POULTRY PRODUCTION

The term ―Poultry‖ indicates all domesticated avian species such as chicken,
ducks, turkeys, Japanese quail, guinea fowls, geese, pigeons, ostrich, emu etc. Although very
often used as synonymous to chicken.
Common terms used in Poultry
Adult
Species Young
Male Female
Chicken Chick Cock Hen

Definitions
Bill: The beak of duck.
Broiler / Fryer: It is a bird of about 5 weeks of age of either sex (straight-run chicks) with an
average body weight of 1.8 to 2.0 kg with a flexible breast bone cartilage, pliable and tender
meat.
Brooder: Metallic or wooden equipment used for artificial brooding of baby chicks.
Candling: The process of visual examination of an intact egg, by holding between the eye and
a lighted candle or other source of light to determine the interior quality, shell soundness or
stage of embryonic development.
Capon: Surgically castrated male less than 10 months of age.
Clutch: Eggs laid by a hen on consecutive days without break are referred as ‗Clutch‘.
Cull: Unproductive hen.
Culling: Elimination of unproductive or undesirable bird.
Debeaking / Beak trimming: Removal of a portion of beak
Desi fowl: Indigenous or native fowl.
Desnooding: Removal of snood in turkeys
Down time: Period between culling of one batch and introduction of new batch of birds in the
shed.
Dubbing: The process of removal of comb and wattles at day-old age with the help of
scissors.
Egg tooth: Small horny protrusion on the tip of chick‘s beak used to pip the egg shell when
hatching. It drops off soon after chicks‘ escapes from the egg.
Green Duck: Ducks used for meat production which are marketed from 9 to 16 weeks of age.
Hatchery: A building where incubators are kept for hatching purpose.
Layer: A mature female fowl kept for egg laying purpose.
Livability: Ability of individual bird to live and remain vigorous and productive.
Moulting: Molting is the act or process of shedding and renewing feathers.
Pause: Interval between clutches.
Photoperiod: Period of illumination by both natural and artificial means.
Pipping: The act of pecking the shell and shell membrane by the chick in order to break the
shell and hatch out of the shell.
Roaster: A broiler grown upto the age of 9 – 11 weeks to a body weight of 2.5 to 3.0 kg
Snood: A small muscular structure hanging from the base of beak in turkeys is called ―Snood‖
CLASS, BREEDS, VARIETIES AND STRAINS OF POULTRY
Class: In poultry it is used to designate group of birds that have been developed in certain
geographical areas or regions
For example: American, English, Mediterranean and Asiatic
Breed: It refers to group of birds with common ancestors and having similarity in shape,
confirmation, growth, temperament, shell colour of eggs etc.
For example: Leghorn, Rhode Island Red, Australorp, Aseel etc.
Variety: A variety is a subdivision of a breed, distinguished either by colour, comb type
feather pattern etc from other group of the same breed.
For example: White Leghorn, Brown Leghorn, White Plymouth Rock,
Barred Plymouth Rock, Black Minorca etc.
Strains: Strains are closely related inbred flocks with definite economic characters. A strain
is the name given by a breeder who has done breeding on the birds and introduced certain
economic characters in the birds. A breed or a variety may have several strains and may be
phenotypically alike but often differ on their production performance depending upon
breeding history.
For example: Babcock, Bovans, Hyline, Hisex, Lohmann (Layer strain)
Cobb, Hubbard, Ross, Hybro (Broiler strain)

BREEDS OF POULTRY
Class Breed Variety
American class Barred
Plymouth Rock
1. Clean shank White
 2. Yellow skin Buff
3. Red ear lobe Patridge
4. Dual purpose bird Silver penciled
5. Medium size Single comb
Rhode Island Red
6. Brown shelled eggs Rose Comb

New Hamp Shire Single comb

Asiatic class Brahma Light brahma

1. Feathered shank Dark brahma
2. Yellow skin Long shan Black
3. Red ear lobe White
4. Meat purpose Cochin Black
5. Massive size White
6. Brown shelled eggs Buff
Patridged
Mediterranean class Leghorn Single & Rose comb (white)
1. Clean shank Single & Rose comb (Light brown)
2. Yellow/white skin Single & Rose comb (Dark brown)
3. White ear lobe Single comb (Buff)
4. Egg purpose bird Minorca Single & Rose comb (white)
5. Small size Single & Rose comb (Black)Single
6. White shelled eggs comb (Buff)

English class Australorp (Black Black

1. Clean shank Shank)
2. White skin Cornish (Yellow White
3. Red ear lobe skin and Pea Dark
4. Dual purpose comb)
bird
5. Medium size
6. Brown shelled
eggs

Indian chicken breeds:

1. Kadaknath (Block coloured meat)
 2. Aseel (Used for fighting purpose)
3. Chittagong and 4. Busra
Note:
1. Araucana is an American breed, which lays blue or green coloured eggs.
2. Aseel is an Indigenous game fowl used for fighting purpose.
3. Frizzle is an asiatic breed, which is notable for its curved feather formation. Each
feather is curled towards the head of the bird.
4. Silkie is an Asian breed, which has persistent broody character.
5. White Leghorn is the most popular egg type breed.
Commercial layer strains developed by private sectors in India:
Breeder
S.No. Commercial strains Remarks
Name
1 Babcock B300 / ISA white 70% of Indian share
2 Hendrix Bovans white 10% of Indian share
Hy-Line Brown
Popular strain in world;
3 Hy-Line Hy-Line White
The egg size is smaller

USA bird;Largest selling white egg

4 Dekalb Dekalb XL (white)
bird in the world.
1) Lohmann White
5 Lohmann 10% of Indian share
2) Lohmann Brown
Commercial broiler strains developed by private sectors in India:
Breeder
S.No. Commercial strains Remarks
Name
1) Cobb 100
1 Cobb 40-50% of Indian market
2) Cobb 400
2 Hubbard Hubbard Hi-Y
Next to cobb in India; 35-40% of
3 Ross Ross 308
Indian market.

POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION

Need for poultry house

1) To protect birds from adverse climatic conditions
 2) To ensure easy and economic operation
3) To ensure scientific feeding in a controlled manner
4) To facilitate proper micro-climatic conditions in a near vicinity of bird
5) For effective disease control measures
6) To ensure proper supervision
Different types of poultry houses
1) Brooder / chick house
It is used to brood and rear egg-type chicks from 0 to 8 weeks of age.
2) Grower house
It is used to grow egg-type birds from 9 to 18 weeks of age.
3) Brooder cum grower house
Here, the birds are reared from 0 to 18 weeks of age (entire brooding and growing
period of egg-type chicken).
4) Layer house
In which birds over 18 weeks of age are reared, usually up to 72 weeks of age.
5) Broiler house
In which broilers are reared up to 6 weeks of age.
6) Breeder house
In which both male and female breeders are maintained at appropriate sex ratio.
7) Environmentally controlled (EC) house
In which, entire environment is manipulated in such a way that is optimum for the
birds growth.
Optimal environmental conditions for rearing
broilers Temperature - 22-300C (70-850F)
Relative Humidity - 30-60 %
Ammonia level - Less than 25 ppm
Litter moisture - 15-25%
Air flow - 10-30 metres/minute
Location
1) Poultry house should be located away from residential and industrial area.
2) It should have proper road facilities
3) It should have the basic amenities like water and electricity.
4) Availability of farm labourers at relatively cheaper wages.
5) Poultry house should be located in an elevated area and there should not be any
 water-logging.
6) It should have proper ventilation.
Layout of poultry farm
The basic principles to be observed for layout are,
1) The sheds should be so located that the fresh air first passes through the brooder
shed, followed by grower and layer sheds. This prevents the spread of diseases from layer
houses to brooder house.
2) There should be a minimum distance of 50-100 feet between chick and grower
shed and the distance between grower and layer sheds should be of minimum 100 metre.
3) The egg store room, office room and the feed store room should be located near
entrance to minimize the movement of people around the poultry sheds.
4) The disposal pit and sick room should be constructed only at the extreme end of the
site.
DETAILS OF OPEN-SIDED POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION
1) House Orientation (Direction)
The poultry house should be located in such a way that long axis is in east-west
direction. This will prevent the direct sunshine over the birds.

2) Size
Each broiler require one square foot of floor space while a layer requires two square
feet of floor space under deep-litter system of rearing. So the size of the house depends on
the number of birds to be reared.
3) Length
 The length of the house can be of any extent. The number of birds reared and
availability of the land determines the length of poultry house.
4) Width
The open sided poultry houses in tropical countries should have a width not more than
22 to 25 feet in order to allow ample ventilation and aeration at the mid-portion. In
environmentally controlled poultry houses, the width of the house may be even 40 feet or
more since the ventilation is controlled with the help of exhaust fans.
5) Height
The height of the sides from foundation to the roof line should be 6 to 7 feet (eaves
height) and at the centre 10 to 12 feet. In case of cage houses, the height is decided by the
type of cage arrangements (3 tier or 4 tier).
6) Floor
The floor should be made of concrete with rat proof device and free from dampness.
The floor of the house should be extended 1.5 feet outside the wall on all sides to prevent rat
and snake problems.
7) Doors
The door must be open outside in case of deep-litter poultry houses. The size of door
is preferably 6 x 2.5 feet. At the entry, a foot bath should be constructed to fill with a
disinfectant.
8) Side walls
The side wall should be of 1-1.5 feet height, and generally at the level of bird‘s back
height. This side wall protects the bird during rainy days or chill climate and also provides
sufficient ventilation. In case of cage houses, no side wall is needed.
9) Roof
The roof of the poultry house may be thatched, tiled, asbestos or concrete one
depending upon the cost involvement. Different types of roofs are Shed, Gable, half-monitor,
full-monitor (Monitor), Flat concrete, Gambrel, Gothic etc. Gable type is mostly preferred in
tropical countries like India.
10) Overhang
The overhang of the roof should not be less than 3.5 feet in order to prevent the entry
of rain water into the shed.
SYSTEMS OF POULTRY HOUSING
Poultry can be housed under different systems based on following factors,
1) Availability of land
2) Cost of land
3) Type of farming activity
4) Climatic condition
5) Labour availability
Broadly, poultry housing systems are classified into three systems:
1) Free range or extensive system
2) Semi-intensive system
3) Intensive system
a) Deep-litter system
b) Cage system
1) Free range system
This system is adopted only when adequate land is available to ensure desired
stocking density by avoiding overcrowding. We can rear about 250 adult birds per hectare.
Foraging is the major source of feeding for birds. Shelter is usually provided by temporary
roofing supported by ordinary poles. This system is most preferred for organic egg
production.
Advantages
1) Less capital investment
2) Cost of housing is least.
3) Feed requirements are less since birds can consume fairly good amount of feed from
grass land.
4) Fertility of soil can be maintained.
Disadvantages
1) The scientific management practices can not be adopted.
2) Eggs are lost when laid inside the dense grasses unless special nests are provided.
3) Losses due to predatory animals are more.
4) Wild birds may bring diseases unless proper care is taken.
2) Semi-intensive system
As the name indicates birds are half-way reared in houses and half-way on ground or
range, i.e. birds are confined to houses in night or as per need and they are also given access
to runs. The houses are with solid floors while runs are fields only. The stocking density rate
on an average for adult birds is 750 per hectare. The feeding and watering facilities are
provided in the pen.
Advantages
1) More economical use of land compared to free range system
2) Protection of birds from extreme climatic conditions
3) Control over scientific operation is some extent possible
Disadvantages
1) High cost for fencing.
2) Need for routine cleaning and removal of litter material from the pen.
3) Intensive system
Birds are totally confined to houses either on ground / floor or on wire-netting floor in
cages or on slats. It is the most efficient, convenient and economical system for modern
poultry production with huge numbers.
Advantages
1) Minimum land is required for farming.
2) Farms can be located near market area.
3) Day-to-day management is easier.
4) The production performance is higher as more energy is saved due to restricted
movements.
5) Scientific management practices like breeding, feeding, medication, culling etc. can
be applied easily and accurately.
6) The sick birds can be detected, isolated and treated easily.
Disadvantages
1) Birds‘ welfare is affected. They can not perform the natural behaviour like roosting,
spreading wings, scratching the floor with legs etc.
2) Since they are not exposed to outside sunlight and feed sources, all the nutrients
should be provided in balanced manner to avoid nutritionally deficient diseases.
3) Chances for spreading of diseases are more.
 DEEP LITTER SYSTEM
In this system the birds are kept inside the house all the time. Arrangement for feed,
water and nest are made inside the house. The birds are kept on suitable litter material of
about 3‖ to 5‖ depth. Usually paddy husk, saw dust, ground nut hulls, chopped paddy straw
or wood shavings are used as litter materials. The litter is spread on the floor in layers of 2‖
height every fortnightly till the required is achieved.

Advantages
1) Vit B2 and Vit B12 are made available to birds from the litter material by the
bacterial action.
2) The welfare of birds is maintained to some extend
3) The deep litter manure is a useful fertilizer.
4) Lesser nuisance from flies when compared to cage system.
Disadvantages
1) Because of the direct contact between bird and litter, bacterial and parasitic
disease may be a problem.
2) Respiratory problems may emerge due to dust from the litter.
3) The cost of litter is an additional expenditure on production cost.
4) Faults in ventilation can have more serious consequences than in the cage system
Litter management
Qualities of good litter material
1) It must absorb moisture from droppings quickly
2) It must release moisture and dries up rapidly
3) It must have least tendency to form cakes
4) It must be free from mould growth
5) It must be free from sharp objects and other objectionable materials.
6) It must be non-toxic, inert and compressible.
7) It should possess good insulating properties and protect chicks from extremes of
climate.
8) It must be cheap and locally available
9) It must be biodegradable, supply some nutrients to the birds and form a good
quality manure later.
10) It must have medium particle size, soft and light in weight.
 Quality of a litter material is tested by picking a hand full of litter material and presses
it tightly. A good litter material is the one which breaks up when hand is open and the litter
material with more moisture will form a ball in the hand. Too much dried litter material
causes dustiness in the farm.
A concrete floor is advised for a perfect disinfection at the end of each batch. About
3-5‖ of litter should be put into the house initially and more should be added till a depth of
about 8-12‖ is reached. Before adding fresh litter material, remove the caked up and wet
litter material. At the beginning the litter contains only 12% moisture. If the moisture level
exceeds 30% due to poor ventilation, too many birds, irregular stirring or damp floor, the
litter will cease to function efficiently. Some time many birds will bear ―balls‖ made of litter
materials at their claw tips. Ball formation is a sign of bad litter management. Built-up litter
has a very important role in providing warmth to the birds in winter. In winter the litter depth
can be increased to 10-12‖ while in summer it may be reduced to 2.5-4‖.
CAGE SYSTEM
This system involves rearing of poultry on raised wire netting floor in smaller
compartments, called cages, either fitted with stands on floor. It has been proved very
efficient for laying operations, right from day-old to till disposal. At present, 75% of
commercial layers in the world are kept in cages. Feeders and waterers are attached to cages
from outside except nipple waterers, for which pipeline is installed through or above cages.
Auto-operated feeding trolleys and egg collection belts can also be used in this rearing
system. The droppings are either collected in trays underneath cages or on belts or on the
floor or deep pit under cages, depending on type of cages.
Advantages
1) Minimum floor space is needed
2) More number of eggs per hen can be received
3) Less feed wastage
4) Better feed efficiency
5) Protection from internal parasites and soil borne illnesses
6) Sick and unproductive birds can be easily identified and eliminated.
7) Clean eggs production
8) Vices like egg eating, pecking is minimal.
9) Broodiness is minimal
10) No need of litter material
11) Artificial Insemination (AI) can be adopted.
Disadvantages
1) High initial investment cost.
2) Handling of manure may be problem. Generally, flies become a greater nuisance.
3) The incidence of blood spots in egg is more
4) Problem of cage layer fatigue. (It is a condition, in which laying birds in cages
develop lameness. It may be due to Ca and P deficiency but the exact reason is
not known)
5) In case of broilers, incidence of breast blisters is more, especially when the
broilers weight is more than 1.5 kg.
Types of cages
Based on the number of birds in a cage, it is classified as
1) Single or individual bird cage (Only one bird in a cage)
2) Multiple bird cage (From 2 to 10 birds, usually 3 or 4 birds per cage)
3) Colony cages (Holding birds more than 11 per
cage) Based on the number of rows
1) Single-deck
2) Double-deck
3) Triple-deck
4) Four-deck
5) Flat-deck
Based on arrangement of cages
1) Stair-step cages
a) M-type cages
b) L-type cages
2) Battery cages (Vertical cages)
Based on the type of bird reared
1) Brooder / chick cages
2) Grower cages
3) Layer cages
4) Breeder cages
5) Broiler cages
1) Brooder cage / chick cage
Specifications: Front feeding length : 60 inch
Front & Back height : 12 inch
Depth : 36
inch
No. of chicks (0-8 weeks) accommodated per box : 60
Chick cages are arranged either as single deck or double deck system. The feeders
and waterers are arranged on outside. Now-a-days nipple drinker system is followed from
day-old itself. Newspaper may be spread over the cage floor for first 7 or 10 days. Feed is
usually provided inside the cage during the first week of age.
2) Grower cage
Specifications: Front feeding length : 30 inch
Front & Back height : 15 inch
Depth : 18
inch
 No. of growers (9 to 18 weeks) accommodated per box 10
3) Layer cage
Two types of stair-step layer cages are commonly used in open-sided poultry houses
a) Conventional cages
b) Reverse cages (Californian cages)
a) Conventional cages

Specifications for each box: Front feeding length : 15 inch

Front height : 18 inch
Back height : 15 inch
Depth : 18 inch

b) Reverse cages
Specifications for each box: Front feeding length : 18 inch
Front height : 18 inch
Back height : 15 inch
Depth : 15 inch
These cages can hold 3 to 4 birds. They are arranged either in 2-tier or 3-tier. A
slope of 1/6 is provided in conventional cages, where as in reverse cages the slope is 1/5.
Elevated cage layer house
The height of the shed is raised by 6-7 feet using concrete pillars. The distance
between two pillars is 10 feet. Two feet wide concrete platforms are made over the pillars.
When 3 ‗M‘ type cages are arranged 4 platforms are needed. In case of 2 ‗M‘ and 2 ‗L‘ type
cages are arranged 3 platforms are needed. When constructing platforms projecting angles or
iron rods to be provided to fix the cages. The inter-platform distance is 6-7 feet depending
upon the type of the cages used. The total height of the house is 20-25 feet and the width is
30-33 feet. This type of houses provides sufficient ventilation in tropical countries.
Floor space requirements
Age Deep-litter Cages
Type
(in weeks) (ft2) (ft2)
0-8 0.60 0.20
Egg-type chicken 9-18 1.25 0.30
>18 1.50 0.50
0-4 0.30 -
Meat-type chicken
4-8 0.75 -

BROODING OF CHICKS
Brooding is the art and science of rearing baby chicks. A newly hatched chick does
not develop the thermoregulatory mechanism fully and takes about two weeks to develop this
mechanism and homeostasis. Therefore, they cannot maintain the body temperature properly
for the first few weeks of life. Brooding can be classified into natural and artificial brooding.
Natural brooding
It is done with the help of broody hens after hatching, up to 3 to 4 weeks of age.
Artificial brooding
In artificial brooding large number of baby chicks are reared in the absence of broody
hen. Equipments used for brooding are called brooders. Brooder comprises of three
elements:
1) Heating source
2) Reflectors
3) Brooder guard
Heating source may be electrical; gases like natural gas, LPG and methane, liquid fuel
like kerosene, solid fuel like coal, wood can be used as a heating material.
1) Charcoal pot:
Where electricity is not available, ordinary charcoal pot are used to provide
supplementary heat to chicks. These pot are covered with plate / pans to dissipate the heat.
2) Gas brooder:
Natural gas, LPG or methane is connected to heating element which is hanged 3 to 5
feet above the chick to provide heat.
3) Electrical bulb:
One electrical brooder can be used for 300 to 400 chicks at the rate of 1 watt/bird.
4) Infra-red bulbs:
One 250 watts IR bulb can provide brooding for about 150 to 250 chicks.
5) Reflectors:
These reflectors are called Hovers. Flat type hover – These hovers are provided with
heating element, heating mechanism and pilot lamp. Canopy type hover – These reflectors
are in concave shape consisting of ordinary electrical bulb and thermostat mechanism.
6) Brooder guard / chick guard
They are used to prevent chicks from straying too far away from heat supply until
they learn the source of heat. We have to provide brooder guard with a diameter of 5 feet,
height of the brooder should not exceed 1.5 feet. For this purpose, we can use materials like
cardboard sheet, GI sheet, wire mesh, and mat etc. depending upon the season of brooding.
During winter season, brooding is done for 5-6 days. In summer season it is 2-3 weeks.
Receiving of chicks
1) After culling the previous adult birds, clean and disinfect the poultry house.
2) 3 to 4 weeks interval may be provided between 2 batches as down tome.
3) Form a circle of about 5 feet diameter with brooder guard. The 5 feet diameter
brooder can hold about 200 to 250 chicks.
4) At the centre of brooder guard, provide any one of heat source like IR bulb,
ordinary incandescent bulb or gas brooders.
5) Spread litter material about 2‖ height in a circle and then spread old newspaper
over the litter material.
6) Arrange feeders and waterers alternatively like cart-wheel fashion.
7) Check the brooder for proper temperature 24 hours prior to arrival of chicks.
8) Switch on the brooder heating source several hours before the arrival of the chicks
in order to maintain required brooding temperature.
9) Spread ground maize or rava or fine mash / crumble feed on the old newspaper for
1 or 2 days. Afterwards, they will learn to consume feed from the feeder.
10) Provide electrolyte, glucose and vitamins in the drinking water for first 2 to 3
days to overcome stress. After arrival of chicks, moist the beak and leave the chicks under
heating source.
11) Maintain a brooder temperature of 90 to 950F for the first week and then reduce
50F every week until it reaches the room temperature.
 12) Watch the behaviour of chicks in order to find out whether temperature provided
is correct or less or more. In case of too much temperature, we can reduce the heat by
reducing the power of the bulb or we can raise the heating element. In case of too low
temperature, we have to supplement more heating source or we can further down the heating
element. In case of chill weather or chill breeze, we can provide curtains towards the wind
direction.
13) Remove the old newspaper after 3 days and destroy it by burning. If necessary,
spread another set of newspaper.
14) Remove brooder guard after 7 to 10 days depending upon the season. While
removing the brooder guard, see that the corners of the sheds are rounded in order to avoid
mortality due to huddling.
15) Change the feeders and waterers according to age and requirement.
16) 24 hours lighting programme may be adopted during 0-8 weeks of age. One hour
darkness may be provided to train the chicks in case of any power failure.
17) Medication programme: First and Second day – Electrolytes and vitamins. 3rd to
7th day – Antibiotics. (Other medications as and when required)

GROWER MANAGEMENT
1) Proper cleaning and disinfection of grower house is needed before introduction of
grower birds.
2) Provide sufficient floor space, feeding space and water space.
3) Spread litter material to a height of 4‖ in case of deep-litter system.
4) Arrange feeder and waterers in the grower house.
5) Change the feeder and waterer according to the need.
6) Adopt restricted feeding programme during growing period to prevent fattening of
pullers and early sexual maturity and thus to improved egg production.
7) Follow good litter management to avoid diseases like coccidiosis.
8) Only 12 hours lighting programme is sufficient in case of open-sided houses. No
artificial light is needed.
9) Aim for the uniformity of the flock. Sample weights are taken once in a week to
find out the average body weight as per the breeder suggestions.
10) Follow strictly the recommended vaccination, medication and other management
programs like deworming, debeaking etc for the growers.
Restricted feeding
 It is adopted during growing period of layers or breeders. There are two types of
restricted feeding.
1) Quantitative feed restriction
In which the amount of feed is reduced below the normal requirement of birds. This
can be done on day-to-day basis or skip-a-day programme or skip-two days in a week
programme. But this restriction depends on the matching of the flock average body weight
with standard body weight provided by the breeder.
2) Qualitative feed restriction
In which the quality of the feed is reduced below the standard requirement of the bird.
This can be done by including unconventional feeds or lesser nutrient feed ingredients in
place of high protein or high energy diet. Here the quantity of allotment to the bird is not
restricted.
During restricted feeding programme, provide more number of feeders and see that all
the birds are taking feed simultaneously or otherwise dominant birds will take more amount
of feed and the weaker will be subjected feed deprivation and hence the uniformity will be
affected.
Advantages of feed restriction during growing period
1) A considerable saving on feed cost because, only 80% of the calculated feed
requirement will be offered.
2) They are likely to consume less feed per dozen eggs even during laying period
when they are offered ad libitum feed.
3) The pullets accumulate less fat and therefore produce more eggs.
4) It is easier to identify weaker birds at an early age during feed restriction. Culling
of such birds helps not only saving feed but also promoting layer house survivability because,
healthier birds will be moving to laying house.
5) Layers feed-restricted during growing period have been found to produce heavier
eggs in longer clutches than those fed ad libitum.
Uniformity
At a given age, growing pullets should have average body weight very closer breeder
recommendations and at least 70% of the birds‘ weight within 10% of flock average. Points
to be considered for getting uniformity among growing pullets are,
1) Receive chicks of uniform weight.
2) Provide proper feeding, watering and floor space.
3) Change the feeder and waterer according to the age.
 4) The height of the feeder and waterer should be at the back height of the bird.
5) Provide proper energy in the diet.
6) Sample weights of the pullets are taken at regular intervals and change the feed
accordingly.
7) Provide proper feeding space, so as to all birds consume feed simultaneously.

LAYER MANAGEMENT
Points to be considered during layer management are,
1) Proper cleaning and disinfection of layer house.
2) Provide proper floor space, feeding space and watering space both in deep-litter
and cage system
3) In deep-litter system, floor space of 2 sq.ft. per bird and feeding space of 5‖ per
bird are provided
4) In cage system 4 birds/box of 18‖ x 15‖ cage floor space is provided (0.46 sq. ft
per bird)
5) 6 feet linear feeder can be used for every 30 layers or 18‖ diameter circular feeder
of 4-5 no for every 100 birds.
6) Provide 18‖ diameter plastic waterer of 2 numbers for every 100 birds.
7) Spread litter material, in case of deep-litter system up to 6‖ thickness.
8) Arrange feeder and waterer in the poultry house to the height of birds‘ back.
9) Grill size may be changed according to the size of the birds head.
10) Provide nest box for every 5 layers about a week before the first egg is laid.
11) There are three types of nest: 1) Individual nest – One nest box is sufficient for 4-
5 birds. 2) Community nest – This will accommodate 50-60 birds. 3) Trap nest –
This will accommodate 1 bird at a time ad is used for academic and breeding
studies.
12) The nest should be provided with litter material. The litter material has to be
replaced at least once in a week to prevent contamination of the eggs. During
night hours the nest should be closed to prevent sitting of birds in the nest.
13) In deep-litter system, the litter material should be racked in the evening daily after
egg collection is over. The litter should be treated chemically at least once in a
month or whenever necessary in case of wet litter problem to prevent ammonia
emission in the house.
14) Provide 16 hours light during laying period.
 15) Provide well-balanced layer mash. Phase feeding may be followed for layers
according to age, level of production and climatic factors. The average feed
consumption during laying period ranges from 100-110 gram.
16) Feed consumption during winter increases and during summer, feed consumption
decreases. Summer and winter management should be followed for better flock
percentages.
17) Deworming should be done regularly at an interval of 6-8 weeks depending on the
worm load, especially when reared under deep-litter system.
18) Collect the eggs at least 5 times a day in deep-litter system and twice a day in cage
system.
19) Cull the unproductive layers regularly.
20) Broody hen may be separated and this broodiness may be eliminated by,
a) Providing diet containing more protein, vitamin and minerals.
b) Light may be provided through out night.
c) Birds may be placed in cages
d) Birds may be subjected to stress
e) Liver stimulant may be provided.
Vaccination schedule for layers
S.No. Age Name of the vaccine Route of administration
Subcutaneous injection
1. 1st day Marek's Disease vaccine
at Hatchery
Ranikhet Disease F Eye drop or Nasal
2. 7th day Strain/Lasota. RD drop.0.2 ml S/C.on the
killed. same day
14 to 16 days Infectious Bursal Eye drop 0.2 ml. S / C
3.
(II week) disease(live) IBD(killed) on the same day
21 to 24 th day
4. Infectious Bronchitis Eye drop
(III week)
Ranikhet disease-Lasota
5. 30 to 35 days Eye drop
strain
Infectious Bursal disease
6. 42 to 45 days Eye drop
(live)
56 to 70 days Ranikhet disease "K"
7. Subcutaneous
(8-10 th week) (Mesogenic)
84 to 91 days Wing web puncture or
8. Fowl Pox vaccine
(12 - 13th week) Intramuscular
91 to 98 days Infectious Bronchitis Through Drinking
9.
(13 to 14th week) Vaccine Water
10. 126 to 133 days Ranikhet disease K" Subcutaneous Injection
 (Mesogenic)
After peak
Ranikhet Disease Through Drinking
11. production , every
Vaccine "Lasota" Water
8 Weeks

Takes:
After week of fowl pox vaccination, an inflamed area is seen at the site of
vaccination. It is called as takes.

BROILER MANAGEMENT
Definition
It is a bird of about 8 weeks of age of either sex (straight-run chicks) with an average
body weight of 1.5 to 2.0 kg with a flexible breast bone cartilage, pliable and tender meat.
Housing systems
Broilers can be housed on deep-litter, slatted or wire floor or cages. However, cage,
slat and wire floor rearing of broilers are not as popular as litter floor rearing, due to problems
like breast blisters, leg weakness and higher initial investment.
Rearing systems
The systems of rearing refer to either single batch at a time (all-in all-out system) or
multiple batches of brooding and rearing of broilers.
All-in all-out system
Under all-in all-out system, the farm will have only one batch of broilers, belonging
to the same hatch at any time. Sufficient chicks will be purchased to accommodate the entire
farm capacity, reared and marketed in a single lot.
This system is more hygienic, lesser sub-clinical infections and horizontal spreading
of diseases and thereby lesser mortality rate, better growth rate and improved feed efficiency.
However, this system is not suitable for large scale farming and needs higher fixed and
working capital per bird.
Multiple batch system
The multiple batch system consists of rearing of more than one batch of chicks at any
time, with a batch interval of 1 to 4 weeks. Here, the farmer is buying day-old chicks and
selling grown up broilers at weekly, fortnightly, once in three weeks or at monthly intervals.
The chicks are reared for five to six weeks of age, or until they attain the desired body weight
and sold for table.
 The ideal system for India at present is having 5 to 6 batches of broilers at any time,
with weekly interval between batches and ―direct retail marketing‖. Here, the birds will
be marketed daily, from 40 to 54 days of age, based on their body weight, i.e. heavier birds
will be sold earlier; giving a chance for weaker birds to have a compensatory growth.
Floor space, feeder space and waterer space
The floor space requirement of broilers varies depending on their body weight at the
time of marketing, housing systems, marketing age and ambient temperature. The feeder and
waterer space also varies depending on the environmental temperature and health condition
of the birds. The following is the approximate floor, feeder and waterer space requirement
for broilers.

Floor space/ Feeder space/ Waterer space

Age
bird bird / bird
450 cm2
Up to 18 days 3 cm 1.5 cm
(0.5 sq.ft.)
From 19 days to 42 1000 cm2 (1.1
6-7 cm 3 cm
days sq.ft.)

Brooding and rearing of broilers

It is similar to that for egg-type chicks.
Cage rearing of broilers
Broilers can also be reared on cages. Broiler cages are similar to that of grower cages.
To prevent the breast blisters, the bottom of the cage may be coated with some plastic
materials. The floor space requirement in cages is 50% of the floor space needed in deep-
litter. The relative advantages and disadvantages of cage rearing of broilers are,
Advantages
1) Higher density of rearing possible
2) Easy to catch the birds at market time and hence reduces bruising
3) No expenditure on litter
4) No incidences of coccidiosis
5) Reduced cannibalism
6) Cleaning and disinfection easier
7) Better growth and feed efficiency
Disadvantages
1) Higher incidences of breast-blisters which increases carcass
condemnations
2) Higher incidences of crooked keel
3) Wing bones will be more brittle which will be a disadvantage for the
processor also.
4) Birds are not having access to the unidentified growth factors in deep-litter
system.
5) Cleaning faecal-trays is not labour friendly.
6) High initial investment on cages.
7) Birds will be uncomfortable especially during summer
Feeding
Generally, three types of feed are offered to broilers from day-old to marketing.
0-2 Weeks – Broiler Pre-starter mash /
crumble 3-4 Weeks – Broiler Starter mash
5-6 Weeks – Broiler Finisher mash
Lighting
In open sided broiler houses, the most commonly recommended lighting programme
is 24 hours light during brooding period, followed by 23 hours light and one hour darkness
per day, until marketing. This one hour darkness is to train the birds to acclimatize for
darkness, in case of power failure, which may cause panic and trampling.
Vaccination schedule
S. Route of
Age Vaccine
No. administration
1 First day Marek‘s (at hatchery) S/C at neck
2 5-7th day RDV F1 I/O or I/N
3 14th day IBD Vaccine I/O or I/N
4 21st day RDV Lasota Drinking water
5 28th day IBD Vaccine (Booster) Drinking water

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF POULTRY

Poultry being simple stomached species, cannot synthesize most of the

nutrients required for them and so the nutrients become dietary essentials chicken has to be
fed adequate quantities of balanced diet for its growth, livability and to exhibit its genetic
potential to the full extent. Poultry differ from other species of livestock in body temperature
and digestion
Poultry feed is composed of
60-65% Energy giving
materials 30-35% of Protein
source
2-8% Minerals source.
And above all water. Which is considered as the Principal nutrient should be pure,
whole some, free from physical impurities, toxic substances and Bacterial contamination.
Water : feed ratio 2.2 : 1. It is variable with age, climate, feed and physiological activity.
Excess energy is stored as body fat.
Energy source
Yellow maize, cumbu, cholam, Rice polish.
This energy materials constitute 50% of the ration.
Protein :
Protein is required by the bird for 1. Growth 2. Maintenance of body tissues 3.
Production.
Both vegetable and animal proteins are used in the feed.
Vegetable Protein :
Ground nut oil cake, Soyabean oil cake ,Gingelly oil cake, Sunflower oil cake, Mustard
oil cake
This is added at 15-25% in the ration. It is always advisable to add two or more for
better balancing.
Animal Protein:
Fish meal, meat meal, Blood meal,silk worm pupa meal, out of this fish meal is ideal, This
forms -5-10% of the ration.
Fibre
Grain bye products like bran in included from 10-30% for fibre, bowl movement and
minerals. if molasses available it can also be added for energy at 5-7% levels, which is a
cheap source of energy, reduces dustiness, improves palatability.
Mineral mixture for poultry
Included at 2.3%, it is advisable to use salt free mineral mixture because fish meal
available in our country is salted. Calcium supplements such as shell grit, calcite, limestone,
etc. are used at 4-5% levels.
Standard requirement of nutrients:
Chick Grower layer Broiler Broiler
mash starter Finisher
Crude Protein % min. 22 16 18 23 20
Crude fibre % max. 7 8 10 6 6
Calcium % min. 1 0.8 2.75 1 1
Total phosphorus % min 0.7 0.6 0.75 0.7 0.7
Metabolizable 2800 2600 2700- 3000 3100
Energy K/ca/kg. 2750
Lysine (%min.) 1.0 0.7 0.5 1.0 1.0
Methionine (% min) 0.35 0.25 0.25 0.35 0.35
Approximate feed intake by commercial chicken in tropics
Egg type (grm.) Broiler (G.)
1st week 10 15
2nd week 15 25
3rd week 20 35
4th week 25 50
5th week 30 65
6th week 35 85
7th week 45 105
8th week 50 120
9-12 weeks – 40
13-16 weeks – 50 Restricted feeding
17-20 weeks –
60 During laying
0% Egg Production 80 gm. 70 % 115
25% Egg Production 95 gm. 80 % 120
50% Egg Production 105gm. Over 80% 12
60% Egg Production 110 gm.

Guide lines for feed management

 Purchase quality ingredients / feed. With least moisture and devoid of adulteration.
 If own feed is mixed formula may be modified depending upon the cost
and availability of ingredients
 If agricultural farm is attached farm grown grain can be used
 Purchase one month or two months requirements.
 Screen the feed store room against rodents, sparrows other vermins.
 Observe the feed intake by the birds during summer, winter.
 If moisture level exceeds 15% (except molasses) during hot season it may
cause growth of fungus and precipitate problems like aflatoxicosis.
 The feeder should not be filled to full to minimize the feed wastage.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS
There are many factors which influence the nutrient requirement of poultry, they are
i. Species variation
ii. Breed and strain (genetic factor)
iii. Age of the bird
iv. Purpose of the bird
v. Environmental temperature (season)
vi. Water consumption
vii. Quality of nutrients
viii. Disease conditions
ix. Freshness of feed
x. Intensity of production
xi. Value added products
xii. Nutrient inter relationships
i. Species variation
The vit-B complex requirement is high for Japanese quails and turkey when
compared to chicken. If its requirement is high, the protein requirement is also
high.
Geese and emu can utilize high fibre and low energy diets as they can
synthesize many B complex vitamins.
Ducks can utilize fish scales.
ii. Breed and strain (Genetic factor)
Heavy breeds require less percentage of protein than light
breeds. White leghorn requires more methionine than Australorp.
Lysine and arginine requirement also differ from breed to breed and strain to
strain.
 In general, there is a specific difference among different breeds and strains for
most of the nutrients.
iii. Age of the bird
Poultry during first 21 days of life have higher requirements for some nutrients
than during the growing period. The requirement of vitamin-A increases with age.
The requirement of riboflavin is similar during growing and breeding period and
less during growth and production of table egg. Calcium requirement during egg
production is 3-4 times more than during the starting and growing period.
However, trace mineral requirement is similar throughout the life.
iv. Purpose of the bird
Breeders must receive a high dietary level of vitamins than table egg producers.
The egg must be fortified with vitamins to ensure better hatchability and livability
of newly hatched chicks. The three most critical vitamins needed in large amounts
in breeder ration are riboflavin (B 2), vit-A and vit-B12. Breeders 2-3 times more of
riboflavin, 20% more of vit-A and2 times that of vit-B 12 than for commercial
layers.
v. Environmental temperature (season)
When the environmental temperature increases, the requirement for protein
increases and for energy decreases. Since there is reduction in feed intake in warm
weather, all nutrients should be increased in proportion to the expected reduced
feed intake.
vi. Water consumption
The water consumption of broilers and layers has been found to be a function of
feed consumption. Broilers consume 1.5 times more water than feed where as
layers consume 2 times more water than feed consumption.
vii. Quality of nutrients
Nutrient requirements depend on qualities like biological value of ingredients and
presence of toxins.
viii. Disease condition
Disease condition like FLKS influences the nutrient requirement. To control this,
energy content of the diet has to be reduced and protein content has to be
increased. Lipotropic factors like choline chloride have to be included in the diet.
In coccidiosis, high protein adversely affects the birds, so the protein level can be
reduced. In general, most of the diseases cause lower feed consumption and hence
 care has to be taken to include the required nutrients depending upon the feed
consumption.
ix. Freshness of the feed
Fresh feed is consumed better than stale/old feed. In fresh feed nutrient loss is
less.
x. Intensity of production
Birds producing more than 90% require 20% protein
Birds producing 80% requires 18% protein
Birds producing 70% requires 16% protein
xi. Value added products
For production of designer eggs birds need vit-E, selenium, carotenoid pigments
and omega 3 fatty acids.
xii. Nutrient inter relationship
Energy – protein inter relationship
Vit-D3 – Ca – P inter relationship
Choline – methionine – vit-B12 interrelationship.

Production Indices in Poultry Farm Business

Layer Farm Production Indices

1. Feed efficiency (FE) / Kg egg mass

It is the ratio between the feed consumed and the egg mass in Kg. This takes into
consideration the feed intake, egg weight and egg production. A value of 2.2 or less is advantageous
to the farm.

Kg. of feed consumed

FE/kg egg mass =
Kg. of egg produced

2. Feed Efficiency (FE) / dozen eggs

It is the feed consumed per dozen eggs. It is the most commonly used index in layers. The
value should be 1.5 or less in a well maintained farm.

Kg. of feed consumed for every

FE/dozen eggs =
12 eggs produced

Broiler Farm Production Indices

Feed efficiency, feed conversion efficiency or Feed conversion ratio: (F.E) or FCR
 This is the most important and commonly used efficiency measure in broiler farming. It is
calculated by using the formula. A value of less than 2.00 at 7 weeks of age is preferable. Lower the
value better will be the efficiency.

Total feed consumed in kg

F.E. =
Total final live body weight in kg

FEED FORMULATION

Composition of broiler ration

Percentage inclusion
Ingredient
Starter (0-5 weeks) Finisher (6-7 weeks)
Yellow Maize 47.00 54.50
Rice polish 8.00 10.00
Soyabean meal 17.50 14.00
Groundnut cake (expeller) 15.00 11.00
Unsalted dried fish 10.00 8.00
Mineral mixture 2.00 2.00
Salt 0.50 0.50
100.00 100.00

Composition of grower ration

Ingredients Percentage
Yellow Maize 43
Groundnut cake (expeller) 8
Gingelly oil cake 5
Fish meal/dried unsalted fish 6
Rice polish 16
Wheat bran 20
Salt 0.25
Mineral mixture 1.75
Total 100.00

Ration of layer mash for chickens

Ingredients Percentage
Yellow Maize 47
Soyabean meal 12
Gingelly oil cake 4
Groundnut oil cake
6
(expeller)
Rice polish 13
Wheat bran 4
Fish meal/dried unsalted 6
 fish
Dicalcium phosphate 1
Salt 0.25
Mineral mixture 1.75
Shell meal 5
Total 100.00
INCUBATION AND HATCHING
Incubation is the act of bringing an egg to hatching. It may be either natural or
artificial.
Natural incubation
In this method, broody hens are made to sit over hatching eggs to hatch out chicks. A
hen can sit over hatching eggs to a longer period without feed and water due to some
hormonal changes in its body. Prolactin is responsible for broodiness in chicken.
Artificial incubation
In this method, mechanical equipments (incubators) are used for hatching purpose.
Incubators are placed in a building called hatchery.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF INCUBATORS
I. Based on air circulation:
1) Sill air incubators
2) Forced draft incubators
II. Based on heating source:
1) Hot air incubator
2) Hot water incubator
III. Based on fuel used
1) Gas operated incubator
2) Oil operated incubator
3) Electrically operated incubators.
STEPS INVOLVED IN COMMERCIAL HATCHERY OPERATIONS
Receiving cleaned hatching eggs

Fumigation of eggs for sanitation
(3x concentration for 20 minutes)
(3x means 60g KMnO4 and 120 ml formalin for 100 cu.ft.)

Storage in egg holding room
 (650F temperature and 75% R.H.)

Pre-incubation warming at Room
temperature (4 to 6 hours)

Loading eggs in the
setter (For first 18 days)

Candling of eggs for removing infertile eggs

Transfer to the hatcher
(Last 3 days)

Pulling out the chicks
(at 90% dry
condition)

Sexing
(Only for layer chicks) (Vent sexing / feather sexing)

Grading

Vaccination
(Marek‘s vaccine – s/c on neck – 0.25 ml)

Delivery
(Plastic / cardboard chick box with proper ventilation and comfort)

HATCHERY DESIGN
Location
The chick hatcheries are modern buildings that provide separate rooms for each hatchery
operations, but each room has its individual requirements. The hatchery area should be a
separate unit with its own entrance and exit, unassociated with those of the poultry farm. The
hatchery should be situated at least 1000 ft from poultry houses.
Size of the hatchery
The size of the hatchery is based on the egg capacity of the setters and hatchers, number of eggs
that can be set each week and number of chicks hatched each week. Also, necessary space to be
allotted for future expansion.

Hatchery design
Hatchery should be constructed in such a manner that the hatching eggs may be taken in one end
and the chicks removed at the other. There should not be no backtracking
Hatchery rooms / Structures
Hatchery rooms must be adequate in size. Usually, hatcheries of medium size will hatch
chicks twice a week, but large hatcheries will hatch more than two hatches per week.
Consequently, hatching schedules will affect the size of some rooms in the hatchery. The Floor
space of the various hatchery rooms when there are two hatches per week are,
1) Shower room
To maintain bio-security it is essential that all persons entering the premises shower and
change into clean clothing in an adjoining room. It is the only entrance and exit, and the
hatchery becomes an isolated unit as far as human beings are concerned.
2) Hatching eggs receiving counter
Employees delivering hatching eggs to the hatchery must not enter the hatchery in the
course of their duties. Eggs should be delivered to the hatchery through a specialized door.
3) Fumigation room
The fumigation room should be as small as possible in order to reduce the amount of
fumigant used. A fan should be used to circulate the air and exhaust the fumigant.
4) Egg holding (Egg-cooler) room
Egg holding room should be about 8 ft high, insulated, slowly ventilated, with complete
air movement, cooled, and humidified. The room must be refrigerated to maintain a temperature
of 65 oF. A forced-air type of refrigeration unit is required in order to keep a uniform
temperature throughout the room.
5) Pre-incubation warming room
Here eggs are kept for the purpose of drying the ‗sweat‘ over eggs. It can be achieved by
providing sufficient number of ceiling fans in this room.
5) Setter room
Setters (incubators) are kept in this room. The size of the setter room will depend on the
make of the equipment used. The exact room size involves the aisle and working area necessary
to move the eggs and chicks in and out of the machines. A minimum space of 3 ft should be
allotted between the sides of adjacent setters and from wall to sides or back of the setters.
Similarly, minimum of 10 ft should be allotted in front of two setters when kept face-to-face
arrangements.
6) Egg candling (Dark) room
This room is usually constructed in between setter and hatcher room for candling eggs.
Candling is usually practiced when eggs are transferred from setter to hatcher. Provisions should
be made to dark the room to facilitate easy candling.
7) Hatcher room
Hatchers are kept in this room. Here sufficient spaces are to be allowed around hatcher
similar to that of setter room. Since it is prone for contamination with fluffs and debris at the
time of hatching, the door towards setter room is to be tightly closed unless the necessity arises.
8) Chick-holding room
Next to hatcher room, chick-holding room is present. A relative humidity of 65% is
maintained to prevent excessive chick dehydration. Here, the chicks are sex-separated, graded,
vaccinated and placed in chick boxes.
9) Wash room
After chicks are boxed, the trays are washed in a tray washer in the washroom.
Necessary pipelines with high-pressure pumps are kept in this room.
10) Clean room
After the trays are washed, they are placed in their trolleys and moved to the adjacent
clean room.
PRINCIPLES OF INCUBATION
Five major functions are involved in the incubation and hatching of poultry eggs.
They are:
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Ventilation (Oxygen and Carbon dioxide level and air velocity)
 Position of eggs
 Turning of eggs
1. Temperature
Temperature is the most critical environmental concern during incubation. Embryo
starts developing when the temperature exceeds the Physiological Zero. Physiological zero is
the temperature below which embryonic growth is arrested and above which it is reinitiated.
The physiological zero for chicken eggs is about 75 oF (24oC). The optimum temperature for
chicken egg in the setter (for first 18 days) ranges from 99.50 to 99.75 o F and in the hatcher
(last 3 days) is 98.5 o F.
2. Humidity
Incubation humidity determines the rate of moisture loss from eggs during incubation.
In general, the humidity is recorded as relative humidity by comparing the temperatures
recorded by wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers. Recommended incubation relative
humidity for the first 18 days ranging between 55 and 60% (in setter) and for the last 3 days
ranging between 65 and 75%.
3. Ventilation
Ventilation is important in incubators and hatchers because fresh oxygenated air is
needed for the respiration (oxygen intake and carbon dioxide given off) of developing
embryos from egg setting until chick removal from the incubator. Generally the oxygen
content of the air in the setter remains at about 21%. For every 1% drop in oxygen there is
5% reduction in hatchability.
Carbon dioxide is a natural by-product of metabolic processes during embryonic
development and is released through the shell. The tolerance level of CO2 for the first 4 days
in the setter is 0.3%. CO2 levels above 0.5% in the setter reduce hatchability and completely
lethal at 5.0%.
4. Position of eggs
Artificially incubating eggs should be held with their large ends up. It is natural for
the head of the chick to develop in the large end of the egg near the air cell, and for the
developing embryo to orient itself so that the head is uppermost. Eggs positioned horizontally
will incubate and hatch normally as long as they are turned frequently. Under normal
circumstances eggs are set with large end up for the first 18 days (in setter) and in horizontal
position for the last 3 days (in hatcher).
5. Turning of eggs
Birds, including chickens and quail, turn their eggs during nest incubation. Nature
provides nesting birds with the instinct of turning eggs during incubation. Similarly eggs to
be turned at least 8 times a day. Turning of eggs during incubation prevents the developing
embryo adhering to the extra-embryonic membranes and reduces the possibility of embryo
mortality. In large commercial incubators the eggs are turned automatically each hour i.e. 24
times a day. Most eggs are turned to a position of 45 o from vertical, and then reversed in the
opposite direction to 45o from vertical.
HANDLING OF HATCHING EGGS AND STORAGE
The quality of hatching egg cannot be improved after lay but one can reduce the loss
in hatching egg quality by adopting some standard procedures.
Maintaining egg quality in the breeder house
Use of enough clean, dry and mold-free nesting material can avoid cracked and dirty
eggs. Similarly hens to be trained to use nests to lay eggs instead of laying on floors by
providing sufficient number of nest boxes well in advance before the laying starts. The
frequency of hatching egg collection is very important to maintain quality. Hatching eggs
should be collected at least 4 times a day. Hatching eggs are susceptible to contamination and
every effort must be made to reduce the microbial load.
Selection of hatching eggs
Eggs that are cracked, dirty or misshapen are usually not used for hatching. Very
small or very large eggs do not hatch as well as eggs in the middle size range. Eggs with thin
or very porous shells are not likely to hatch well because of excessive losses of water during
incubation.
Reducing contamination of hatching eggs
Fumigation with formaldehyde gas is an effective method of sanitizing hatching eggs.
Solutions containing quaternary ammonium compounds, formalin, hydrogen peroxide or
phenols may be moderately effective in reducing the microbial load over hatching eggs. DO
NOT wash eggs unless necessary. If it is necessary to wash eggs always use a damp cloth
with water warmer than the egg.
Storage of hatching eggs
In normal hatchery operations, eggs cannot be set immediately after they are laid.
Many hatcheries set eggs once or twice in a week. If hatching eggs are stored up to 1 week,
hatching eggs should be kept in an egg holding room with the temperature of 65 oF and the
relative humidity of 75%.
HATCHERY OPERATIONS
The operation of a chick hatchery involves the production of the largest number of
quality chicks possible from the hatching eggs received at the hatchery.
The sequences of hatchery operations followed in commercial hatcheries are,
1) Securing hatching eggs 9) Pulling the hatch
2) Traying hatching eggs 10) Hardening
3) Fumigation 11) Grading
4) Cold Storage 12) Sexing
5) Warm eggs prior to setting 13) Vaccination
6) Loading of eggs 14) Chick delivery
7) Candling 15) Washing and cleaning
8) Transfer of eggs 16) Disposal of waste

1) Securing hatching eggs

Hatcheries can get the hatching eggs from any one of the following ways:
1) From own breeder flock
2) From other breeder flocks
3) From other hatcheries
2) Traying hatch eggs
The eggs from the breeder flocks should be transferred to the egg setter trays in the
hatchery immediately after receiving.
3) Fumigation of hatching eggs
After traying, eggs are to be kept in the fumigation chamber for fumigation.
Fumigating with 3x concentration of formaldehyde for 20 minutes will kill about 97.5 to
99.5% of the organisms on the shells. One ‗x‘ concentration means 20 g of KMnO4 with 40
ml of formalin for 100 cubic feet (3x means 60 g of KmnO4 + 120 ml of formalin for 100
cubic feet).
4) Cold Storage
When the eggs are not set immediately after receiving, they should be kept in cold
rook at the temperature of 65 oF and 75% relative humidity.
5) Warm eggs prior to setting
Approximately 6 hours prior to placing eggs in the setter they should be moved from
the egg-cooler room to normal room temperature. Here, atmospheric air condenses over
eggshell and form water droplets over eggshell, which is called as ‗Sweating‘.
6) Loading of eggs
Placing of eggs in the setter is called ‗Loading of eggs’. Eggs can be set in the setter
either all-in all-out basis or batch basis. Most of the commercial hatcheries are practicing
batch system of loading eggs in the setter that will minimize the initial time taken to reach
normal incubation temperature in the setter.
7) Candling
Candling is a process in which eggs are kept in
front of a light source to find out the defects in eggshell,
embryonic development etc. Under commercial
operations, candling is done when the eggs are
transferred from setter to hatcher (at 19th day for
chicken eggs). There are two methods of candling that
can be used. The fastest method involves the use of a
table or mass candler. An entire tray of hatching eggs
may be placed on the mass candler and examined with
one observation. Candling with a spot candler or
individual candler is a little slower, but it is more
accurate.
8) Transfer of eggs
In modern incubators, eggs are transferred from setter to hatcher at 19th day of
incubation (for chicken egg) or when approximately 1% of the eggs are slightly pipped. In
general, one-seventh of total incubation period is needed to keep eggs in the hatcher.

9) Pulling the hatch

The process of removing the chicks from the hatcher is often called pulling the hatch.
Chicks should be removed from the hatcher as soon as all are hatched and about 95% are dry.
Excessive drying in the hatcher should be avoided.
10) Hardening the chicks
When the chicks are first placed in the chick boxes they are soft in the abdomen, are
not completely fluffed out, and do not stand well. They must be ―hardened‖ by leaving
them in the boxes for 4 or 5 hours. Such hardening makes it easier to grade the chicks for
quality, and the chicks are more easily vent-sexed.
11) Grading the chicks
No chick below the minimum standard must be allowed to go to a customer. Some
standards for quality are, 1) No chick deformities 2) No unhealed navels 3) Above a
minimum weight 4) Not dehydrated and 5) Stand up well.
12) Sexing the chicks
Layer type day-old chicks are needed to be sex separated either by vent sexing or
auto-sexing (feather sexing). In case of meat-type day-old chicks sexing is not practiced.
13) Vaccination
Most chicks are vaccinated against Marek‘s disease in hatchery before delivery. Most
common method of vaccination of day-old chicks is by subcutaneous method in the nape of
the neck.
14) Chick delivery
Baby chicks should reach the customer‘s farm early in the morning. Not only the
weather is cooler during this part of the day but the early arrival allows a full day for close
observation of the chicks by the caretaker.
15) Washing and cleaning
Cleaning the hatchery between hatches is of primary importance. The process must
be complete. Except for the setters and setter room, every piece of equipment must be
thoroughly vacuumed, scrubbed, disinfected and fumigated.
16) Disposal of waste
Hatchery wastes include infertile and non-hatched eggs and dead and cull chicks that
should be disposed in such a manner not to create problem to the neighbors and also not to
contaminate the hatchery premises.
IMPORTANT INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF POULTRY
Disease is a condition caused by living factors like viruses, bacteria or parasites or non-
living factors such as deficiencies, toxins and other physical or chemical agents. Diseases can
be classified depending on the causative factors. Diseases cause severe loss in poultry
production, not only from death of birds but also due to loss in production. Some of the
common poultry diseases and the symptoms of each are described below

I. BACTERIAL DISEASES
1) Coli bacillosis
This is a common bacterial disease caused by E.coli organism. It can manifest in
different forms such as infection of the yolk sac, colisepticaemia, etc. lethargy and diarrhea
will be noticed. Control of infection of the yolk sac depends on sanitary conditions at the
hatchery and provision of appropriate warmth during brooding. The practice of efficient
water sanitation methods and the use of clean drinkers are advised. Provide adequate
ventilation and manage the litter properly.
2) Salmonellosis
This disease caused by Salmonella gallinoarum and it is transmitted vertically from
parent flocks and affects baby chicks with a high mortality. Huddling, pasting of vent
feathers
and whitish diarrhoea are noticed. Ensure Salmonella-free chicks from the hatchery by using
sterilised fish-meal and meat meal. Pelleting of the feed will also be helpful. Add
furazolidone to the feed to control Salmonellosis.

3) Infectious Coryza

Infectious Coryza bacterial disease caused by Haemophilus paragallinarum.

Symptoms of this disease are swollen faces and swollen eyes, filled with a cheesy substance.
Respiratory distress and poor feed intake are also noticeable. Avoid overcrowding and wet
litter. Reduce the ammonia level by proper ventilation..

4) Fowl Cholera/Avian Cholera/Avian pasteurellosis /Avian hemorrhagic septicemia

Fowl cholera is a contagious bacterila diseases caused by Pasteurella multocida.
Combs and wattles of poultry with this condition become swollen and bluish. High mortality
and morbidity are experienced along with a watery nasal discharge and saliva dripping. Pin-
point blood spots on the heart and duodenum and white spots on the liver are present. Whitish
diarrhoea is noticed. Control rodents and ensure proper management. Provide good
ventilation and stress-free conditions. Adult, old and parental flocks (cock) are more
suspceptible.

5) Chronic Respiratory Disease

It is caused by micoplasma. Respiratory distress, the sound of rales, sneezing, poor
weight gain and nasal discharge are symptoms of the disease. Infected chicks transmit the
through feed and water. Avoid overcrowding, improve ventilation, and ensure hatchery
sanitation and screening of parent stock. Mixing tiamutin or tylosine in the feed will be
helpful.
II. VIRAL DISEASES
These are prevented by carrying out protective vaccinations at recommended age;
treatment will not be effective.
1. Newcastle Disease
The highly contagious and lethal form of Newcastle disease is known as
viscerotropic(attacks the internal organs) velogenic Newcastle disease, VVND, exotic
Newcastle disease, or Asiatic Newcastle disease.
Transmission:
 The Newcastle virus can be transmitted short distances by the airborne route
  Newcastle virus can be passed in the egg, but Newcastle-infected embryos die before
hatching. In live birds, the virus is shed in body fluids, secretions, excreta, and breath.
Clinical signs:
 There are three forms of Newcastle disease—mildly pathogenic (lentogenic),
moderately pathogenic (mesogenic) and highly pathogenic (velogenic).
 Watery discharge from nostrils, labored breathing (gasping), facial swelling,
 Paralysis, Trembling,
 Twisting of the neck (sign of central nervous system involvement).
 Mortality ranges from 10 to 80 percent depending on the pathogenicity. In adult
laying birds, symptoms can include decreased feed and water consumption and a
dramatic drop in egg production
Treatment:
 There is no specific treatment for Newcastle disease. Antibiotics can be given for 3–5
days to prevent secondary bacterial infections (particularly E. coli ). For chicks,
increasing the brooding temperature 5°F may help reduce losses.
Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD or Gumboro
disease) Cause
 The disease is caused by a Birnavirus of serotype 1. The virus is very stable and is
difficult to eradicate from an infected farm.
Transmission
 IBD virus is very infectious and spreads easily from bird to bird by way of droppings.
Clinical signs
 Clinical IBD occurs usually between 3 and 8 weeks of age depending on maternal
antibody levels. Affected birds are listless and depressed, pale, huddling producing
watery white diarrhea.
 Usually new cases of IBD have a mortality rate of about 5 to10% to 60%
 Highly pathogenic strains are called ―very virulent‖ IBD (vvIBD) resulting in
high mortality.
Diagnosis
 Post mortem lesions; in acute cases the bursa of Fabriciusisenlarged and gelatinous,
sometimes even bloody.
 Muscle haemorrhages and pale kidneys can be seen.
 The lack of white blood cells(lymphocytes) results in a reduction in the development
of immunity and decreased resistance of the birds to other infections.
3. Marek’s disease
Marek's disease
Cause / Transmission:
 A herpes-virus. Highly contagious.
 Spreads by bird-to-bird contact, by contact with infected dust and dander, and by
darkling beetles and mealworms that live in the chicken house.
 Morbidity is 10-50% and mortality up to 100%. Mortality in an affected flock
typically continues at a moderate or high rate for quite a few weeks.
 Different forms of Marek‘s Disease:
Cutaneous form (skin form):
 Enlarged reddened feather follicles and white bumps on the skin that form brown
crusty scabs.
Neural (nerve form):
 Progressive leg or wing paralysis .
 Twisted neck, weight loss, labored breathing, eye lesions, vision impairment,
diarrhea, starvation and death due to an inability to reach feed and water and to
trampling by other chickens.
Visceral (internal-organ form), i.e. tumors on visceral organs,- such as heart, ovary, tests,
muscles, lungs
FUNGAL DISEASES
1. Brooder pneumonia
Young chicks of 1-2 weeks of age are affected. A high mortality rate of 10-50
percent is noted with symptoms of gasping, respiratory distress and strong thirst. Yellowish
white pin-point filaments on lungs are present. Avoid using mouldy, fungus infested litter
material. Use thoroughly cleaned drinkers and feeders.
2. Mycotoxicosis
Caused by mycotoxins produced by fungi in feed ingredients. The symptoms are
reduced feed intake, poor growth rate or egg production, break down of immunity and
vaccination failures are the consequences. Avoid using mouldy feed ingredients, use toxin
binders like zoelites, aluminium silicate or charcoal in the feed. Add liver tonics and
withdraw fungal infested feed.
GENERAL DISEASE CONTROL MEASURES:
1. Buy chicks from reputed disease from companies.
2. Adhere strictly to vaccination programme.
3. Keep the houses dry cool and well ventilated.
4. Rodent and fly proof.
5. Sanitation of litter, feeder and waterer.
6. Follow medication schedules.
7. P.M.disposal through burial or inceration of the waste and dead.
8. Earmark areas for specific age group.
9. Screening visitors.10. Foot baths with sanitizens.
11. All in all out system.12. Personnel sanitation.
VACCINATION
It is correctly pointed out that ―Prevention is better than Cure ".Many viral diseases
cannot be treated but can be controlled only by preventive vaccination.
1) Routes of administration
Administration through 1) Drinking Water: It is time and labour saving method.
Vaccine is reconstituted in cold drinking water along with skim milk powder at the rate of 4
gram per litre of water and used immediately. For example RDV Lasota Vaccine.
2) Intra ocular -Intra nasal instillation.
The vaccine is reconstituted in normal Saline solution. One drop of diluted vaccine is
applied to the nostrils or eye. Ex: RDVF. The virus particle gets absorbed in the mucous
membrane and immunization is obtained.
3) Spray Vaccine
Spray or mist spraying is done in chick boxes in the hatcheries. Small drops of equal size
is sprayed and the boxes are allowed for 10 to 15 minutes for drying. Drying should not be
done near light or by hot air.
4) Wing Web puncture method
Fowl pox vaccine is reconstituted in 50% glycerol saline and taken in forked needle
and vaccination is done by puncturing through wing web. Care should be taken that muscle,
nerve and blood vessels are damaged by the vaccination.
5) Feather Follicle Method
Pigeon pox vaccine is reconstituted with 50% glycerol saline. After plucking of the
feather follicles in the internal thigh region, with the help of a glass rod, the vaccine is
smeared and rubbed. After 5 days the birds have to be examined for "Takes" . Takes are
cellular reaction taking place in the nervous system.
6) Subcutaneous injection
Ranikhet K vaccine is reconstituted with normal saline and 0.5ml is given between
two layers of skin in the wing web region without damaging nerves, blood vessels and
muscle. The vaccine should be protected in ice box during vaccination and should be used
within one hour
Debeaking
It is recommended to debeak the layer birds to control feather pecking and
cannibalism, bullying. It is carried out by means of electrocautery. It is important to remove
only one third of the upper beak taking care to avoiding tongue. It is usually practiced at the
age of 10-14 days and repeated at the age of 14-16 weeks. Debeaking should never be done
with penknife.
Overcrowding, inadequate space for standing/ feeding/ watering and resting,
starvation, external wounds, less fiber diet and deficiency of vitamins and minerals may pre
dispose the birds to cannibalism.
Procedure
The bird has to be restrained by holding wings and legs by left hand and the tongue is
pushed backwards by opening mouth and introducing index finger so that the tongue is not
cut The upper beak is cut to 1/3 rd of it‘s length and the lower beak is slightly trimmed.. After
debeaking vitamins and antibiotics are to be administered for 3-5days to avoid stress and
secondary infections.
Deworming
Is the process of removing worms from digestive tract of the birds. The tapeworm
passes segments and is consumed by intermediate host (earthworm, cockroach) where
intermediate stage get developed and passed out, which inturn is consumed by host. The eggs
or ova of round worms are passed in the droppings which is picked by other birds directly or
indirectly with the help of chance carriers (personnel, insects, flies, ants, etc). Sometimes
wild birds such as crows may serve as source of infestation.
Birds show the following symptoms when they are infested with worms
 Dullness- weakness, emaciation
 Paralysis-due to toxins produced from worms
 Enteritis-diarrhea with blood
 Anemia-due to sucking of blood by worms.
 Drop in egg production.
If infestation is on a larger scale there may be mechanical block of intestinal lumen
and some times rupture occurs. This may also result due to intestinal stasis of food particles.
Deworming is practiced at intervals of 45days in layer birds and also before RDVK
vaccination. Deworming is done against tape worms only on absolute necessity.
Delicing
Is the process of removing of external parasites like ticks, mites and fleas which suck
the blood from the bird .The following symptoms are observed during external parasitic
infestation: itching, restlesness, external wounds, loss of body weight, weakness, anemia and
drop in production.
Procedure
The dipping of the birds in sunny days has to be done with the following chemicals to
remove the external parasites.
Sumathion or malathion -5ml in 100ml of water. The bird has to be immersed in the
chemical solution avoiding eye and mouth. The dipped one has to be dried in a separate
enclosure. The feeders, waterers and building should be sprayed with this chemical solution
to remove the external parasites. After dipping, to relieve stress to the bird vitamin A, B
complex has to be given to improve the health of the birds.