MICROPHONE

A microphone is an electroacoustic transducer that converts sound vibrations into electrical

energy. It captures acoustic pressure through its capsule and transforms it into an electrical
signal. The primary purpose of a microphone is to convert audio signals into electrical
impulses. Microphones can process sounds from various locations or elements.
There are several types of microphones, including dynamic microphones, condenser
microphones, piezoelectric microphones, and contact microphones. Microphones can also be
categorized by their directional characteristics, such as omnidirectional, bidirectional, and
unidirectional2. The most important characteristics of microphones for live sound applications
are their operating principle, frequency response, and directionality3.
Dynamic microphones are called moving coils and are the most durable professional
devices. They do not need an external power source and are particularly resistant to physical
impacts. Condenser microphones are smaller in size, have excellent sensitivity, and provide the
best sound quality. Piezoelectric microphones capture sound in direct contact with the sound
source and are often mounted on musical instruments. Contact microphones provide the best
reception of sounds transmitted from hard surfaces such as tables.

Types of Microphones

There are several types of microphones, including dynamic microphones, condenser

microphones, ribbon microphones, carbon microphones, and crystal microphones.

Dynamic microphones are also called moving coil microphones. They function on the
following principle: as a coil of wire moves in relation to a magnet, a voltage is created on the
wire. In a dynamic microphone, the diaphragm is attached to a coil of wire. The coil of wire
surrounds a magnet. The diaphragm is usually made of aluminium alloy or other low-mass
material, so that it can be moved by the low-mass particles of the air. As the diaphragm shifts
forward and backward with the movements in the atmosphere, the coil of wire also moves.
Because the coil surrounds around a stationary magnet, as the coil moves around the magnet,
a voltage is created on the wire.

Condenser microphones are also called capacitor microphones. They work by using a thin
diaphragm that vibrates in response to sound waves. The diaphragm is placed close to a metal
plate, and the space between the diaphragm and the plate is filled with an insulating material.
When sound waves hit the diaphragm, it vibrates and changes the distance between the
diaphragm and the plate. This change in distance causes a change in capacitance, which in turn
creates an electrical signal.
Ribbon microphones are also called velocity microphones, and are technically a variation of
a dynamic microphone. They use a thin metal ribbon suspended in a magnetic field to generate
an electrical signal. The ribbon is very thin and light, so it can move quickly in response to
sound waves. This movement generates a voltage in the ribbon, which is then amplified.

Carbon microphones were one of the earliest types of microphones. They work by using a
carbon button that vibrates in response to sound waves. The button is connected to a battery
and a resistor, and the voltage across the resistor changes as the resistance of the carbon button
changes. This change in voltage creates an electrical signal.
Crystal microphones use a piezoelectric crystal to generate an electrical signal. When sound
waves hit the crystal, it vibrates and generates a voltage. This voltage is then amplified.

A crystal headphone is a type of piezoelectric earphone that produces sound by using a

piezoelectric crystal, a material that changes its shape when electricity is applied to it . The
crystal earpiece typically consists of a piezoelectric crystal with metal electrodes attached to
either side, glued to a conical plastic or metal foil diaphragm, enclosed in a plastic case . When
the audio signal is applied to the electrodes, the crystal bends back and forth a little with the
signal, vibrating the diaphragm. The diaphragm pushes on the air, creating sound waves. The
plastic earpiece casing confines the sound waves and conducts them efficiently into the ear
canal, to the eardrum . Crystal earpieces are usually monaural devices with very low sound
fidelity, but high sensitivity and impedance . They were popularly used with 960s era transistor
radios and hearing aids . They are not used with modern portable media players due to
unacceptable sound quality . The main causes of poor performance with these earpieces are
low diaphragm excursion, nonlinearity, in-band resonance and the very short horn shape of the
earpiece casing. The resulting sound is very tinny and lacking in bass . Modern headphones
use electromagnetic drivers that work similarly to speakers, with moving coils or moving iron
cores in a magnetic field 2. One remaining use for crystal earpieces is in crystal radios. Their
very high sensitivity enables them to use the very weak signals produced by crystal radios, and
their high impedance (on the order of 20 kilohms) is a good match for the typical crystal radio
.

Moving Iron Headphone

A moving iron headphone is a type of electromagnetic earphone that produces sound by using
a small piece of iron that vibrates in a magnetic field . The iron piece is suspended between
two magnets and is attached to a diaphragm that moves back and forth as the iron vibrates .
When an audio signal is applied to the headphones, it creates a varying magnetic field that
interacts with the iron piece, causing it to vibrate in response to the signal . The diaphragm then
moves back and forth, creating sound waves that are conducted into the ear canal . Moving iron
headphones are known for their high sensitivity and low distortion, making them ideal for use
in hearing aids and other medical devices . They are also used in high-end audio equipment,
such as studio monitors and audiophile headphones .

Electrostatic headphone

An electrostatic headphone is a type of premium headphone that uses a hard-to-implement

technology to deliver impeccable sound with unparalleled levels of quality . Electrostatic
headphones use a thin sheet of ultralight film, usually made of polyester film, where the
electrostatic force is evenly distributed all over the surface . The sheet is static in placement
and is electrically charged. It is then placed between two metal plates that are both perforated.
Once the drivers are activated with electricity, both the metal plates will have static clinging
and repulsion between them. That will cause the film inside to move as well, producing sound
waves as a result. Since the film itself is almost weightless, the overall static energy moving
between the metal plates will cause the film to vibrate. That vibration spreads outwards in an
evenly amount. That results in the production of audio that we hear on our end . Electrostatic
headphones are known for their lightning-fast transient responses coupled with superior micro-
details and that sought-after ‘ethereal sound’ . Another part of its appeal is the incredibly low
levels of distortion which give electrostatic headphones their unique sound and vacant noise
floor . However, electrostatic headphones are not as frequently found as their dynamic
counterparts owing to their difficult construction, expense, and use of a proprietary power
supply . For those that want to stretch and uphaul their audio game, however, electrostatic
headphones are a no-brainer consideration .

Dynamic headphone

A dynamic headphone is a type of electromagnetic earphone that converts audio signals into
sound waves via electromagnetic induction . The headphones consist of a diaphragm, a voice
coil, and a magnet . The diaphragm is a thin, flexible material that vibrates when it receives an
electrical signal . The voice coil is a wire that is wrapped around the diaphragm and is
suspended in the magnetic field created by the magnet . When an electrical signal is applied to
the voice coil, it creates a magnetic field that interacts with the magnetic field of the magnet,
causing the voice coil and diaphragm to move back and forth . This movement creates sound
waves that are conducted into the ear canal . Dynamic headphones are known for their high
sensitivity and low distortion, making them ideal for use in hearing aids and other medical
devices . They are also used in high-end audio equipment, such as studio monitors and
audiophile headphones .

HEARING IMPAIRMENT

Hearing impairment is the inability of an individual to hear sounds adequately. This may be
due to improper development, damage or disease to any part of the hearing mechanism.
Hearing is a prerequisite for the development of normal speech & language. A child learns to
speak by hearing the speech of others in the family and surroundings.
Deafness is an invisible impairment. Keen observation is necessary in order to identify a deaf
child/individual. Deafness at birth or in early childhood has disastrous effects on the child's
overall development. These effects vary depending upon the age of onset, nature and degree of
hearing impairment.

Types of Hearing Impairment

1. Conductive Hearing Loss

Conductive hearing loss results from defects in the outer or middle ear. The sound is not
conducted efficiently to the inner ear. All sounds heard thus become weak and/or muffled.
Usually such individuals speak softly irrespective of the surrounding environmental noise.

Conditions that cause conductive hearing loss are:

• Wax in the ear canal.

• Diseases of the outer and middle ear associated with symptoms like ear ache and ear
discharge.
• Congenital defects in the outer or middle ear – defect and damage to the outer or middle
ear.
• Upper respiratory tract infections.
• Neglect of care of ears and oral cavity (mouth).

2. Sensorineural Hearing Loss

Sensorineural hearing loss is caused due to damage or disease of the inner ear or auditory nerve.
It could also result as an after effect of infectious diseases like measles, mumps, meningitis and
T.B.
Some conditions that may cause congenital sensorineural hearing loss are:

• Hereditary childhood deafness

• Rh incompatibility
• Premature birth – birth before due time
• Birth Asphyxia (lack of oxygen supply to the new born due to inability to breathe
normally resulting in blueness of baby due to various reasons).
• Viral infections in pregnancy
• Exposure to X–rays in the first trimester or pregnancy – taking X–ray within the first
three months
• Harmful drugs of mycin variety e.g. streptomycin
• Acoustic neuroma (Tumor of the auditory nerve)

3. Mixed Hearing Loss

Mixed hearing loss is the combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss. One of the
main causes of this type of loss is the long standing ear infection known as Chronic Suppurative
Otitis Media (CSOM). In CSOM, ear discharge in the form of pus, blood or clear water is seen.
This starts with conductive loss yielding to sensorineural impairment, if not treated
immediately and regularly.

4. Central Hearing Loss

Central hearing loss is due to a damage, malformation or infections of the neural pathways and
the hearing centres in the brain. The child may hear but has difficulty in understanding what he
hears. Some of the children classified as learning disabled or slow learners may have this type
of hearing loss.

5. Functional Hearing Loss

Functional hearing loss is due to some psychogenic condition or maybe due to deliberate
exaggeration of hearing thresholds for personal gains.

AUDIOMETRY

Hearing loss comes with age but can affect anyone. According to a study in American Family
Physician, at least 25 percent of people over 50 experience hearing loss, and 50 percent of
people over 80 experience it. One way to test for hearing loss is through the use of audiometry.

An audiometry exam tests how well your hearing functions. It tests both the intensity and the
tone of sounds, balance issues, and other issues related to the function of the inner ear. A doctor
who specializes in diagnosing and treating hearing loss called an audiologist administers the
test.

The unit of measure for sound intensity is the decibel (dB). A healthy human ear can hear quiet
sounds such as whispers. These are about 20 dB. A loud sound such as a jet engine is between
40 and 80 dB.

The tone of a sound is measured in cycles per second. The unit of measure for tone is Hertz
(Hz). Low bass tones measure around 50 Hz. Humans can hear tones between 20-20,000 Hz.
Human speech generally falls in the 500-3,000 Hz range.

Working

An audiometry test is performed to determine how well you can hear. This may be done as part
of a routine screening or in response to a noticeable loss of hearing.

The common causes of hearing loss include:

• birth defects
• chronic ear infections
• inherited conditions, such as otosclerosis, which occurs when an abnormal growth of
bone prevents structures within the ear from functioning properly
• an injury to the ear
• inner ear diseases, such as Ménière’s disease or an autoimmune disease that affect the
inner ear
• regular exposure to loud noises
• a ruptured eardrum

Damage to the ear or exposure to loud sounds for a long period can cause hearing loss. Sounds
louder than 85 dB, such as you hear at a rock concert, can cause hearing loss after only a few
hours. It’s good to use hearing protection, such as foam earplugs, if you’re exposed to loud
music or industrial noise on a regular basis.
Sensorineural hearing loss occurs when hair cells in the cochlea aren’t working properly. The
cochlea is the part of the ear that translates sound vibrations into nerve impulses to be sent to
the brain. Sensorineural hearing loss can also occur due to damage to the nerve that carries
sound information to the brain or damage to part of the brain that processes this information.
This type of hearing loss is usually permanent. It can be mild, moderate, or severe.

Hearing AID

A hearing aid has three basic parts to help it function, including a microphone, amplifier and
speaker.

What are hearing aids?

A hearing aid is a small electronic device that you place in or behind your ear. Hearing aids
amplify sounds so that people with hearing loss can improve their hearing and speech
comprehension.

There are many different types of hearing aids available today, including prescription and over-
the-counter (OTC) hearing aids. Your healthcare provider can help you find a solution that fits
your lifestyle and preferences.

How do hearing aids work?

Hearing aids contain different components that work together to amplify sound.

The three basic hearing aid parts include:

• A microphone.
• An amplifier.
• A speaker (receiver).

Sounds goes in through the microphone. Then, the microphone converts the sound waves to
electrical signals before sending them to the amplifier. Finally, the amplifier sends the sounds
to your ear through a tiny speaker.
Hearing aid batteries

Hearing aids are battery-powered. Some run on traditional (disposable) hearing aid batteries.
But most of today’s hearing aids have a built-in rechargeable battery. In other words, you can
charge your hearing aids just like you charge a smartphone.

Who can benefit from hearing aids?

Hearing aids work best for people with sensorineural hearing loss. This type of hearing loss is
a result of damage to your inner ear or auditory nerve (the nerve that connects your ear to your
brain). Causes of sensorineural hearing loss include:

• Aging.
• Disease.
• Infection.
• Loud noises.
• Certain medications.

Internal parts of a hearing aid

The largest part of your device is the body of the hearing aid, which sits behind your ear.
The hard plastic casing houses the battery and three important components:

Microphone and processor

The microphone picks up sound and sends it to the amplifier. With today’s technology, some
hearing aid microphone processors are so sophisticated, they can distinguish between speech
and background noise, making it easier for the user to understand conversation in noisy
environments.

Amplifier

The amplifier converts sound into an electrical signal and sends it to a receiver/speaker. The
power of the amplification varies depending upon the severity of the user’s hearing loss—a
diagnosis that can only be made after receiving a thorough hearing evaluation by a qualified
hearing healthcare professional.

Power source

This is the battery that powers the device. Depending on which model you have, your batteries
may be rechargeable or disposable.

Other features

Your device also might have a telecoil inside, which allows for easier hearing in many public
settings.

External parts of a hearing aid

Body cover or casing

All the internal parts are contained within the hard plastic hearing aid body. Most hearing aid
manufacturers sell them in a wide variety of sizes and colors, including different skin tones.
The body size varies depending on the hearing aid brand. Some are fully insertable into the ear
canal and contain no external parts. While discreet, these invisible hearing aids are not the best
option for everyone. It depends on what type of hearing loss you have. Your hearing care
provider can offer you guidance for picking the right hearing aid.

Button or switch

Many receiver-in-the-ear (RITE) hearing aids have a button or switch. This can often be
programmed by your hearing care professional to do different functions, depending on your
needs. It might switch your hearing aid between different programs, or settings, for different
hearing environments, or it might increase or decrease the volume. Or, it might do both. If you
aren’t sure what the button on your hearing aid does, please make an appointment to go over
this with your hearing care professional.

Wire

A thin, plastic-coated wire runs from the body of your hearing aid to the speaker, which is worn
inside your ear. This wire transmits power and signals to the speaker.

Receiver/speaker

After sound has been processed through a microphone and amplified to your specific hearing
needs, the sound must be delivered to into your ear. That's the job of the receiver, also known
as the speaker. Once the speaker receives the electrical signal from the amplifier, it converts it
back into acoustic energy (sound).

The receiver/speaker is typically housed in either an ear dome or the earmold, depending on
your severity of hearing loss and lifestyle preferences:

TAPE DISTORTION / SATURATION

Saturation, or in this case, tape saturation, is a phenomenon that stands for analog tape
recording. It describes a state where the voltage level exceeds the tape's ability to record. When
the signal is sent to a tape-recorded, the voltage is sent to an electromagnet in the recording
head. The plastic film (or tape) has a surface made of oxide iron powder. To record the signal
on the tape, the recording head of the recorder magnetizes each iron oxide particle on the tape
by varying amounts over time. This becomes a linear representation of the original alternating
current, where the saturation occurs.

Inside a Tape Recorder

In the tape recorder, for example, when the input voltage exceeds the system limit or the
saturation threshold of the tape, the iron oxide molecules of the tape reach their maximum
magnetic potential. In other words, they can not be polarized any further, and neither hold any
more amplitude. As a result, the signal gets compressed and distorted nonlinearly. This means
that when the part of the signal passes the saturation point, that part of the signal does not
represent the frequencies or the amplitude of the original signal. This is the actual signal sent
to the recorder; instead, it is its distorted and compressed version.

Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis

Pre-Emphasis

Pre-emphasis refers to boosting the relative amplitudes of the modulating voltage for higher
audio frequencies from 2 to approximately 5 KHz.

De-Emphasis

De-emphasis means attenuating those frequencies by the amount by which they are boosted.

However, pre-emphasis is done at the transmitter and the de-emphasis is done at the receiver.
The purpose is to improve the signal-to-noise ratio for FM reception. A time constant of 75µs
is specified in the RC or L/Z network for pre-emphasis and de-emphasis.

Characteristics Of Pre-Emphasis And De-Emphasis:

Pre-Emphasis:

• Applies a high-pass filter to the signal before transmission

• Boosts or amplifies the high-frequency components
• Commonly boosts frequencies above 2-3 kHz
• Provides up to 0 dB of gain to high frequencies
• Done prior to transmission or recording
• Takes advantage of high-frequency noise immunity

De-Emphasis:

• Applies a low-pass filter to the received signal

• Attenuates or reduces the boosted high frequencies
• Rolls-off highs above 2-3 kHz
• The reverse process of pre-emphasis
• Provides gain reduction equal to the pre-emphasis
• Restores original frequency spectrum
• Reduces noise and distortion picked up during transmission

The pre-emphasis stage selectively amplifies higher frequencies while de-emphasis selectively
reduces those same frequencies. This complementary process allows the highs to be transmitted
at stronger levels to overcome noise while being received at normal levels to maintain fidelity.

The goal is to improve the signal-to-noise ratio and overall listening experience. Careful
frequency selection and gain tuning are required to match the pre and de-emphasis for optimal
performance.

Pre-Emphasis Circuit

At the transmitter, the modulating signal is passed through a simple network that amplifies the
high frequency, components more than the low-frequency components. The simplest form of
such a circuit is a simple high-pass filter of the type shown in Fig (a). Specification dictates a
time constant of 75 microseconds (µs) where t = RC. Any combination of resistor and capacitor
(or resistor and inductor) giving this time constant will be satisfactory. Such a circuit has a
cutoff frequency fco of 222 Hz. This means that frequencies higher than 222 Hz will be linearly
enhanced. The output amplitude increases with frequency at a rate of 6 dB per octave. The pre-
emphasis curve is shown in Fig (b). This pre-emphasis circuit increases the energy content of
the higher-frequency signals so that they will tend to become stronger than the high-frequency
noise components. This improves the signal-to-noise ratio and increases intelligibility and
fidelity.

Pre-emphasis Circuit & Curve

The pre-emphasis circuit also has an upper break frequency fu where the signal enhancement
flattens out. See Fig (b). This upper break frequency is computed with the expression.

fu = R +(R2/2πRRC) It is usually set at some very high value beyond the audio range. A fu of
greater than 30KHz is typical.

De-Emphasis Circuit
De-emphasis Circuit Curve

To return the frequency response to its average level, a de-emphasis circuit is used at the
receiver. This is a simple low-pass filter with a constant of 75 πs. See Figure (c). It features a
cutoff of 222 Hz and causes signals above this frequency to be attenuated at the rate of 6bB per
octave. The response curve is shown in Fig (d). As a result, the pre-emphasis at the transmitter
is precisely offset by the de-emphasis circuit in the receiver, providing a normal frequency
response. The combined effect of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is to increase the high-
frequency components during transmission so that they will be stronger and not masked by
noise.

Combined Frequency Response

Differences Between Pre-Emphasis And De-Emphasis In Audio Signals:

Pre-Emphasis

• Applies a high-pass filter to boost high frequencies prior to transmission or recording

• Boosts treble range signals that may get attenuated during transmission
• Improves signal-to-noise ratio for high frequencies
• Commonly used time constants are 50μs and 75μs
• Can introduce distortion if the boost is too aggressive
• Found in FM radio, cassette recording, NTSC video

De-Emphasis

• Applies a high-cut filter to attenuate boosted high frequencies

• Reverses the frequency contour applied by pre-emphasis
• Reduces noise in high frequencies that got boosted
• Must use same time constant as pre-emphasis stage
• Restores flat frequency response of the original signal
• Found in FM receivers, tape playback, NTSC video

Key Differences:

• Pre-emphasis boosts treble, de-emphasis cuts treble

 • Pre-emphasis occurs before transmission/storage
• De-emphasis happens during reception/playback
• Pre-emphasis improves SNR, de-emphasis reduces noise
• Must use matched time constants to reverse effect

In summary, pre-emphasis boosts high frequencies prior to transmission to improve SNR,

while de-emphasis attenuates the boosted treble on reception to restore the original spectrum.
The stages complement each other.

Key Advantages And Disadvantages Of Pre-Emphasis And De-Emphasis In Communication

Systems:

Pre-Emphasis:

Advantages:

• Improves signal-to-noise ratio - Boosts high frequencies before transmission which

are more susceptible to noise
• Increases transmission range - Pre-emphasis provides 6-0 dB gain allowing greater
transmission distance
• Compatible with transmitter characteristics - Takes advantage of nonlinear
compression in transmitters
• Reduces channel crosstalk - Attenuates lower frequencies to prevent crosstalk
between channels

Disadvantages:

• Increases transmit power - Requires more transmitter power to accommodate pre-

emphasis
• Susceptible to non-linearity - Can introduce distortion if pre-emphasis is applied
incorrectly

De-Emphasis:

Advantages:

• Restores original frequency response - Rolls-off highs to counteract effects of pre-

emphasis
• Reduces noise - Attenuates amplified high frequencies and the noise introduced during
transmission
• Improves overall SNR - Combined pre-emphasis and de-emphasis give better SNR
• Prevents adjacent channel interference - Reduces high frequencies that may cause
interference

Disadvantages:

• Requires complex circuitry - Needs tuned circuits or active filters to provide specific
de-emphasis
• Risk of incorrect de-emphasis - Can further distort signal if de-emphasis doesn't
match pre-emphasis
So in summary, pre-emphasis and de-emphasis extend transmission range and improve SNR,
but require careful matching and tuning to prevent distortion.

Key Applications Where Pre-Emphasis And De-Emphasis Are Used:

• FM radio broadcasting - Pre-emphasis boosts high frequencies before transmission,

while de-emphasis is applied in receivers to reduce noise and distortion. This improves
FM signal quality.
• Magnetic tape recording - Tape recording applies pre-emphasis to utilize the full
dynamic range, while playback applies de-emphasis to restore the original frequency
response.
• Disc recording technologies - Optical and magnetic discs like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-
ray employ pre-emphasis and de-emphasis to maximize SNR and minimize errors.
• Microwave radio links - Pre-emphasis allows longer hops in microwave line-of-sight
communication links. De-emphasis restores the original spectrum.
• Satellite communication - Pre-emphasis is applied to signals sent to communication
satellites to overcome noise in space. The satellite or receiver de-emphasizes the signal.
• Telephony - Both cellular and landline telephony apply pre-emphasis to speech before
transmission and de-emphasis at the receiving end for clarity.
• Professional wireless systems - Wireless microphones and in-ear monitors use pre-
emphasis and de-emphasis for clean audio over the radio.
• HDTV broadcasting - Some HDTV standards have pre and de-emphasis circuits for
luminance and chrominance signals.
• Dolby noise reduction - Dolby systems use a form of sliding pre and de-emphasis to
attenuate frequencies with less audio content, reducing noise.

So in summary, pre-emphasis paired with de-emphasis provides vital SNR enhancement in

many recording, broadcast, radio, and telephony applications.

COMPANDING
Companding is a signal processing technique used to mitigate the detrimental effects of a
channel with limited dynamic range . It is employed in telephony and other audio applications
such as professional wireless microphones and analog recording . The dynamic range of a
signal is compressed before transmission and is expanded to the original value at the
receiver . The electronic circuit that does this is called a compander and works by compressing
or expanding the dynamic range of an analog electronic signal such as sound recorded by a
microphone . The name “companding” is a portmanteau of the words “compressing” and
“expanding

NOISE REDUCTION SYSTEM

Noise reduction systems are used to reduce unwanted sound in various applications such as
transportation, architecture, and occupational noise control 2. There are different types of noise
reduction systems such as single-ended pre-recording, single-ended hiss reduction, single-
ended surface noise reduction, and codec or dual-ended systems .
Active noise control (ANC) is another method for reducing unwanted sound by the addition of
a second sound specifically designed to cancel the first 3.
Single-ended pre-recording is a type of noise reduction system used in audio applications . It
works by affecting the recording medium at the time of recording . One example of a single-
ended pre-recording system is Dolby HX Pro

Single-ended hiss reduction is a type of noise reduction system used in audio applications . It
works to reduce noise as it occurs, including both before and after the recording process as well
as for live broadcast applications 2. One example of a single-ended hiss reduction system
is DNL or DNR .

Single-ended surface noise reduction is a technique used to remove scratches, pops, and
surface non-linearities from phonograph records during playback . It is one of the four types of
noise reduction techniques, the others being single-ended pre-recording, single-ended hiss
reduction, and codec or dual-ended systems .

Dual-ended systems are a type of noise reduction system that use a pre-emphasis process
during recording and a de-emphasis process during playback . The pre-emphasis process boosts
the high-frequency components of the audio signal before recording, while the de-emphasis
process attenuates the high-frequency components during playback .

Dolby noise-reduction system and dbx are examples of dual-ended systems .