Module 10:

ELE CTRONIC S
Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .6

Learning Task 1: Describe fundamental characteristics of semiconductor

materials . . . . . . . 8
Self-Test 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
. . . . . . . .
Learning Task Describe features of the PN-junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2: diode
Self-Test 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
. . . . . . .
Learning Task Describe features of the Zener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3: diode . 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-Test . . 28
. . . . . . .
Learning Task Solve problems relating to the Zener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4: diode . 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-Test . . 32
. . . . . . . .
Learning Task Describe features of photo and light-emitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5: diodes . 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-Test . . 38
. . . . . . . . . .
Learning Task Describe features of the bipolar-junction ........... . . 39
6: transistor . .
Learning Task 7: Solve problems relating to the bipolar-junction transistor . . .
. . . . . . . . 51

Learning Task 8: Describe basic applications of the junction transistor in DC

circuits . . . . . . 53
Self-Test 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
. . . . . . .
Learning Task Describe features of specialty ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9: transistors
Self-Test 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
. . . . . . .
Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
. . . . . . . . .

5
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Resources
For Extra resources, look at Electrician U and/or allaboutcircuits.com

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Chapter 1:
Semi Conductors
You should recall from Module 4, that the conductivity of different materials is
related to their atomic structure. In particular, the conductivity of a substance
depends closely on its valence electrons. The best electrical conductors are
atoms that have three or fewer valence electrons. These outermost electrons
are loosely held in orbit and can easily become “free” electrons for current flow.
For example, aluminum has three valence electrons and copper has one valence
electron.
Insulating materials have five or more valence electrons. The ideal insulator
contains eight electrons in its valence orbit. When there is a large number of
valence electrons, they tend to be held more tightly in orbit and are not given
up easily for current flow.

Semiconductors
Semiconductor elements have exactly four valence electrons and are therefore
considered
neither good conductors nor good insulators.

Figure 1—Semiconductor elements

Two of the most commonly used semiconductor elements are silicon and
germanium, and their atomic structures are illustrated in Figure 1. Silicon is
more popular because of its ability to withstand higher temperatures.

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Covalent bonding
The atoms of purified semiconductor materials arrange themselves into a unique
pattern known
as a crystal-lattice structure. Adjacent semiconductor atoms tend to share their
valence electrons to create a stable eight-electron arrangement as shown in
Figure 2. This is known as covalent bonding.

Figure 2—Covalent bonding of valence electrons in a pure

semiconductor
Dopin
g
In pure form, semiconductors are very poor conductors. To make a
semiconductor a better conductor of electricity, a small amount of impurity is
introduced into it. The atoms of the impurity are injected into the crystal
through a process known as doping. Depending on which type of impurity the
semiconductor is doped with, two distinct types of semiconductor material can
be produced, either N-type or P-type.

N-type semiconductor material

An N-type semiconductor is formed when an impurity having five valence
electrons is introduced
into the pure semiconductor crystal (Figure 3). Such an impurity is said to be
pentavalent.

Pentavalent elements such as arsenic, antimony and phosphorous can free

electrons within the semiconductor material. Four of the five valence electrons
of the impurity atom form covalent bonds with the adjoining semiconductor
atoms (valency four). The one remaining electron is free to randomly move
through the crystal.

Extra electron (negative)

created by pentavalent doping
Impurity
atom

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Figure 3—An N-type semiconductor

1
0
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This type of semiconductor material is referred to as N-type because the

doping process has left the crystal with a surplus of electrons, or negative
charge carriers, within the covalent structure.

If an N-type semiconductor is connected to a voltage source, there is very

little opposition to the flow of current (Figure 4). The conductivity of the
semiconductor material has been greatly improved as a result of the free
electrons developed by the doping process.

Figure 4—Conduction in N-type semiconductor

P-type semiconductor material

A P-type semiconductor material is created by doping the pure semiconductor
crystal with an
impurity having three valence electrons (Figure 5).

These trivalent atoms can be aluminum, boron or gallium.

Figure 5—A P-type semiconductor

In this case the three valence electrons of the impurity atom form bonds with
three of the adjoining semiconductor atoms (valency four). There is an absence
of an electron, or a “hole,” for the remaining bond. External electrons are easily
attracted into these holes.

Since electrons are considered to be negative-charge carriers, the absence of

an electron may be considered positive. This gives the term P-type
1
1
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 LEARNING A-6
semiconductor
TASk 1 material. These holes, or positive charge carriers, improve the
conductivity of the semiconductor material.

1
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If an external voltage source is connected across a P-type semiconductor,

electrons from the current supply move into the holes in the doped
semiconductor. They jump from hole to hole throughout the crystal.
Alternatively, you can think of the holes, or positive charges, as moving in a
direction opposite to the electron flow. This is referred to as hole flow, or
conventional current flow (Figure 6).

Regardless of how you trace current flow through this material, the
conductivity of the semiconductor has been increased through the
process of doping.

Figure 6—Conduction in a P-type

semiconductor

Negative temperature coefficient of resistance

Semiconductors are easily destroyed by heat. Unlike conductors, semiconductor
materials
have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. This means that as the
temperature increases, the resistance decreases. That is, the conductivity
increases. Since current flow through the device also produces heat, this can
damage the device. It is very important to operate semiconductors within their
voltage, current and temperature limits.

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TASk 1 Figure 7—Use of a
heat sink

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It is often necessary to improve the dissipation of heat because of internal

I2R losses in semiconductor devices such as diodes and transistors. To do
this, the devices are commonly mounted on aluminum heat sinks as shown
in Figure 7. Also, care must be taken against overheating when soldering
small semiconductor devices into circuits.

Now do Self-Test 1 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 1
1. What determines whether a material is classified as a conductor,
an insulator or a semiconductor?

2. What are two common types of semiconductor elements?

3. The sharing of valence electrons by adjoining atoms in a crystal-lattice

structure is called
.

4. By doping a pure semiconductor with:

a. trivalent impurities, a/an -type semiconductor is

formed. b. pentavalent impurities, a/an -type semiconductor

is
formed.

5. An N-type semiconductor has an excess of

as charge carriers for current flow, while a P-type has an excess of
as charge carriers.

6. Semiconductors have a temperature

coefficient of resistance.

7. What type of mounting device is used for semiconductors to dissipate heat?

8. Why is silicon more commonly used than germanium for semiconductor

devices?

Go to the Answer Key at the end of the Learning Guide to check your
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answers.
TASk 1

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Learning Task 2:
Describe features of the PN-junction diode
Joining P-type material with N-type material creates a semiconductor diode.
STC diodes allow current to pass in only one direction. The P-type material
forms the anode side of the diode and the N-type material forms the cathode
side of the diode, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1—PN-junction
diode

When the P-type and N-type materials are first joined:

• Some of the free electrons in the N-type material combine with the holes
in the
P-type material.

• The P-type material gains some electrons (negative charge), and the
N-type material loses some electrons (positive charge).

• Therefore, a small barrier potential is formed at the junction.

• This small internal potential difference is approximately 0.7 volt for

silicon diodes, and about 0.3 volt for germanium diodes.

Reverse bias
If an external voltage is applied to the diode so that the cathode is more positive
than the
anode, the barrier potential at the PN junction is strengthened in the following
way:

• The free electrons in the N-type material are attracted toward the
positive side of the applied potential.

• The holes in the P-type material are attracted toward the negative
side of the applied potential.

• This depletes the junction region of any available charge carriers (holes
and electrons).

• Thus, ideally, the diode blocks any current flow.

This connection of the source voltage to the diode circuit is referred to as

reverse bias. Study the diagram in Figure 2.

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Figure 2—Reverse -biased diode

Forward
bias
If an external voltage is applied so that the cathode is more negative than the
anode, the barrier potential at the PN junction is weakened in the following
way:

• The free electrons in the N-type material are repelled by the negative
side of the applied potential, that is toward the anode side of the
junction.

• The holes in the P-type material are repelled by the positive side of the
applied potential, that is toward the cathode side of the junction.

• If the applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential (0.7 V for
silicon), then the electrons in the N-type material combine with the
holes in the P-type material and current flows through the junction.

This polarity of the applied voltage that causes conduction through the diode is
referred to as
forward bias. Study the diagram in Figure 3.

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Figure 3—Forward-biased
diode

In a simple application, the PN-junction diode acts as a polarity-sensitive switch:

• If the P-type material (anode) is made positive, and if the N-type

material (cathode) is made negative, the diode conducts. That is, it
acts like a closed switch.

• If the N-type material is made positive, and if the P-type material is

made negative, then the diode blocks any current. That is, it acts like an
open switch.

Voltage and current characteristics

Note that with forward bias, a conducting silicon diode has a small voltage (IR)
drop of
approximately 0.7 V due to its low forward resistance. As the current increases,
the resistance of the diode tends to decrease due to the negative temperature
coefficient of semiconductors. This decrease in forward resistance combines
with the increase in current so that the small voltage (IR) drop remains about
the same. This forward (or conducting) characteristic is illustrated in the upper-
right part of the voltage-current graph in Figure 4. The applied voltage must
overcome this effect before current starts to increase significantly.

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rms rating

Figure 4—Voltage -current characteristics of a 1N4004 silicon

diode

Ideally, with reverse bias, no current flows through a diode. However, as the
value of reverse voltage is increased, there may be a small amount of
leakage current. As the reverse voltage is further increased, a critical point is
reached where the diode can no longer block current flow. Beyond this peak
inverse voltage (PIV ), the diode breaks down and the current avalanches;
that is, it increases severely. If this diode is allowed to conduct in this
condition, the heat produced destroys the diode.

Diodes have various parameters, based on their applications. As an electrical

worker, you will see diodes used primarily as power rectifiers, converting AC to
DC.

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SILICON RECTIFIERS
1N4001 thru 1N4007

Sumetic rectifiers, sub-minature size, axial-lead-mounted

rectifiers for general purpose, low-power applications.

Maximum ratings
Ratings Symbol Unit

1N4001

1N4002

1N4003

1N4004

1N4005

1N4006

1N4007
Peak repetitive reverse voltage V RM(rep) 50 100 200 400 600 800 1000 volts
Working peak reverse voltage V RM(wkg) V R
DC blocking voltage VR
Non-repetitive peak reverse voltage V RM(non-rep) 60 120 240 480 720 1000 1200
volts
(half-wave, single-phase, 60 Hz peak
RMS reverse voltage Vr 35 70 140 280 420 560 700 volts
Average, rectified, toward current I O 1.0
amp (single-phase, resistive load, 60 Hz
T A =75C)
Non-repetitive, peak surge current I FM(surge) 30 (for 1 cycle)
amp
(surge applied at rated load conditions)
Operating and storage junction T J, T stg 65 to +175
°C
temperature range
Characteristics and conditions Symbol Max Unit
Maximum instantaneous forward voltage drop VF 1.1 volts
(I F = 1.0 amp, TJ = 25 C)
Maximum, full-cycle, average, forward voltage drop V F(av) 0.8 volts
(I O = 1.0 amp, TL = 75 , 1 inch leads)
Maximum reverse current (rated DC voltage) TJ = 25 C IR 0.01 mA
TJ = 100 C 0.05
Maximum, full-cycle, average reverse current I R(av) 0.03 mA
(I O =1.0 amp, TL =75C, 1 inch leads)

Mechanical characteristics
CASE Void free, transfer molded
MAXIMUM LEAD TEMPERATURE 350 C, 3/8" from case, for 10 seconds at 5 lbs tension
FOR SOLDERING PURPOSES
FINISH All external surfaces are corrosion-re sistance; leads are readily solderable
POLARITY Cathode indicated by color band
WEIGHT 0.40 grams approximately

Figure 5—Typical diode specifications

Three significant ratings for rectifier diodes are:

• forward current rating

This is the maximum continuous current (rms value in AC circuits) that

the diode can safely conduct without overheating. Typical ratings are
anywhere from 1 ampere to over
1000 amperes.

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• forward voltage drop

This is the normal IR drop measured across the diode while conducting.
Although this value is affected by temperature, it is typically about 0.7
volt for silicon diodes and about
0.3 volt for germanium diodes.

• peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating

This PIV rating is the maximum value of reverse voltage (instantaneous

peak value in AC) that the diode is capable of safely blocking. This value
can be as high as 3000 volts for silicon diodes (much lower for
germanium diodes).

Figure 5 on the previous page shows a data page from a specifications

manual. It lists typical ratings for a semiconductor diode.

Diode polarity
For a diode to conduct, it must be forward-biased. This means that a potential
must be applied
to the diode so that the anode is made more positive than the cathode. Also,
when a diode is conducting, it has very low resistance. Therefore, there must
be some form of current-limiting resistance in series with it.

Figure 6 shows the symbol for a diode. Notice that the symbol points in the
direction of conventional current flow. ( That is, positive holes leave the
battery and flow from positive to negative.) Try not to let this confuse you.
Remember that electrons leaving a battery flow from negative to positive
through all the series-connected devices.

Figure 6—Forward-biased
diode

If either the diode or the battery is reversed, then, ideally, no current flows in
this circuit. Remember, for current to flow through a diode, you must connect
the anode to the positive side of the circuit potential, and the cathode to the
negative side.

Under the reversed condition shown in Figure 7, the diode acts like an open
switch, and all of
the source voltage appears across the diode. Remember that the PIV rating of
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the
TASk diode
2 must be high enough to block the maximum value of the source
voltage.

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Figure 7—Reverse -
biased diode

To apply proper polarity to cause a diode to conduct, first you must physically
determine which side is the anode and which side is the cathode.
Semiconductor diodes are available with various case styles:

• In smaller, tubular forms, the cathode is sometimes identified by

pencilling one end, or by a line encircling the case.

• In a stud-mount case, the bolt end of the diode is usually the cathode.

• On larger diodes, the symbol is sometimes seen

on the case. This is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8—Identifying
diode leads

If in doubt, use a specifications manual to identify the leads, or use an ohmmeter

to test for polarity.

Ohmmeter test for diodes

An ohmmeter can be used to quickly test a diode for a short, an open and lead
polarity. This
meter has an internal battery that causes a small current to flow through any
resistance to be measured. When the leads are connected:

• in one direction across the diode, the ohmmeter should indicate a very
low resistance (forward bias). The actual ohmic value is not important,
since this will change depending on the voltage rating of the battery and
on the range selected for the ohmmeter.

• in the opposite direction, the meter should indicate a reading of

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infinity,
TASk 2 or a very high resistance (reverse bias).

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This is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9—Ohmmeter
tests

If the ohmmeter indicates a low resistance in both directions, then the diode is
short-circuited. If the ohmmeter shows a high resistance in both directions,
then the diode is open-circuited.

Multimeters
When using an ohmmeter to determine diode-lead designations, you must know
the polarity
of the ohmmeter leads. Remember that many multimeters reverse their
lead polarity when switched to the ohms function.

Figure 10—Multimeter lead polarity

Referring to Figure 10:

1. When using the multimeter to measure amps, you would connect the
black lead to the negative side of the circuit, and the red lead to the
positive side of the circuit for proper up- scale deflection.

2. When the multimeter is switched to the ohms function, the red lead
becomes negative and the black lead becomes positive because of the
polarity of the internal battery. This provides proper deflection on the meter.
If you are unsure about the true polarity of the multimeter leads, you can always
use another DC
voltmeter to test the lead polarity when in the ohms function.

Many digital multimeters have a special diode-test setting. When the

selector switch is in this position and the test leads are connected across a
good diode:

• On forward bias, a tone usually sounds and the display indicates a

forward voltage drop of approximately 600 mV.
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TASk•2 On reverse bias, typically, an overload (OL) or zero volts shows on the
display.

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Freewheeling diodes
Many inductive loads (such as the field windings of rotating equipment) include
permanently
connected diodes to act as arc suppressors. As a result, heavy arcing,
which would normally occur at the switch contacts during switching
operations, is greatly reduced. This may also prevent insulation failure in
the windings.

Figure 11—Freewheeling
diode

In Figure 11, when the switch is closed, the diode is reverse biased, and
current flows only through the inductive load. When the switch is opened,
however, the collapsing magnetic field of the inductive load creates a counter
emf that gives the diode forward bias.

A diode applied in this fashion is commonly called a freewheeling, clamping or

arc-suppressing
diode.

Now do Self-Test 2 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 2

1. The anode of a diode is made of -type

semiconductor material, and the cathode is made of -type
semiconductor material.

2. The small charge at the junction of a PN diode is called a

.

3. Reverse bias is when the anode is with respect to

the cathode.

4. The forward voltage drop across a silicon diode measures about V.

5. In the symbol for a diode, the arrow represents .

6. An ohmmeter with lead polarity, as indicated in Figure 1, is used to test a

diode. If the diode is good, then the ohmmeter should indicate a (high,
low) value of resistance.

Figure 1—Ohmmeter connection for Question 6

7. A simple switching circuit with two single pole double throw (SPDT )
switches is shown in Figure 2. For each of the switch positions stated
below, determine whether lamp 1, lamp 2 neither lamp, or both lamps
are ON.
a. SW1 in position A and SW2 in
position A b. SW1 in position B and
SW2 in position A c. SW1 in
position B and SW2 in position B d.
SW1 in position A and SW2 in
position B

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Figure 2—Switching circuit for Question 7

8. In Figure 3, illustrate how a diode should be connected to protect a

sensitive DC instrument against a wrong polarity connection.

Figure 3—Sensitive ammeter for Question 8

9. Figure 4 illustrates a generator-charging circuit for a battery. Show how

you could connect a diode into the charging circuit to prevent battery
discharge through the generator field winding when the generator is
stopped.

Figure 4—Generator-charging circuit for Question 9

10. When a diode is forward-biased, electron flow from to

. (Use the terms for identifying the leads of a
diode.)

11. When a diode is connected across an inductive DC load so as to

prevent arcing during switching operations, it is called a diode.

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12. Show how the diode in Question 11 should be connected in Figure 5.

Figure 5—Circuit for

Question 12

Go to the Answer Key at the end of the Learning Guide to check your
answers.

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Learning Task 3:
Describe features of the Zener diode
The standard PN diode is used for conduction in its forward direction only. If
allowed to conduct in the reverse direction, it would be destroyed. The Zener
diode, however, is designed for operation beyond its breakdown voltage rating
in the reverse direction.

Figure 1—Symbol for a

Zener diode

Zener diodes are typically manufactured from silicon, and in physical

appearance look the same as conventional diodes. The symbol shown in Figure
1, or the manufacturing code number, is used to identify them as a Zener
diode.

Zener diode characteristics

• When biased in the forward direction (+ to anode and – to cathode),
the Zener behaves
like any conventional diode. It conducts with a very small voltage drop of
approximately
0.7 V across it.

• When biased in the reverse direction (– to anode and + to cathode), the

Zener blocks until a critical breakdown voltage is reached. Beyond this
value, it conducts. The Zener operates under this reverse-bias condition if
the current through it (or power dissipation) can be limited to a safe
value.

• Under this reverse bias, the Zener diode maintains a constant voltage
across itself over a wide range of current. This is called the Zener
voltage. This reverse characteristic makes the Zener diode unique and
allows it to be used as a voltage regulator.

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Figure 2—Voltage -current characteristic curve

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The breakdown “knee” of the Zener diode (shown in Figure 2) is much sharper than
that of a conventional diode. This is achieved by a special doping technique of the
PN semiconductor materials.

Typical ratings associated with Zener diodes are as follows:

Zener voltage rating:

This is the regulated voltage with rated reverse current flowing. Normal ratings
are from about
2 V to 200 V in approximately 10% steps.

Wattage rating:
Zener diodes are rated in terms of power (wattage) rather than current. Typical
ratings are from
250 mW to 50 W.

Note that Zener diodes cannot always be tested with an ohmmeter. If the
battery voltage of the ohmmeter exceeds the Zener voltage, conduction
results. The ohmmeter then falsely indicates a low resistance in reverse as well
as forward direction.

The Zener diode as a voltage regulator

To apply the Zener diode as a DC voltage regulator, you must observe several
key points:

• Ensure that the DC input voltage to the regulator circuit exceeds the
Zener voltage rating.

• Connect the Zener diode for reverse-bias operation.

• Use a series, current-limiting resistor to stabilize the regulator. It does this

by dropping off
the difference between the input voltage and the
Zener voltage.

• Connect the load to be regulated in parallel with the Zener diode.

Now do Self-Test 3 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 3
1. What feature makes the Zener diode different from a conventional rectifier
diode?

2. What is meant by the term Zener voltage?

3. To use a Zener diode as a DC voltage regulator, what three conditions must

be satisfied?

4. Draw the symbol for a regular diode.

5. Draw the symbol for a Zener diode.

Go to the Answer Key at the end of the Learning Guide to check your
answers.

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TASk 4

Learning Task 4:
Solve problems relating to the Zener diode
Constant load, variable input
Figure 3 shows a Zener regulator circuit with a constant load and a variable
input source.

Figure 3—Zener shunt-regulator circuit

If the input voltage is 16 V, then the 12 V Zener “breaks down” and conducts,
maintaining 12 V across itself. The 4 V difference between the input and the
Zener voltage is “dropped off ” across the series resistor (RS). Therefore, this
resistor is sometimes called a dropping resistor, and it may need a high
wattage rating to handle load and Zener currents. If the input to the circuit
rises
to, say 18 V, then the Zener conducts more current because of the increased
potential. Because of its negative temperature coefficient of resistance, the
increase in Zener current causes a decrease in Zener resistance, and the
Zener IR drop remains constant. The voltage drop across the series resistor
(RS) increases in proportion to the increase in Zener current to a value of 6 V.
Therefore, with increased input voltage, the load voltage and current have
remained constant.

Note that the Zener will regulate only if the input is greater than the Zener
voltage rating. Otherwise the Zener behaves as an open so that the load
resistance and resistor RS are in series across the
input voltage source. As a result, the voltage drop across each is in proportion to
its resistance.

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Constant input, variable load

Figure 4 illustrates a Zener regulator circuit with a constant input but a variable
load.

Figure 4—Regulator circuit with variable load

For this regulator circuit, total circuit current equals the sum of the Zener
current plus the load current.

IT = IZ + IL

If the input is fixed at 16 V, then the voltage drop across the Zener is 12 V, and
the voltage across
RS is 4 V.

Suppose that the load in this regulator circuit can vary from 1000 Ω to 500 Ω.
When the load current is at a maximum, the circuit is designed so that the
Zener will draw 2 mA. That is, when RL = 500 Ω,

IL = VL ÷ RL

= 12 V ÷ 500 Ω =

24 mA IZ = 2 mA

I =I +I
T L Z

= 26 mA.

If the load resistance is increased and the input voltage remains constant, then
the current through the load decreases. The current that previously passed
through the load is now shunted through the Zener. This increase in Zener
current results in a decrease of Zener resistance, and a constant Zener voltage
is maintained.

When RL = 1000 Ω,

IL = 12 V ÷ 1000 Ω =
12 mA IZ = IT – IL
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= 26 – 12 = 14 mA.

If the load resistance is again reduced, an increase in load current results in a

decrease of Zener current to maintain a constant load voltage. The Zener
resistance varies inversely with the load resistance to maintain a constant
input current to the regulated circuit.

Now do Self-Test 4 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 4
1. With the Zener diode connected as shown in Figure 1, what reading would
be expected for the voltmeter:
a. in circuit a

b. in circuit b

Circuit
a

Circuit
b

Figure 1—Circuits for

Question 4

2. For the circuit shown in Figure 2, determine the values for the:
a. Zener current, IZ
b. load current, I
L

Figure 2—Circuit for

Question 5

3. What condition must be observed if you use an ohmmeter to test a Zener

diode for shorts and opens?

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4. Determine the unknowns for the following Zener regulator circuit with a
fixed load and a varying supply.

a. Maximum amps the Zener diode is rated for = ______

b. Minimum value of Rs = ___________

c. Minimum Wattage rating for Rs = ___________

d. Fill in the following table:

DC Supply VZener VRS VLoad ILOAD IZener ITotal

10 VDC
20 VDC
40 VDC
60 VDC
80 VDC
100 VDC

e. If the supply was 5 V, determine:

DC Supply VZener VRS VLoad ILOAD IZener ITotal

5 VDC

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Rs =

+
24 V Variable
50 VDC load
48 W
−

5. Determine the unknowns for the following Zener regulator circuit with a
fixed supply and a varying load.

a. Maximum amps the Zener diode is rated for = ______

b. Minimum value of Rs = ___________

c. Minimum wattage rating for Rs = ___________

d. Fill in the following table:

RLoad ILOAD IZENER ITotal

15Ω
20Ω
25Ω
30Ω
35Ω
40Ω
45Ω
50Ω

Go to the Answer Key at the end of the Learning Guide to check your
answers.

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Learning Task 5:
Describe features of photo and light-emitting
diodes
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
As the name implies, this diode gives off visible light when conducting. In all PN
junction diodes,
a certain amount of energy is released by the recombination of holes and
electrons. In silicon and germanium, most of this energy is in the form of
heat. If the diode is specially constructed with a material such as gallium
arsenide (chemical formula GAs), the energy loss is primarily in the form of
light. By selective control in the doping process, the light emitted may be
yellow, green, red or infrared.

When operated within its limits, the LED has a lifetime measured in hundreds
of thousands of hours. This gives LEDs a great advantage over incandescent
lamps for use as indicator lights.

Figure 1 shows the symbol for an LED.

Cathode Anode
Figure 1—LED
symbol

The forward current rating of the LED is in the range of only 10 to 50 mA, so the
proper rating of current-limiting resistor must be connected in series with it. Also,
you should not reverse bias LEDs, as they have a low PIV rating of about 6 V. If
this reverse voltage is exceeded, they may be destroyed.
(milliampere
s)

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Figure 2—Characteristics curves of

diodes and LEDs

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LEDs have a forward voltage drop that is higher than conventional diodes.
A comparison of forward voltage drops for different diodes is illustrated in
Figure 2.

Photodiodes
The photodiode is a special PN junction diode in which light striking the junction
increases the
conductivity of the diode. It is constructed with an opening in the case to focus
light onto the
PN junction. See Figure 3.

Figure 3—The
photodiode

The simple circuit shown in Figure 4 illustrates the use of a photodiode

with a transistor amplifier to energize a control relay.

Notice that:

• The photodiode is operated in reverse bias.

• The dark current would be the same as the normal reverse-bias

(leakage) current for any diode.

• As the illuminance increases, the photodiode current also increases

and is amplified by the transistor to operate the control relay.

Figure 4—Photodiode
circuit

Typical maximum reverse voltage for photodiodes is 20 V. The sensitivity to

illuminance is approximately 20 nanoamperes (20 x 10–9 A) per lux. Figure 5
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shows
TASkhow
5 the reverse current is proportional to illuminance.

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Figure 5—Illuminance characteristics for a photodiode

Now do Self-Test 5 and check your answers.

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Self-Test 5
1. The PIV rating of the light-emitting diode is approximately
V maximum.

2. To emit light, are LEDs operated in forward or reverse bias?

3. To use the illuminance characteristics of photodiodes in circuit

operation, is the diode connected in forward or reverse bias?

4. Because the reverse currents of photodiodes are so small, they must be

amplified by
before they can be used.

5. Which colour of LED (red, amber or green) has the highest voltage
drop across it when conducting?

Go to the Answer Key at the end of the Learning Guide to check your
answers.

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Learning Task 6:
Describe features of the bipolar-junction
transistor
The transistor was one of the first solid-state devices developed, and it
replaced the vacuum tube. The term transistor was derived from the words
“transfer” and “resistor.” A variety of transistors have been developed over
the past years.

The term bipolar means that it uses both electrons and “holes” as current
carriers. The PN- junction diode is composed of two layers of
semiconductor material (one P-type and one N-type). The bipolar-junction
transistor (abbreviated BJT ) is made up of three layers of semiconductor
material.

Construction of bipolar-junction transistors

In a simple block diagram, the transistor can be visualized as being constructed
like a
semiconductor sandwich:

• If two blocks of N-type semiconductor material are separated with a very

thin layer of
P-type semiconductor material, then an NPN transistor is created.

• If the two outer blocks are made of P-type semiconductor, and if the
separating layer is
N-type semiconductor, then a PNP transistor

is formed. See Figure 1.

For simple applications like ohmmeter testing, the two types of transistors
can be looked upon as back-to-back diodes. See Figure 2. This helps to
identify polarity for forward and reverse measurements.

Figure 1—Simple transistor construction Figure 2—Junction diode

analogy for
transistors

The transistor may be either germanium or silicon. Most transistors use

silicon semiconductor doped to produce N- or P-type material. This
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withstands
TASk 6 higher current, temperature and voltage than germanium.

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Transistor symbols and lead designation

The transistor has three leads, each connected to one of the semiconductor
regions:

• The lead to the separating (centre) layer is called the base.

• One outer lead is called the collector.

• The other outer lead is called the emitter.

Figures 3 and 4 show the symbols for the NPN and PNP transistor leads.

Figure 3—NPN transistor Figure 4—PNP

transistor

Notice that each lead has a unique symbol. Even though the collector and
emitter are constructed of the same type of semiconductor material, the
emitter (which is doped to a slightly different level) is identified with an
arrow.

The emitter arrow always points from P-type to N-type material ( just like a
diode). This identifies the transistor symbol as being either an NPN or a PNP
type of transistor.

The only basic difference between using NPN and PNP styles of transistors is
in the polarity of the connections.

The circle may be omitted from these symbols; both forms are used in these
Learning Guides.

Common transistor-case styles

Based on their current/voltage ratings, transistors are packaged in different case
styles and sizes.
Transistors are identified by a standard numbered code such as 2N3719; you
can locate these codes in a specification manual. This manual lists the
ratings and also identifies the leads of a transistor. Some typical case styles
and lead identifications are illustrated in Figure 5.

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Figure 5—Common transistor case styles

Signal
transistors
Signal transistors are used in applications where power levels are in the
milliwatt range. Therefore, their case size can be relatively small and
still have effective heat dissipation.

Power transistors
Larger power transistors may be used in applications with power up to 100 W or
more, so they
must be designed to dissipate more heat energy. Quite often, transistors are
equipped with heat sinks to help reduce their operating temperature.

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Describe the basic applications of the junction transistor

In electronics, a simple definition of an amplifier is a device that controls a
large current with a very small current. The transistor does exactly this: it
doesn’t generate current; it merely regulates it. The actual source of current
is a DC power supply such as a battery.

Although a transistor is often used to amplify AC signals such as audio-

frequency signals, it is essentially a DC device and is often used for
switching purposes.

Comparing a transistor with a relay

To simplify, you can compare a transistor with an electro-magnetic relay: When
a small control
current is passed through the coil of the relay, a much larger load current can
be conducted by its contacts.

Refer to the relay circuit in Figure 1. When the coil circuit is energized by the
push-button, the relay contacts allow a larger load current to flow through
the lamp. Visualize the two current paths from the batteries ( V1 and V2).

Figure 1—Simple relay

circuit

Notice that one lead of the coil circuit is common with one lead of the load
circuit. This is not usually done in electrical power circuits, but it is typical of
transistor circuits.

Figure 1 shows:

• control circuit lead (b)

• load circuit lead (c)

• common circuit lead (e)

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Basically, a transistor circuit operates in the same manner as this simple relay
circuit. The transistor has, of course, more advantages. It has no contacts to
pit, no coil to burn out and no moving parts to wear down; it is completely
solid-state.

A simple NPN transistor is shown in semiconductor block form in the circuit in

Figure 2. Compare the transistor to the preceding relay circuit.

Notice that the:

• base (b) is the control circuit lead

• collector (c) is the load circuit lead

• emitter (e) is the common circuit lead

Figure 2—Simple transistor circuit

Control circuit
open
With the push-button in the control circuit open, no load current is allowed to
flow because the thin layer of P-type material (the base) prevents conduction
of any load current through the
N-type semiconductor materials.

Notice that if the P-type layer were removed, then load current would flow
through the N-type regions of semiconductor to complete the load circuit.

The base layer of P-type semiconductor blocks conduction through the load
circuit, since a
P-type semiconductor must be made positive before it will conduct.

Control circuit closed

If the push-button is pressed, the base-emitter (PN junction) is forward-biased,
and emitter-to- base (control circuit) current now flows. This is where the
magic of the transistor occurs!

Once electrons have entered the P-type material of the base, they are attracted
toward the more positive potential appearing at the collector. (Notice that the
battery V2 in the load circuit is
much larger than the battery V1 in the control circuit.) For each single electron
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attracted
TASk 6 toward
the positive battery terminal connected to the base, typically, one hundred
times more electrons
are allowed to flow toward the more positive battery point at the collector.

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When a small emitter-to-base current is established, a much larger emitter-to-

collector current can occur. The emitter lead (common) carries both the
collector (load) and base (control)
circuit currents.

For ALL transistor circuits:

• The base-emitter junction is forward-biased (in this case, + to P-type

material).

• The collector is reverse-biased (in this case, + to N-type material).

Like the relay, once control current is established, load current can flow.
However, the transistor is much more versatile than a simple relay.

The transistor circuit

Now consider the same transistor circuit with a variable resistor in place of the
push-button. The
circuit in Figure 3 uses the proper symbol for the NPN transistor.

Remember, the emitter arrow points from P- to N-type semiconductor

material. For the transistor to conduct, this junction must be forward-
biased.

Figure 3—Simple NPN

transistor circuit

• If the base resistance is set to minimum value, a large base current is

permitted to flow. This allows a much larger current to pass through to the
collector region and the load circuit.

• If the base resistance is increased, then less base current flows. This,
in turn, results in
less collector current being conducted through the semiconductor layers.
This is the real advantage of the transistor over the relay.

The magnitude of the base current actually controls the amount of collector
current that can flow. That is, the amount of base current causes the amount
of resistance between the collector and emitter leads to vary.

A transistor amplifier circuit can be compared to a water tap. If the tap (base) is
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opened
TASk 6more, a larger flow of water (collector current) is allowed. If the tap is
closed, then less water flows. Like a water tap, base current can control the
collector current of a transistor from fully on to fully off.

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Basic transistor terms and abbreviations

An intense study of transistor circuits would require many new terms and
abbreviations.
However, to identify simple transistor-circuit action, you will need a working
knowledge of just a few basic terms.

Knowing the lead designations (Collector, Base, Emitter) of the transistor symbol
makes it easy
to identify many of the terms and abbreviations for transistor circuits. Figure 4
illustrates the use of common transistor circuit abbreviations.

Symbol Usual meaning

Q A transistor
Ib Base current
Ic Collector current
Ie Emitter current
Rb Base circuit resistance (control)
Rc Collector circuit resistance (load)
VR Voltage drop across base circuit resistance
b

VR Voltage drop across collector circuit resistance

c

V Voltage drop across base-emitter leads

be

V Voltage drop across collector-emitter leads

ce
V Voltage drop across collector-base leads
cb
V Voltage potential of the supply or source
cc

cc

Figure 4—Transistor circuit abbreviations

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Current relationships
Since all of the electrons that enter the emitter must come out of either the base
or the collector,
the following current relationship is true for all transistor circuits:

Ie = Ib + Ic
Beta
The term beta, the Greek letter β, is important for transistors. Beta defines the
transistor’s current gain or amplification factor, and is determined by the
following equation:

I
= c
Ib

The beta of a transistor expresses the magnitude of collector current

controlled by a specific value of base current.

For example, if 1 mA of base current results in 100 mA of collector current,

then the beta (or current gain) of the transistor is 100. If the value of collector
current and the beta of a transistor are known, then you can determine the
value of base current.

The beta of a transistor is governed by its design. This ratio could be as low as
10, or as high as
500. You can identify the beta of any transistor by using a specifications
manual. Sometimes β is listed as hFE. For most simple circuit designs and
calculations, a nominal value of β = 100 is used.
Alpha
Alpha, the Greek letter α, is another term sometimes used in transistor circuits
to express current gain. It is determined by the following equation:

I c
=
Ie

Since the emitter current is always greater than the collector current, alpha is
always less than 1.

Remember that an NPN transistor consists of P-type material sandwiched

between two pieces of
N-type material.

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Figure 5—Construction of emitter and collector regions

The question may arise, “Is there any difference between the emitter (N-type)
and the collector (N-type) regions, and would it make any difference if you
interchanged the leads?” The construction of many BJTs is similar to the
illustration in Figure 5. As you can see, the collector region completely
surrounds the emitter so that every electron entering the emitter is strongly
attracted by the collector. If the emitter and collector leads were interchanged,
then a far greater number of electrons would come out of the base, resulting in
a much lower current gain. That is, there would be a smaller alpha value.

Cut off
If the base current is reduced to a value close to zero (either by a very large
value of Rb, or by an open base circuit), then no collector current is allowed to
flow. In this state, the transistor is said to be cut off.

Saturation
As the base current is increased by reducing the value of Rb, then the
collector current also increases in proportion to the beta of the transistor.
Note that increasing the base current decreases the internal collector-to-
emitter resistance in series with the load resistance (Rc).

If the base current is increased to a value where the internal collector-to-

emitter resistance is close to zero, then the maximum collector current (load)
that flows is governed by Ohm’s law (Supply voltage divided by resistance Rc).
Increasing the base current any further cannot allow any more collector
current to flow. The transistor is now said to be saturated.

PNP transistor circuits

The preceding discussions could have centred on PNP transistors rather than
NPN transistors.
The only difference would have been in the connected polarity needed to
make them work. Compare the transistor symbols in Figure 6.

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To operate an NPN transistor: To operate a PNP transistor:

• The emitter must be • The emitter must be positive.
negative.
• The base must be negative.
• The base must be
positive. • The collector must be negative.

• The collector must be

positive.

Figure 6—Polarities for NPN and PNP transistors

Notice that the arrow in the transistor symbol not only identifies the emitter
but also identifies whether the transistor is NPN or PNP. (In semiconductor
symbols, the arrow always points from P- to N-type material.)

Compare the simple PNP transistor amplifier circuit in Figure 7 with the
previous NPN transistor circuit in Figure 3.

Figure 7—Simple PNP transistor circuit

Notice that the only difference is that the polarities of the control and
supply voltages have been reversed when using the PNP transistor symbol.

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Common emitter circuit calculations

Referring to Figure 4, note that two 10 V DC supplies were used: one for the
base circuit, and one
for the collector circuit. Note also that the DC supplies have their negative
ends tied together. Therefore, you could eliminate one of the DC supplies
(say the left-hand base supply) by returning the positive lead of Rb back to
the positive terminal of the voltage supply. The same transistor circuit can
function with only one DC supply source.

A more practical transistor circuit requiring only a single DC supply voltage is

shown
in Figure 8b. Compare this circuit with the preceding one, Figure 8a. Note
that they are fundamentally the same. The symbol for the supply voltage
has been changed to the more commonly used Vcc.

Study the two diagrams for their similarities and differences.

By varying base resistance (Rb), you can control collector current from fully off
to fully on. Once a transistor is saturated, reducing the base resistance any
further is useless, since no further collector current can result.

I
(a)

I Rc

cc
Ie
Rb be

(b)

cb
Rc

Rb
e

Figure 8—Common emitter transistor circuit

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Transistor as a switch
When a transistor is saturated:

• The voltage across Rc is very nearly equal to the collector circuit

voltage or supply voltage ( Vcc).

• The drop across the transistor ( Vce) is almost zero.

• Increasing the base current causes no increase in collector current (bye

bye beta).

• The transistor acts like a

closed switch. When a transistor is

cut off:

• The voltage across Rc is zero.

• The current in the base is zero.

• The drop across the transistor ( Vce) is equal to the collector circuit
voltage or supply voltage ( Vcc).

• The transistor acts like an open switch.

Therefore, the voltage drop across the transistor ( Vce) can be set anywhere
from nearly zero to the supply-voltage value by using the proper value of
base resistance (Rb). The procedure of setting the value of Vce for a transistor
is known as biasing.

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Learning Task 7:
Solve problems relating to the bipolar-junction
transistor
Basic transistor circuit calculations
Now that you have a working knowledge of basic transistor action and its
fundamental
terminology, you should be able to perform simple transistor circuit calculations.

Calculating minimum base resistance for saturation

It may be useful to determine the minimum value of the base resistance (Rb)
required to cause saturation at a given load (Rc). This would be biasing a
transistor for saturation to make it act as a closed switch.
Assume that a silicon transistor with beta = 100 is used to control a load (Rc) as
shown in Figure 9. Once a transistor is saturated, the collector-to-emitter
resistance is very low and the voltage drop Vce is almost zero. For greater
accuracy, it is best to use a value of Vce = 0.1 V under this
saturated condition.

9.9 V
c

I
b

+ 0.1
V

Figure 9—Calculation of R b for saturation

Voltage across the load resistor (Rc)

V =V –V
is cthen: R cc ce

= 10 V – 0.1 V

= 9.9 V

You can now determine the collector current:

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V
Ic  R c
Rc
9.9 V

10 0
0.99 A 990 mA

Knowing the collector current at saturation and the beta of the transistor, you
can now calculate the base current:

Recognizing that any base current establishes a voltage drop ( Vbe) across the
base-emitter
junction of 0.7 V, you can nowR as:
find V b

VR = Vcc – Vbe
b

= 10 V – 0.7 V = 9.3 V

Now you can determine the minimum value of base resistance (Rb) that causes
saturation as:
VR b
Rb 
Ib

9.3 V
 939 0
0.0099 A

Using a value of Rb any lower than 939 Ω would not allow any more collector
current to flow—it would simply cause more heating of the base-emitter
junction.

This procedure allows you to find the value of Rb that causes saturation for any
simple circuit. The same simple process allows you to determine the needed
value of Rb for any voltage across the load resistor ( VR ) from 0 V to very
c
nearly Vcc.

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Learning Task 8:
Describe basic applications of the junction
transistor in DC Circuits
The transistor switch
Although in many electronic applications the transistor is used as a current
amplifier, digital
circuits often employ the transistor as a simple switching device.

The transistor switch can be in only one of two states of operation: it can be off,
or it can be fully
on by being saturated.

939

Figure 10—Simple transistor-switch circuit

Position
A
In the circuit of Figure 10, setting the control (SPDT ) switch in position A
results in the base and the emitter being at the same potential. Therefore, the
base current is zero, and the collector current is also zero. That is, the
transistor is off.

With no base current, the resistance of the transistor between collector and
emitter leads is very high. That is, in this condition the transistor acts like an
open switch.

Using the values assigned in Figure 10,

this gives: Vce = Vcc = 10 V

VRc = 0 V

Position B
Moving the control switch to position B allows base current to flow, and if Rb
is sized to a low enough value, the transistor can be turned fully on, or
saturated.

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Under
TASk 8 this condition, the resistance of the transistor between collector and
emitter leads is very low. That is, in this condition the transistor acts like a
closed switch.

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TASk 8

Now, using the values assigned in Figure 10, this gives:

Vce = 0.1 V, = 9.9 V (almost equal to Vcc)
c
and VR

If the SPDT switch is moved back and forth from position A to position B at
equal intervals of time, then the voltage drop across Rc has a waveform as
shown in Figure 11. This is a square wave with an amplitude of
approximately +10 V.

Figure 11—Waveform
across RC

By switching a very small signal current in the base circuit of the transistor,
you can switch (control) a much larger collector current. Transistors are often
used in place of mechanical switches because they have no moving parts (so
they are free from wear and tear), and they can switch very rapidly (typically in
microseconds).

The two-transistor circuit

By using two transistors, you can obtain a much higher gain than by using a
single transistor as
a switch in a circuit. Gain here means the ratio of load current to control
current. To achieve this extra gain, you must combine two single-transistor
amplifier circuits. See Figure 12.

Figure 12—Creating a two-

transistor circuit

These two circuits are arranged so that one of the circuits controls the other.
Notice that the Vce
of transistor Q1 is the same as the Vbe of transistor Q2. Connected in this fashion,
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theTASk
output
8 signal
of Q1 becomes the input signal for Q2.

The preceding circuit can be simplified. First, you don’t require two batteries;
second, resistors R2 and R3 are in parallel so they can be replaced by a single
resistor. This leaves you with the circuit shown in Figure 13. Compare Figure 13
with Figure 12.

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TASk 8

c1 c2

e2
e1

e1

Figure 13—Current paths in the two-

transistor circuit

• For transistor Q1, a very small change in base current (Ib1) results in a
larger change in collector current (Ic1).

• This causes a substantial change in the voltage drop across resistor R2,
and in turn for the voltage drop Vce1 across the transistor.

• Vce1 across transistor Q1 is the same as Vbe2 for transistor Q2.

• Therefore, any change in the base current (Ib1) of Q1 causes a change in

the base current
(Ib2) of Q2.

• This in turn results in a larger change in the collector current (Ic2) of

transistor Q2.

This amplification in stages can result in a considerable current gain. You can
further increase
the overall current gain by cascading more stages of transistors. This means
joining them, so that one flows into the next, as was done for the first pair.

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TASk 8

A two-transistor alarm circuit

Figure 14—A burglar alarm using a two-transistor circuit

The alarm scheme illustrated in Figure 14 is a practical application of a two-

transistor circuit. This shows a simple intrusion circuit where breaking a
conductive metal tape or trip-wire activates
an alarm horn or bell.
In this circuit, as long as the trip-wire is in place and not broken:

• Transistor Q1 receives its base current through resistor R1.

• Resistors R1 and R2 are appropriately sized so that under normal

conditions transistor Q1 is saturated.

• In this condition, Vce = 0.1 V for Q1, which also means that Vbe = 0.1 V for
Q 2.

• Since Vbe for Q2 must be greater than 0.7 V to turn on, Q2 is cut off.

• Therefore, when transistor Q1 is saturated, transistor Q2 is off, and the

control relay for the alarm is de-energized.
Now suppose that someone breaks the trip-wire. Suddenly everything reverses:

• The base current to transistor Q1 is interrupted, and Q1 cuts off.

• The collector current of Q1, which passes through resistor R2, now
becomes the base current for Q2.

• This means that Vbe for transistor Q2 rises to 0.7 V.

• Now collector current for Q2 is allowed to flow.

• With the correct values selected, Q2 saturates and the control relay in
the collector circuit becomes energized so that the alarm sounds.

• Voltage across the relay coil = 12 V – 0.1 V = 11.9. V

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Calculating the gain

By using the values shown in Figure 14, you can determine the overall gain for
the circuit:

1. The base current for transistor Q1 is:

voltage across R
IB1 
1

R1
11.3 V

100 kO

0.113 mA

IB1 represents the control current for the two-transistor circuit.

2. The collector current for transistor Q2 is the current through the relay
coil. This may be calculated as:
voltage across relay coil
Ic2 
relay coil resistance
11.9 V

100 0

119
mA

IC2 represents the load current for the two-transistor circuit.

For step 3, use these two calculated current values to calculate the gain:

3. Overall gain is the ratio of load current to control current and may be
calculated as:
load current
Gain =
control current
119 mA
= = 1053
0.113 mA

A gain of over a thousand is much higher than you could obtain with a single
transistor.

Transistor ratings
Bipolar junction transistors are used for many different purposes and are
manufactured in many
different types. For basic purposes, they can be categorized into four main
types:

• small signal (low frequency)

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TASk 8
• power (low frequency)

• high frequency

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• switching

In your laboratory exercises, you will be working with either small signal or
power BJTs. Generally speaking, transistors over 1 W may be classified as
power types. High-frequency transistors are used in communications (radio,
TV ) circuits. Switching transistors are used in applications such as
computers.

It is important that you operate a transistor within its ratings. To identify the
ratings of a transistor, it is necessary to refer to a specifications manual or
data book. Figure 15 illustrates some of the information that is normally
listed.

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Power Transistors
2N3445 thru 2N3448 (silicon)
V CEO = 60–80 V
NPN silicon power transistors for switching and amplifier IC = 7.5 A
applications requiring fast response, wide band, and good PD = 115 W
beta linearity.
CASE 11 (TO-3)
Maximum ratings
Ratings Symbol 2N3445&7 2N3446&8 Unit
Collector-base voltage V CB 80 100 Volts
Collector-emitter voltage V CEO 60 80 Volts
Emitter-base voltage V EB 6 10 Volts
Collector current IC 7.5 7.5 Amp
Base current IB 4.0 4.0 Amp
Power dissipation PD 115 115 Watts
Junction-operating temperature range TJ 65 to +200 °C

Power-temperature derating curve

These transistors are also subject to safe-area curves.
Both limits are applicable and must be observed

Electrical charcteristics
Characteristics Symbol Min Typ Max Unit
Emitter-base cutoff current I EBO mA DC
V EB = 6 V DC 2N3445, 2N3447 – – 0.25
V EB = 10 V DC 2N3446, 2N3448 – – 0.25
Collector-emitter cutoff current I CEX mA DC
V CE = 60 V DC , V BE = 1 V DC 2N3445, 2N3447 – – 0.1
V CE = 60 V DC , V BE = 1 V DC , T C = 150 °C 2N3445, 2N3447 – – 1.0
V CE = 80 V DC , V BE = 1 V DC , 2N3446, 2N3448 – – 0.1
V CE = 80 V DC , V BE = 1 V DC , T C = 150 °C 2N3446, 2N3448 – – 1.0
Collector-emitter cutoff current I CEO mA DC
V CE = 40 V DC , I B = 0 2N3445, 2N3447 – – 1.0
V CE = 60 V DC , I B = 0 2N3446, 2N3448 – – 1.0
Collector-base breakdown voltage BV CBO V DC
I C = 1 mA DC , I E = 0 2N3445, 2N3447 80 – –
2N3446, 2N3448 100 – –
Collector-emitter sustaining voltage V CEO (SUS ) V DC
I C = 100 mA DC , I B = 0 2N3445, 2N3447 60 – –
2N3446, 2N3448 80 – –
DC current gain hFE –
I C = 0.5 A DC , V CE = 5 V DC 2N3445, 2N3446 20 45 –
2N3447, 2N3448 40 85 –
I C = 3 A DC , V CE = 5 V DC 2N3445, 2N3446 20 40 60
I C = 5 A DC , V CE = 5 V DC 2N3447, 2N3448 40 75 120
Collector-emitter saturation voltage V CE (sat ) V DC
I C = 3 A DC , I B = 0.3 A DC 2N3445, 2N3446 – 0.6 1.5
I C = 5 A DC , I B = 0.5 A DC 2N3447, 2N3448 – 0.8 1.5
Base-emitter saturation voltage V DE (sat ) V DC
I C = 3 A DC , I B = 0.3 A DC 2N3445, 2N3446 – 1.0 1.5
I C = 5 A DC , I B = 0.5 A DC 2N3447, 2N3448 – 1.0 1.5
Base-emitter voltage V BE V DC
I C = 3 A DC , V CE = 5 V DC 2N3445, 2N3446 – 1.0 1.5
I C = 5 A DC , V CE = 5 V DC 2N3447, 2N3448 – 1.0 1.4
Small-signal current gain hfe –
V CE = 10 V DC , I C = 0.5 A DC , f = 1 kHz 2N3445, 2N3446 20 – 100
2N3447, 2N3448 40 – 200
V CE = 10 V DC , I C = 0.5 A DC , f = 10 kHz 1.0 1.6
Common-base output capacitance C ob pF
V CB = 25 V DC , F = 0.1 MH Z – 260 400
Switching times µs
V CC = 25 V DC , R L = 5 Ω, I C = 5 A, 1 B1 = 1 B2 = 0.5A
Delay time plus rise time td – t r – 0.15 0.35
Storage time ts – 0.9 2.0
Fall time t1 – 0.15 0.35

Figure 15—Typical data in a specifications manual

Now do Self-Test 6 and check your answers.

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TASk 8

Self-Test 6
1. What is meant by the abbreviation BJT?

2. For each of the two transistor symbols shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2
below:
a. Identify the transistor type (NPN
or PNP). b. Label the leads.

Figure 1 Figure 2

3. Complete the diagrams in Figures 3 and 4 showing how transistor

symbols could be visualized as back-to-back diodes.

Figure 3—PNP transistor Figure 4—NPN transistor

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TASk 8

4. What is the distinction between the terms signal and power as applied to
transistors?

5. As shown in Figures 5 and 6, if an ohmmeter is used to test a good

transistor, you would expect the ohmmeter in position A to indicate a
(high or low) value of resistance, and the ohmmeter in position B to indicate
a
(high or low) value of resistance.

Figure 5 Figure 6

6. To identify voltage and current ratings for a given transistor, you should
look in a
.

7. The two semiconductor elements most commonly used to construct

transistors are
and .

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TASk 8

8. For any transistor to operate as an amplifier, the base-emitter junction must

be
biased.

9. If increasing the base current of a transistor does not cause an increase in

collector current, the transistor is said to be .

10. Decreasing the base current of a transistor normally causes the collector-
to-emitter voltage drop to .

11. The beta of a transistor is defined as the ratio of the

current to the current.

12. The alpha of a transistor is defined as the ratio of the

current to the current.

13. The current is always the sum of the base

current plus the current.

14. When the base current of a transistor is zero, the transistor is said to be
.

15. Unless given, a good value to use for the beta of a transistor is
.

16. Normally, as the base current of a transistor increases, the collector-to-

emitter resistance
.

17. The only difference between NPN and PNP transistor circuits is the
connected to make them work.

18. State the abbreviations for the following:

a. base current

b. collector circuit resistance

c. base circuit resistance

d. collector-to-emitter voltage drop

e. base-to-emitter voltage drop

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TASk 8

19. The letter commonly used to symbolize a transistor is .

20. What is meant when you bias a transistor?

Use the circuit diagram in Figure 1 to answer Questions 14 to 25.

Figure 1—Transistor circuit for

Questions 14 to 25

21. In a transistor amplifier circuit, decreasing Ib should cause Ic to

(increase or decrease) and Vce to
(increase or decrease).

22. Vbe for a conducting silicon transistor is approximately V.

23. When Vce is approximately 0.1 V, a transistor is considered to be

.

24. Increasing the value of Rb should cause Ic to

(increase or decrease)
and Vce to (increase or decrease).

25. The ratio of Ic to Ib is called the of a transistor.

26. For all transistor circuits, is the sum of Ib plus

.
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TASk 8

27. In a transistor amplifier, if VRc increases, then the value of Rb has been
(increased or decreased).

28. If the beta of the transistor = 100, then Ib = mA for Ic = 1 A.

29. If Vce = Vcc , then a transistor is said to be .

30. For a transistor with a beta of 100, if Vcc = 18 V, Rb = 10 k Ω, and Rc = 103.5

Ω, then
Vce = .

31. For a transistor with a beta of 100, if Vcc = 18 V, Rb = 10 k Ω, and Rc = 50 Ω,

then
Vce = .

32. For a transistor with a beta of 100, if Vcc = 40 V, Rc = 15 k Ω, and Vce = 35 V,

then
Rb = .

Use the circuit diagram in Figure 2 to answer Questions 26 and 27.

Figure 2—Transistor circuit for Questions 26 and 27

33. For the transistor circuit in Figure 2, determine the value of Rb necessary for
Vce = 5 V.

34. For the circuit in Figure 2, what is the maximum value of Rb to cause
saturation?

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35. TASk
When8 a transistor is operated as a switch, it has two states of operation. It is
either
.

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TASk 8

36. What two advantages does a transistor switch have over a mechanical
switch?

37. With two transistors in a switch circuit, you can get much more
than with a single transistor.

Use the circuit diagram in Figure 3 to answer Questions 38 to 44.

38. What is the value of R1 that will cause Q1 to be saturated?

39. VCE Q1 when S1 is closed?

40. VEBJ Q2 when S1 is closed?

41. IR2 when S1 is closed?

42. IR2 when S1 is open?

43. VRLAMP when S1 is open?

44. Is Q2 saturated when S1 is open?

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TASk 8

Use the circuit diagram in Figure 4 to answer Questions 45 to 47.

45. PB1 closed PB2

open:
a. VR1

b. IR1

c. V
CE Q1

d. V
EBJ Q2

e. Is Q1 saturated?

f. Is Q2 cut off?

46. PB1 open PB2

closed:
a. VR1

b. IR1

c. V
CE Q1

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d. V
CE
Q2

e. Is Q2
saturated?

f.
PR3

47. PB1 closed PB2 closed:

a.
VR1

b.
IR1

c. V
CE

d.
Q1

V
CE Q2

e. PR1

f.
PR2

Go to the Answer Key at the end of the Learning Guide to check your
answers.

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PROGRAM: LEVEL 1 8
 LEARNING A-6
TOABSJkEC9TIVES

Learning Task 9:
Describe features of specialty transistors
Darlington-pair transistors
The Darlington pair is a special transistor package that looks like a single
transistor but actually
contains two bipolar-junction transistors (BJTs).

This combination is constructed to give a much larger beta than is available from
a single transistor.

Figure 1—The Darlington

circuit

As shown in Figure 1, the two transistors are connected so that:

• The input current Ib1 is amplified by the gain (β1) of the first transistor.

• This amplified current becomes the base current for the second transistor.

• The collector current of the second transistor is this base current

multiplied by the gain
(β2) of the second transistor.

• This calculates as very nearly Ib1

× β1 × β2. That is: βT = β1 × β2.

Therefore, the Darlington circuit is sometimes called a beta multiplier

circuit. The transistor is sometimes referred to as a super-beta transistor
since its beta is typically larger than 2500.

The symbol commonly used to represent a Darlington transistor is shown in

Figure 2.

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Figure 2—Darlington transistor symbol

Notice that since there are two base-emitter junctions between the base and
emitter leads
of the Darlington transistor, the forward voltage drop across these leads is
double the Vbe of a single transistor.

Phototransistors
Like the photodiode, the phototransistor is a light-sensitive device. The
phototransistor is
fundamentally no different than other bipolar transistors except that the
semiconductor material is exposed so that light can fall on it.

Figure 3—Equivalent circuit for phototransistor

The effect of light (through a lens) falling on the collector-base region of the
transistor can be visualized as a resistor connected between the collector and
base leads. As more light falls on this junction, the ohmic value of this
“resistor” becomes smaller, and base current can begin
to flow. To become the collector current, this light-generated base current is
amplified in the normal way by the current gain of the transistor.

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Figure 4—Symbols for the phototransistor

In many cases, the base is not even connected in the circuit, as light takes the
place of the base current. If the base lead is available for connection in the
circuit, it is usually reverse-biased so that the collector current can be cut off
completely. Phototransistors can be made very sensitive to low light levels.
When increased sensitivity is needed, a photo-Darlington transistor (PDT ) is
used. This is a single unit that combines a phototransistor with an ordinary
bipolar transistor to form a Darlington pair. The PDT can have a very high gain,
up to 10 000.

Figure 5—Symbol of a photo-Darlington transistor

Now do Self-Test 7 and check your answers.

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TASk 9

Self-Test 7
1. What advantage does a Darlington transistor have over a regular BJT?

2. What is another name for the Darlington transistor?

3. What is the expected approximate base-to-emitter voltage for a silicon

Darlington transistor?

4. The current gain for transistor Q1 is hFE = 200 and for Q2, hFE = 50. What
is the overall gain if the two transistors are connected as a Darlington
pair?

5. Sketch the common symbols for two-terminal and three-terminal

phototransistors.

Go to the Answer Key at the end of the Learning Guide to check your
answers.

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 LEARNING A-6
TASk 9

Answer key
Self-Test 1
1. The number of valence electrons. Conductors have three or fewer valence
electrons; insulators have five or more valence electrons; semiconductors
have exactly four valence electrons.

2. germanium and silicon

3. covalent bonding

4. a. P
b. N

5. electrons;
holes

6. negative

7. heat sink

8. because silicon can withstand higher temperatures

Self-Test 2
1. P, N

2. barrier potential

3. negative

4. 0.7

5. the anode

6. low

7. a. both lamps off

b. lamp 1 off; lamp

2 on c. both lamps

off

d. lamp 1 on; lamp 2 off

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kE Y

8. The diode may be connected in either position as shown:

Figure
3

9. The diode may be connected in either position as shown:

Figure
4

10. cathode to anode

11. freewheeling (or clamping)

12. See Figure 5.

Figure 5—Circuit for

Question 12

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Self-Test 3
1. The Zener diode normally operates with reverse bias as a voltage
regulator, to keep voltage constant. A conventional diode is intended to
operate only with forward bias.

2. The Zener voltage is the regulated voltage that is maintained across the
Zener diode when it operates with reverse bias.

3. The Zener diode must

a. be connected in reverse bias
b. have a voltage rating lower than the source voltage
c. have a stabilizing resistor connected in series to limit the current
(and to drop off the difference between the source voltage and Zener
voltage)

4.

5.

Self-Test 4
1. a.24 V (23.3 V, if you consider the voltage drop across the diode)

b. 12 V

2. a. 60 mA

b. 40 mA

3. The battery voltage for the ohmmeter should not exceed the Zener voltage
rating. If it does, the ohmmeter would seem to measure low resistance in both
directions, indicating a shorted diode.

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4. Determine the unknowns for the following Zener regulator circuit with a
fixed load and a varying supply.

a. Maximum amps the Zener diode is rated for = ___5A___

b. Minimum value of Rs = ____18.4 Ω_______

c. Minimum wattage rating for Rs = __460W_________

d. Fill in the following table:

DC Supply VZener VRS VLoad ILOAD IZener ITotal

10 VDC 8V 2V 8V 80mA 0.028A 0.108A
20 VDC 8V 12V 8V 80mA 0.572A 0.652A
40 VDC 8V 32V 8V 80mA 1.66A 1.74A
60 VDC 8V 52V 8V 80mA 2.746A 2.83A
80 VDC 8V 72V 8V 80mA 3.83A 3.91A
100 VDC 8V 92V 8V 80mA 4.92A 5A

e. If the supply was 5 V, determine:

DC Supply VZener VRS VLoad ILOAD IZener ITotal

5V 4.2V 0.8V 4.2V 0.042A 0A 0.042A

Explanation: The supply voltage is less than the Zener diodes Zener voltage.
The Zener will operate as an open circuit and will not carry any current. This
results in a series circuit made up of Rs and the load.

5.

a. Maximum amps the Zener diode is rated for = ____2A__

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b. Minimum value of Rs = ______13 Ω _____

c. Minimum wattage rating for Rs = ___52 W________

d. Fill in the following table:

RLoad ILOAD IZENER ITotal

15Ω 1.6A 0.4A 2A
20Ω 1.2A 0.8A 2A
25Ω 0.96A 1.04A 2A
30Ω 0.80A 1.2A 2A
35Ω 0.68A 1.32A 2A
40Ω 0.6A 1.4A 2A
45Ω 0.53A 1.47A 2A
50Ω 0.48A 1.52A 2A

Self-Test 5
1. 6

2. forward bias

3. reverse bias

4. transistors

5. green

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ANSwER A-6
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Self-Test 6
1. bipolar-junction transistor

2.

Figure 1 Figure 2

3.

Figure 4 Figure 5

4. Signal transistors are used in applications where power levels may be in

milliwatts. Power transistors are rated much higher, from 1 watt to
hundreds of watts.

5. low; high

6. specifications manual or data book

7. silicon, germanium

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 ANSwER A-6
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8. forward

9. saturated

10. increase

11. collector, base

12. collector, emitter

13. emitter, collector

14. cut off

15. 100

16. decreases

17. polarity

18. a. Ib
b. Rc
c. Rb
d.
Vce e.
Vbe

19. Q

20. setting Vce to a predetermined value (by selecting an appropriate size of Rb)

21. decrease, increase

22. 0.7

23. saturated (fully on)

24. decrease, increase

25. beta (symbol β )

26. Ie, Ic

27. decreased

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28. 10

29. cut off

30. 0.1 V

31. 9.35 V

32. 11.79 MΩ

33. 186 kΩ

34. 94 kΩ

35. cut off or saturated

36. • It has no moving parts, so there is no wear and tear.

• It acts much faster than a mechanical switch.

37. current gain

38. Value of R1 that will cause Q1 to be saturated

39. VCEQ1 when S1 is closed

40. VEBJQ2 when S1 is closed

41. IR2 when S1 is closed

42. IR2 when S1 is open

43. VRLAMP when S1 is open

44. 1. Value of R1 that will cause Q1 to saturate

VCEQ1 @ Saturation =
V =V –V
0.1V R2 CC CEQ1
= 25 – 0.1
= 24.9V

I =V /R
R2 R2 2
= 24.9 / 225
= 0.11066A or 110.66mA

IBQ1 = ICQ1 / β
= 0.11066 / 100
= 0.001106A or 1.106mA

CONSTRUC TION AND INDUSTRIAL ELEC TRICIAN APPRENTICESHIP 7

PROGRAM: LEVEL 1 9
 ANSwER A-6
kE Y

V =V –V
R1 CC EBJQ1
=25 – 0.7
=24.3V

R =V /I
1 R1 R1
=24.3V / 0.001106
= 21 971.1 Ω or 21.97KΩ

2. VCEQ1 = 0.1V

3. V =V
EBJQ2 CEQ1
= 0.1V

4. IR2 = 0.11066A or 110.66mA

5. IR2 = VR2 / R2
V =V –V
R2 CC EBJQ2
= 25 – 0.7
= 24.3 V

= 24.3 / 225
= 108 mA

6. VRLAMP = IRLAMP * RLAMP

I =I *B
(Calculated) RLAMP BQ2 Q2
= 0.108* 40
= 4.32A

VRLAMP = 4.32*39
= 168.48V

This is an impossible state! Since we only have 25V as VCC.

Q2 is saturated. Actual VRLAMP when Q2 is saturated.

V =V –V
RLAMP CC CEQ2
= 25V – 0.1V
= 24.9V

7. Yes, Q2 is saturated when S1 is open. Further, Q2 is cut off when S1 is

45 closed.
.

a. VR1

V =V –
R1 CC
V
EBJQ1
= 12 – 0.7
= 11.3V

CONSTRUC TION AND INDUSTRIAL ELEC TRICIAN APPRENTICESHIP 8

PROGRAM: LEVEL 1 0
ANSwER A-6
kE Y

b. IR1

I =V /R
R1 R1 1
= 11.3 / 10000
= 1.13mA

c. VCE Q1

V =V –V
CEQ1 CC R2

VR2 = IR2 * R2

I =I *B
R2 R1 Q1
=1.13mA * 200
= 226mA

V =I *R
R2 R2 2
= 226mA * 1KΩ
= 226 Volts

This is an impossible value as VCC = 12V. This tells us Q1 is saturated.

V =V –V S
R2 CC CEQ1 AT
= 12 V – 0.1 V
= 11.9 V

V =V –V
CEQ1 CC R2
= 12 – 11.9
= 0.1 V

( This value was also seen in the calculation for the actual value of VR2)

d. V Q
EBJ 2

VEBJ Q2 = VCEQ1 = 0.1 V

e. Is Q1
saturated?
Q1 is
saturated f. Is
Q2 cut off?

Q2 is cut off because the base circuit is open.

46.

a. VR1

CONSTRUC TION AND INDUSTRIAL ELEC TRICIAN APPRENTICESHIP 8

PROGRAM: LEVEL 1 1
ANSwER A-6
kE Y R = OV
1

CONSTRUC TION AND INDUSTRIAL ELEC TRICIAN APPRENTICESHIP 8

PROGRAM: LEVEL 1 2
 ANSwER A-6
kE Y

b. IR1

IR1 = OA

c. VCE Q1

VCEQ1 = VEBJQ2 because they are parallel

Q2 is conducting – therefore VEBJQ2 would be 0.7V

VCEQ1 = 0.7 V

d. VCE Q2

V =V –V
CEQ2 CC R3
V =I *R
RCQ2 REQ2 3
I =I *B
RCQ2 BQ2 Q2
I =V /R
BQ2 RBQ2 BQ2

V =V –V
RBQ2 CC EBJQ2
= 12 – 0.7
= 11.3 V

I =V /R
BQ2 RB B
= 11.3 / 1000
= 11.3 mA

I =I *B
RCQ2 BQ2 Q2
= 11.3 mA * 200
= 2.26 A

V =I *R
RCQ2 CQ2 3
=2.26A * 3Ω
=6.78 V

V =V –V
CEQ2 CC R3
= 12 – 6.78
= 5.22 V

e. Is Q2
saturated?
Q2 is NOT saturated. It is in the
operating region. f. PR3

P = E2 / R
= 6.782 / 3
= 15.323 W

47.

a. VR1 VR1 =
CONSTRUC TION AND INDUSTRIAL ELEC TRICIAN APPRENTICESHIP 8
PROGRAM: LEVEL 1 3
ANSwER A-6
11.3
kE Y V

CONSTRUC TION AND INDUSTRIAL ELEC TRICIAN APPRENTICESHIP 8

PROGRAM: LEVEL 1 4
ANSwER A-6
kE Y

b. IR1

IR1 = 1.13 mA

c. VCE Q1

VCEQ1 = 0.1V

d. VCE Q2

VCEQ2 = 12V (Q2 is cut off!)

e. PR1

P =V *I
R1 R1 R1
= 11.3V * 1.13 mA
= 0.01277W or 12.77mW

f. PR2

PR2 = E2R2 / R2 (use actual values!)

= 11.92 / 1000
= 0.14161 W or 141.61mW

Self-Test 7
1. It has a much greater current gain. The overall beta is approximately equal
to β1 × β2.

2. super-beta transistor

3. 1.4 V

4. 10 000

5.

CONSTRUC TION AND INDUSTRIAL ELEC TRICIAN APPRENTICESHIP 8

PROGRAM: LEVEL 1 5
ANSwER A-6
kE Y

CONSTRUC TION AND INDUSTRIAL ELEC TRICIAN APPRENTICESHIP 8

PROGRAM: LEVEL 1 6