22

MODULE: 3
COMPOSITES

Introduction
Q. Define composite materials. Give classification of composite material.
(May’08,’12,’13,’14,’15 & Dec.’08,09,10,’12,’15)
Definition
A composite material may be defined as a material consisting of a mixture of two or more
macro-constituents, which are naturally insoluble, differing in form and composition
forming distinct phases.
Constitution of composite materials
Composite materials comprise of two phases:
1) Matrix phase which is continuous and surrounds the other phase.
2) Dispersed phase (reinforcement) which determines interal structure of composite.

Matrix phase
Q. Define matrix phase and give its functions. (Dec’14)
It is continuous phase which should be ductile and corrosion resistant. Important functions
of matrix phase are as follows: i) It binds the dispersed phase together. ii) it acts as a
medium to transmit and distribute an externally applied load to the dispersed phase. iii) it
protects the dispersed phase from chemical action and keeps in proper position and
orientation during the application of loads. iv) it prevents propagation of brittle cracks
due to its plasticity and softness.
Some commonly used matrix phase may be metal, ceramics and polymer. If metal is
used as matrix it is known as Metal matrix composites(MMC), if ceramic is used, it
becomes Ceramic matrix composite (CMC) and if polymer is used as matrix, it is known
as Polymer matrix composite (PMC).
Dispersed phase

Shree L R Tiwari College Of Engineering

 23

It is structural constituent which determines the internal structure of composite. The

important dispersed phases of composites are i)Fibre, ii) particulates, iii) flakes, iv)
whiskers.

A) Types of Composites, sub-types and Applications:

FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITE

Fiber-reinforced composites are those composites in which the dispersed phase is in the
form of fires. Technologically, the most important composites as they provide high
strength and stiffness on a weight basis. A fiber reinforced composite material consists
of three main constituents, namely, matrix, fibers and interface.
On the basis of the orientation of the fibers, two extreme cases are possible: i) a parallel
alignment of the longitudinal axis of the fibers in a single direction and ii) a totally random
alignment.
Depending on the value of the critical fiber length the fibers are divided into two
categories: i) continuous or long in which length of fiber is much greater than critical fiber
length ii) discontinuous or short fibers in which it is lesser.

Fiber composites can be sub classified as

Continuous and aligned fiber composites: The properties of such fibers depend on the
direction in which they are measured. The maximum and reinforce cement are achieved
along the alignment (longitudinal) direction.
Discontinuous fiber composites: These are of two types, a) Discontinuous and aligned
fiber composites and b) discontinuous and randomly oriented fiber composites.
The discontinuous fibers have lower reinforcement efficiency than that for continuous
fibers.

Some important types of fiber reinforced composites are as follows:

Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composites

Shree L R Tiwari College Of Engineering

 24

Fiberglass is simply a composite consisting of glass fibers, either continuous or dis-

continuous, contained within a polymer matrix; this type of composite is produced in the
largest quantities. Glass is popular as a fiber reinforcement material for several reasons:
1. It is easily drawn into high-strength fibers from the molten state.
2. It is readily available and may be fabricated into a glass-reinforced plastic economically
using a wide variety of composite-manufacturing techniques.
3. As a fiber it is relatively strong, and when embedded in a plastic matrix, it produces a
composite having a very high specific strength.
4. When coupled with the various plastics, it possesses a chemical inertness that renders
the composite useful in a variety of corrosive environments.
The surface characteristics of glass fibers are extremely important because even minute
surface flaws can deleteriously affect the tensile properties. Surface flaws are easily
introduced by rubbing or abrading the surface with another hard material. Most fiberglass
materials are limited to service temperatures below 200°C (400°F); at higher
temperatures, most polymers begin to flow or to deteriorate. Service temperatures may be
extended to approximately 300°C (575°F) by using high-purity fused silica for the fibers
and high-temperature polymers such as the polyimide resins.
Many fiberglass applications are familiar: automotive and marine bodies, plastic
pipes, storage containers, and industrial floorings. The transportation industries are
utilizing increasing amounts of glass fiber-reinforced plastics in an effort to decrease
vehicle weight and boost fuel efficiencies. A host of new applications are being used or
currently investigated by the automotive industry.

Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites

Carbon is a high-performance fiber material that is the most commonly used rein-
forcement in advanced (i.e., no fiberglass) polymer-matrix composites. The reasons for
this are as follows:
1. Carbon fibers have the highest specific modulus and specific strength of all reinforcing
fiber materials.
2. They retain their high tensile modulus and high strength at elevated temperatures; high-
temperature oxidation, however, may be a problem.

Shree L R Tiwari College Of Engineering

 25

3. At room temperature, carbon fibers are not affected by moisture or a wide variety of
solvents, acids, and bases.
4. These fibers exhibit a diversity of physical and mechanical characteristics, allowing
composites incorporating these fibers to have specific engineered properties.
5. Fiber and composite manufacturing processes have been developed that are relatively
inexpensive and cost effective.
Carbon fibers are not totally crystalline, but are composed of both graphitic and
noncrystalline regions; these areas of non-crystallinity are devoid of the three-
dimensional ordered arrangement of hexagonal carbon networks that is characteristic of
graphite.
Furthermore, fiber diameters normally range between 4 and 10 mm; both
continuous and chopped forms are available. In addition, carbon fibers are normally
coated with a protective epoxy size that also improves adhesion with the polymer matrix.
Sports and recreational equipment (fishing rods, golf clubs), filament-wound
rocket motor cases, pressure vessels, and aircraft structural components—both military
and commercial, fixed wing and helicopters (e.g., as wing, body, stabilizer, and rudder
components).

Aramid Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites

Aramid fibers are high-strength, high-modulus materials that were introduced in the early
1970s. They are especially desirable for their outstanding strength-to-weight ratios, which
are superior to metals. Chemically, this group of materials is known as poly
(paraphenylene terephthalamide). There are a number of aramid materials; trade names
for two of the most common are Kevlar™ and Nomex
Mechanically, these fibers have longitudinal tensile strengths and tensile module
that are higher than other polymeric fiber materials; however, they are relatively weak in
compression. In addition, this material is known for its toughness, impact resistance, and
resistance to creep and fatigue failure. Even though the aramids are thermoplastics, they
are, nevertheless, resistant to combustion and stable to relatively high temperatures; the
temperature range over which they retain their high mechanical properties is between -

Shree L R Tiwari College Of Engineering

 26

200 and 200°C (-330 and 390°F). Chemically, they are susceptible to degradation by
strong acids and bases, but they are relatively inert in other solvents and chemicals.
The aramid fibers are most often used in composites having polymer matrices;
common matrix materials are the epoxies and polyesters. Since the fibers are relatively
flexible and somewhat ductile, they may be processed by most common textile operations.
Typical applications of these aramid composites are in ballistic products (bulletproof
vests and armor), sporting goods, tires, ropes, missile cases, pressure vessels, and as a
replacement for asbestos in automotive brake and clutch linings, and gaskets.

ii) Layered composites (Laminates):

A laminar composite is composed of two-dimensional sheets or panels that have a
preferred high-strength direction such as is found in wood and continuous and aligned
fiber-reinforced plastics. The layers are stacked and subsequently cemented together such
that the orientation of the high-strength direction varies with each successive layer For
example, adjacent wood sheets in plywood are aligned with the grain direction at right
angles to each other. Laminations may also be constructed using fabric material such as
cotton, paper, or woven glass fibers embedded in a plastic matrix. Thus a laminar
composite has relatively high strength in a number of directions in the two-dimensional
plane; however, the strength in any given direction is, of course, lower than it would be
if all the fibers were oriented in that direction.

Shree L R Tiwari College Of Engineering

 27

SANDWICH PANELS
Sandwich panels, considered to be a class of structural composites, are designed to be
light-weight beams or panels having relatively high stiffness’s and strengths. A sandwich
panel consists of two outer sheets, or faces, that are separated by and adhesively bonded
to a thicker core. The outer sheets are made of a relatively stiff and strong material,
typically aluminum alloys, fiber-reinforced plastics, titanium, steel, or plywood; they
impart high stiffness and strength to the structure, and must be thick enough to withstand
tensile and compressive stresses that result from loading. The core material is lightweight,
and normally has a low modulus of elasticity. Core materials typically fall within three
categories: rigid polymeric foams (i.e. Phenolic, epoxy, polyurethanes), wood (i.e., balsa
wood), and honeycombs.
Structurally, the core serves several functions. First of all, it provides continuous support
for the faces. In addition, it must have sufficient shear strength to withstand transverse
shear stresses, and also be thick enough to provide high shear stiffness (to resist buckling
of the panel). (It should be noted that tensile and compressive stresses on the core are
much lower than on the faces.)
Another popular core consists of a "honeycomb" structure thin foils that have been formed
into interlocking hexagonal cells, with axes oriented perpendicular to the face planes.

Shree L R Tiwari College Of Engineering

 28

Fig. 4.2.6.2 Sandwich Panels

Figure shows a cutaway view of a honeycomb core sandwich panel. The honeycomb
material is normally either an aluminum alloy or aramid polymer. Strength and stiffness
of honeycomb structures depend on cell size, cell wall thickness, and the material from
which the honeycomb is made. Sandwich panels are used in a wide variety of applications
including roofs, floors, and walls of buildings; and, in aerospace and aircraft (i.e., for
wings, fuselage, and tail plane skins).

iii) Particulate composites:

large-particle and dispersion-strengthened composites composite are the two sub
classifications of particle-reinforced composites. The distinction between these is based
upon reinforcement or strengthening mechanism.
The term "large" is used to indicate that particle-matrix interactions cannot be
treated on Composite the atomic or molecular level. For most of these composites, the
particulate phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix. These reinforcing particles tend to
restrain movement of the matrix phase in the vicinity of each particle. In essence, the

Shree L R Tiwari College Of Engineering

 29

matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a fraction of the
load. The degree of reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior depends on
strong bonding at the matrix-particle interface.
For dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are normally much smaller,
with diameters between 0.01 and 0.1 µm (10 and 100 nm). Particle-matrix interactions
that lead to strengthening occur on the atomic or molecular level. Whereas the matrix
bears the major portion of an applied load, the small dispersed particles hinder or impede
the motion of dislocations. Thus, plastic deformation is restricted such that yield and
tensile strengths, as well as hardness, improve.

LARGE-PARTICLE COMPOSITES
Some polymeric materials to which fillers have been added are really large-particle
composites. Again, the fillers modify or improve the properties of the material and/or
replace some of the polymer volume with a less expensive material— the filler. Another
familiar large-particle composite is concrete, which is composed of cement (the matrix),
and sand and gravel (the particulates). Concrete is the discussion topic of a succeeding
section.
Particles can have quite a variety of geometries, but they should be of approximately the
same dimension in all directions (equiaxed). For effective reinforcement, the particles
should be small and evenly distributed throughout the matrix. Furthermore, the volume
fraction of the two phases influences the behavior; mechanical properties are enhanced
with increasing particulate content. Two mathematical expressions have been formulated
for the dependence of the elastic modulus on the rule of mixtures volume fraction of the
constituent phases for a two-phase composite.
Large-particle composites are utilized with all three material types (metals, poly-cermet
and ceramics). The cermet’s are examples of ceramic-metal composites. The most
common cermet is the cemented carbide, which is composed of extremely hard particles
of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC),
embedded in a matrix of a metal such as cobalt or nickel. These composites are utilized
extensively as cutting tools for hardened steels. The hard carbide particles provide the
cutting surface but, being extremely brittle, are not themselves capable of withstanding

Shree L R Tiwari College Of Engineering

 30

the cutting stresses. Toughness is enhanced by their inclusion in the ductile metal matrix,
which isolates the carbide particles from one another and prevents particle-to-particle
crack propagation.

B) BIO-COMPOSITES-

Bio-composites are materials composed of natural fibers derived from plants (such as jute,
hemp, flax, bamboo, and sisal) or animals (such as wool or silk), which are embedded in
a biodegradable or bio-based matrix. These matrices can include polymers like PLA
(polylactic acid), PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoates), starch-based polymers, or even protein-
based resins. The combination of these natural fibers with bio-based matrices results in
materials that are environmentally friendly, sustainable, and often biodegradable.

CLASSIFICATION OF BIO-COMPOSITES:

Bio-composites can be classified based on several factors:

1. Matrix Type:
- Bio-based Polymers: These include polymers derived from renewable resources such
as PLA, PHA, starch-based polymers, etc.
- Biodegradable Polymers: Polymers that degrade naturally over time, reducing
environmental impact.
- Natural Resins: Such as bio-based epoxies or resins derived from plant oils.

2. Reinforcement Type:
- Natural Fibers:Derived from plants (cellulose-based fibers) or animals (like wool or
silk).
- Mineral Fillers: Sometimes mixed with natural fibers for enhanced properties.

3. Processing Method:

Shree L R Tiwari College Of Engineering

 31

- Compression Molding: Common for bio-composites with thermoplastic matrices.

- Resin Transfer Molding (RTM): Suitable for complex shapes and structures.
- Extrusion: Used for continuous production of bio-composite profiles.

APPLICATIONS OF BIO-COMPOSITES:

Bio-composites find applications in various industries due to their sustainable nature and
specific properties:

1. Automotive Industry:
- Used in interior parts, dashboards, door panels, and trunk liners to reduce weight and
improve sustainability.

2. Construction and Building Materials:

- Roofing materials, insulation panels, and even structural components due to their
strength-to-weight ratio and thermal properties.

3. Packaging:
- Biodegradable packaging materials and disposable products made from starch-based
or PLA-based bio-composites.

4. Consumer Goods:
- Furniture, household items, and sporting goods due to their aesthetic appeal,
lightweight, and durability.

5. Aerospace and Marine Industry:

- Applications in interior components, seating, and non-structural parts where
lightweight and environmental impact reduction are crucial.

6. Medical and Healthcare:

Shree L R Tiwari College Of Engineering

 32

- Bio-composites used in prosthetics, implants, and surgical instruments due to their

biocompatibility and bio-degradability.

7. Electronics:
- Enclosures for electronic devices, casings, and structural components due to their
electrical insulation properties and lightweight nature.

Advantages of Bio-composites:
- Environmental Sustainability: Reduced carbon footprint and reliance on non-renewable
resources.
- Biodegradability: End-of-life disposal options that are environmentally friendly.
- Lightweight: Comparable or better strength-to-weight ratio than traditional materials.
- Renewable Source: Derived from renewable resources, contributing to sustainable
practices.

Challenges:
- Cost: Higher cost compared to conventional materials due to processing and material
costs.
- Durability: Susceptibility to moisture absorption and degradation over time if not
properly protected.
- Performance: Properties such as mechanical strength and dimensional stability may vary
based on fiber type and matrix combination.

In conclusion, bio-composites represent a promising class of materials that combine

sustainability with functionality across various industries. Continued research and
development aim to overcome challenges and expand their applications in everyday
products and industrial sectors.

Shree L R Tiwari College Of Engineering