least 25% of the vote in two-thirds of Nigeria’s 36
states. And ministers must be drawn from all the 36 states of Nigerian federation.
III. Seven articles discuss citizenship, and thirteen articles outline the fundamental
rights of citizens e.g torture, slavery, forced labour, privacy of homes, Phone
conversations etc. discrimination on the ground of place of origin, sex, religion,
status, ethnic or linguistic association or ties.
The Executive: President
Under the fourth Republic the President is elected by direct
universal vote to a four-year term in office, renewable once.
The Nigerian Presidential constitution is based on a clear division of
power among executive, legislative and judiciary arms.
The President has the power of appointment, but all senior
nominations must be approved by the senate.
President is the commander –in-chief of Nigerian Armed Forces, but
he cannot declare war without the approval of the National Assembly.
He has power trof veto, but this can be overturned by the National
Assembly with a two-third majority.
The president governs in conjunction with a cabinet of ministers,
formally (officially) known as the Government of the federation.
The number of ministers and their portfolios can be changed by
the President without senate approval, but there must be one minister
from each of Nigeria’s 36 states, and all ministers must be confirmed by
the Senate.
Nigeria also has a Vice President, who would step into
Presidency in the event of the death, resignation, or removal of the
incumbent.
In order to ensure that no single ethnic group dominates
government, the constitution requires that vice President come from a
different part of the country from that of President.
The Legislature: National Assembly
Nigeria has a bicameral legislature consisting of Federal House of
Representatives and Senate. The combinations of the two constitute
National Assembly.
The National Assembly has the power to check and balance the
Executive.
Senate
Represents all the states of the Federation on equal basis: in other
words, the senate has 109 members: three each from Nigeria’s 36 States
and one from the Federal capital Territory of Abuja.
Unlike the U.S. where U.S. Senators represents their entire state,
Nigeria has opted for a system in which each state is divided into three
senatorial districts, and the candidate who wins the most votes in each
district is declared the winner.
Senators served fixed and renewable terms of four years, and they
all come up for re-election at the same time.
The Senate is presided over by a president elected from among its
members, otherwise known as Senate-President or President of the Senate.
The Senate President is the third in hierarchy to the President of Nigeria
after the Vice – President.
House of Representatives
The Federal House of Representative is the lower chamber with 360
members elected on a single – member, winner-take-all basis from distinct
of roughly equal population size.
It is presided by a speaker elected among its members
Like Senate members are elected for fixed four-year and renewable terms
and elections to both chambers are held at the same time.
In line with principle of separation of powers, any member of
National Assembly appointed to a position in government, or wins a seat in
state or local government must give up their National Assembly seat.
Both chambers must meet for at least six months each calendar
year; have the same power to initiate, change and approve legislation;
and normally conduct all their business in English.
Every member is expected to declare assets and liabilities before
National conduct Bureau before taking up his/her seat in National
Assembly.
Judiciary
The Supreme Court is the apex of the Nigeria Judicial System. It is
headed by Chief Justice of the Federation. The National Judicial
Commission normally nominates the most senior judge of Supreme Court
following the vacancy of the office to the President. The President will in
turn forward such name to the Senate for confirmation.
Below the Supreme Court is Federal court of Appeal – headed by
President of court of Appeal.
There are Federal and State High courts and a separate system of
sharia courts to deal with issues of Islamic law.
Sharia courts have been limited to about 12 northern states; they
deal with matters of family law and petty crimes
