CHAPTER ONE

STUDYSKILLS
1.1 Study Guides
On many occasions students failed and they wonder why, not because
they are not intelligent, at times they forget easily what they have read,
while others find it difficult to sit down and read. Some after reading for
hours, they cannot grasp anything from what they have read, why? The
following would help the students who find themselves in the above
mentioned situation. It is important to know that reading is a great task that
involves almost all parts of the body system, therefore there is a need for
absolute concentration. The following guide would aid better learning
/studying.
1. Motivation: Every learner should be motivated to read or to learn. If
motivation is not there in you, you are deceiving yourself. If you are
hungry, you better eat, if you are tired, you better rest before you start
reading. You must switch on your life generator just as you switch the
calculator if not nothing will be achieved.
2. Place of reading: It is important to note that where serious reading
should take place must be noise free. The use of music or listen to radio
while reading will not help the learner to achieve his optimal potentiality.
You are not a different human being, enough researches have shown a
negative correlation of reading with music. A place of reading should be
noise-free, well lighted and there should be free flow of air. Learners are
advised to have permanent place of reading. One reads or learns better in
a more familiar environment.
3. Time of reading: It is better to read when and where the day
temperature is cool. But since most libraries are air conditioned, reading
can take place any time of the day. However, where this does not exist,
reading should better take place in early hours of the day or in the
evenings. It is also advisable to book definite hours of reading. For
example everyday you may book four hours for reading.
4. A Table and Chair: Students are encouraged to read on fairly
comfortable chair and table. The relaxation type of chair should not
however be used for serious reading. Learners are advised not to read on
their beds particularly when serious reading is to take place; lie on the
bed facing up with book on the hands should be discouraged. You will
assimilate better when you sit down on a chair with a table. The table
should however be cleared of all the distractors.
5. Time Table: Most of the students who failed their exams or performed so
poorly, always have no personal reading time table. They read the
subjects they like and leave the ones they don’t have interest on. The
case is that unequal time is distributed to those subjects which are of
equal importance. You should devote equal time (hours) to each subject
because no subject is “bigger” than other. Researches and experiences
have shown that students who hate a particular course/subject end up in
 failing the subject. When you don’t have a time table, you do not do much
because you don’t know what to do at the right time. It is good to plan.
6. The use of SQR3 (Study Formular): This formular has been discovered to
aid better learning on individual basis.
S: This stands for survey. Here an individual surveys the entire reading
materials. If it is a book, he may start from the contents page and probably
index to see what the book contains. It also involves a quick look at the
introductory and concluding chapters as well as chapter summaries if
available. The survey helps the learners to have general picture of the
materials or information the book contains.
Q: This stands for question. The learner after surveying, is expected to ask
himself certain questions relating to the topic or issues raised in the text
before commences a thorough reading. The learner should be able to find
answers to these questions as he reads through the text.
R1: This represents reading. The learner now reads the text, trying to find
answers to the questions earlier raised. Underlined or jot down the important
points as reading progresses. It is therefore advisable to have a summary
note where important points could be jotted down. This helps to keep you
alert and prolong your concentration and attention span. The jotter will even
be very useful for your revision.
R2: This stands for recall. This is the stage the learner is expected to recall
what he has read without looking at the text book or summary note. This is
the time to answer the questions he asked himself at the beginning of the
reading.
R3: This represents review/revise. Here the learner tries to find out the extent
to which the answers to the questions are right. This involves going through
the notes formed and/or reading through the chapter summaries.
Exercises
1) As a student, enumerate and discuss some of the problems you
encountered in your study.
2) Briefly explain the reading/study formular SQ3R

3) Prepare a personal reading time-table and include all the subjects you are
offering this semester.

1.2 Note Taking and Note-Making

As a student you receive information and gather knowledge from
various sources everyday - from lectures, seminars, tutorials, friends, course
mates, mass media 'etc. Frankly speaking, human brain has a limited
capacity for retaining and remembering this information. In order to preserve
such important information which you would like to recall and use in future,
documenting such information through note-taking is quite indispensable.
Indeed, note-taking is a study skill which must be acquired by every student
especially as notes provide a permanent and invaluable record necessary for
revision in preparation for examinations. Also note-taking, enhances the
concentration of the listener, and .develops students' summary skills since
students strive to express lecturers' ideas in their own words. It makes
learning an active rather than a passive one

1.3 Techniques and Methods of Note-taking

These demand that you
1. Listen carefully to the lecturer;
2. Understand what is being said;
3. Put down, the summary of the main ideas only, sometimes main ideas
might not be explicitly stated but may be implied;
4. Write in phrases than in complete sentences where necessary;
5. Use abbreviation and symbols. These save considerable time.

The following are some common examples of abbreviations and symbols:

i.e. for ‘that is'
: . for ‘therefore’
'&’for ‘and'
'devt' for 'development'
'mgt' for ‘management'
‘vb’ for 'verb'
'dt' for 'that'
'shld' for ‘should'
'wld' for ‘would'
'prep’.for ‘preposition'
'govt’. for ‘government'
'agric’.for ‘agriculture'
'pop’.for ‘population'
'u/s’ for ‘understand'
'movt’ for ‘movement'
'admin’.for ‘administration'
'ed’.for ‘education' etc.

Write title and subtitle of lecture using consistent notation. For instance,
capital letters for main title or a heading and Arabic numerals for sub-titles or
Arabic numerals- for. headings and small letters for sub-titles, for example:

Types of Nouns
Proper Nouns
Collective Nouns
Abstract Nouns .
Common Nouns,
Leave wide margin for later additional comment and. related
references;
Set your note systematically:
Avoid lengthy examples:
Be as brief and accurate as possible. However; do not be so brief that the
clarity of your meaning is affected.
1.4 Note-Taking from Lectures.
To take good notes from a lecture, students should have prior knowledge of
a lecture topic and probably read relevant materials on the topic before
lecture. Taking good notes from lectures is sometimes difficult, especially
when students are ignorant of the lecture topic. Unfortunately this is what
happens these days, for students do not even border to- preview the next
lecture topic before going for the lecture. In other words, they go to lecture
hall without preparing for the lecture. Such students often find it difficult to
follow the trend of a lecture well and take good notes, for a student to follow
the lecture well and take good notes, he must do some reading on the topic
and formulate some questions in his mind in preparation for the lecture. This
will enable students to receive the lecture in the right frame of mind,
anticipating what issues the lecturer will raise at the lecture.
As a student at lecture, keep an open mind. Be prepared to listen and learn.
Take note of the general organization of the lecture. Concentrate on the
main ideas which may be explicitly stated or implied. Poor note-taking
results whenever a student wants to put down word for word everything the
lecturer has said. Word for word note-taking results in frustration because
you are bound to miss several words and points raised. This is so because
the speed of writing is usually slower than that of speaking. Consequently,
your notes are rendered inaccurate and incomplete. It is better to
understand what has-been said and state what you have understood in your
words.,
Points repeated by a lecturer for the purpose of emphasis should be noted
only once. In fact good notes should reflect the summary of the content of
lectures.

1.5 Note-Making from Books

To make good notes from a text, it is necessary for you to establish your
purpose for reading the text. Your purpose in reading a text for instance will
determine not only how you read the book but also what you consider
important to jot down in your note book.
Notes, as we have earlier said, are summaries of the important points in the
text. They should therefore be brief and. straight to the point. If you sit down
to copy whole pages from a text into your note-book, you are wasting your
time and learning nothing, you have to understand the text you are reading
first before making notes from it.
The act of note-making therefore demonstrates the use of intelligence in
discriminating main points from detail and using your own words to express
the writer's ideas. Notes should be accurate and complete, sometimes it is
better to jot down rough notes and later develop them. It helps to check
inaccuracies and to ensure nothing has been omitted.

1.6 Importance of Notes

1. They provide summary that can be used in preparation for test and
 examination.
2. They enhance concentration span of students in the class during lecture
thereby reducing boredom and fatigue
3. They help students to develop summary skills as students take down the
main ideas in most cases.
4. They serve as invaluable record of information that could be used in
future.
5. They serve as reservoir and private reference materials for students
which they may contact from time to time as need may arise.

1.7 Keeping Notes

You may choose to keep your notes in a bound note-book, loose-leaf folder,
or on file cards. If you use a note-book, you must clearly label the subject
you are dealing with in a wide margin at the side of the page. Writing on one
side of the page only and numbering the pages you will find it easier to bring
together all references on a single topic if you record the page numbers of
any additions to that topic. Using a loose leaf folder, you will be able
periodically to record pages as you add new material.
Notebook and folders are portable and so you can go over notes in spare
moments, beginning the review that is so essential part of study. They are
also flexible all owing space for as much note-taking or commentary as is
desired. If you use file cards 3 x 5, 4 x 6, 5 x 8 you should put one note on
each card, writing on only one side of the card. You put the subject reference
and details of the book from which the notes are taken. Cards can be sorted
easily but they very quickly become bulky. .
No matter where 'notes are; kept consistency in keeping and recording the
notes is essential.

1.8 Reviewing Notes

Good notes serve you in many ways, helping you to think along with the
writer, to concentrate and thus to retain more. They are useful for reference,
for recalling ideas, names, dates and for reviewing the contents of a course
or book, often before an examination. The latter is perhaps one of their most
important functions.
You can turn your notes into a powerful, positive tool for revising before
examinations. First, without re-reading your notes, your attempt to recall
main ideas in sequence indicating the links between these. Writing these
recollected points down, you may realize that there are gaps in your memory
and that as a result you have lost sight of the connection between certain
ideas. Notes are at this point consulted and the missing links brought back to
mind. When you have finished writing out the main ideas, you can check
them off against your notes -to .see how completely and: accurately you
have recalled the original.
Next you try to recall details and elaborating points by using the list of main
ideas that you have made to help you recall the details and the context
surrounding each main idea. Again, when you become unsure of your
answers, you should consult your notes. So the notes serve to .reinforce your
memory at the very place where it is weakest and needs support.
Furthermore, the questions and comments that had been added during note-
taking remind you of the general framework of ideas into which this book or
section of the course fits. The result is a well-prepared student who has a
firmer grasp-of his subject, that. is, has understood and remembered more
than one who has not taken notes or one who though has-taken notes,
contented himself with mere re-reading of the notes.

1.9 Exercise
Read the following passage and take notes. Then, compare your notes with
the model notes provided.

Passage A
Capital Punishment: or And Against
In many countries of the world the question of capital punishment is a highly
controversial one. Capital punishment, of course, means the passing of the
death sentences as a penalty for very serious crimes, such as treason or
certain/kinds of murder. 'Capital' is derived from the Latin word for 'head'
and in this context means 'paying for a crime with one's head' - that is, with-
one's head' - that is, with one's life. A number of countries, mainly
European/have now abolished capital punishment. The-latest to do so was
Great Britain, where the Abolition Law was finally passed in January 1970,
after a; trial five-year period during which the death sentence -was ; not
applied. The main purpose of the experiment was to see whether murder
statistics were noticeably affected by the suspension of capital punishment.
The situation in the United States is less clearcut, since each of the fifty
states has its own system of laws and its own criminal code. Nevertheless, in
spite of the fact that the death sentence has been passed in a number of
cases in different states during the last decade and that so far capital
punishment has not been abolished in any of them, all such sentences have
been suspended - threat is, they-have not been carried out. In many other
parts of the world, however, especially in Africa, Asia, and South America,
the death sentence for serious crimes is regarded as perfectly normal and
excites little public attention or criticism?

First of all, what are the arguments for and against the use of capital
punishment? The whole subject is one which arouses feelings of the greatest
intensity in certain people. Those in favour of capital punishment are fond of
quoting the Jewish law of the Old Testament: "an eye for an eye and a tooth
for a tooth". A person who has deliberately taken another person's life must
pay with his own. They also believe that the existence of the death penalty
deters would-be criminals from committing murder, and argue that it also
strengthens the hand of the state in its war against crime. There are also
reasons too, why the death penalty is popular with governments, though
these reasons are not usually declared openly- Capital punishment is much
"cheaper than maintaining criminals in prison for many years. It is also final:
there is no risk-that a dangerous criminal will revert to crime as he might do
after his release from prison. And of course it is the safest way of removing
dangerous political opponents from the scene much safer than imprisonment
or exile.

Those in favour of the abolition of capital punishment also possess a number

of powerful arguments. They, too, oppose the death penalty on moral
grounds, claiming that is nothing less than a form of murder sanctioned by
the state. They point to a number of cases in which accused persons were
wrongly sentenced and executed because further evidence of the crime was
revealed only after their death. Even the most fair-minded judge and jury,
they claim, are capable of making; such irreparable mistakes. An imprisoned
man can always .be set free but it is impossible to rectify a major injustice if
the accused person has already been executed. Such .grave-miscarriages of
justice should not even be risked.

The abolitionists also challenge the idea that the death sentence does have a
deterrent effect on would-be murderers. They draw attention to the
considerable number of murderers who commit suicide immediately after
committing their crime. In such cases the existence of the death penalty can
hardly be considered an effective deterrent. Those committing 'passionate
crime', such as the killing of an unfaithful wife or husband or some other
close relative, are also considered to be too emotional at the time of the act
to- consider the consequences, realistically. Statistics indicate that the
mature, experienced criminal does not readily commit murder. Rather it is
the young and inexperienced criminal who, in a moment of panic or because-
of his faith -in .his own'-toughness or cleverness, will tend to reach for a gun.
Such young killers are usually of low intelligence, impulsive and optimist by
nature, with little or' no sense of social responsibility. They readily assume
that they are bound to-"get away with-it'. They believe that either they will
not be caught or even. if they are-caught that they will not be executed. In
many countries they have good reason for thinking so: in Britain, for
example, during the first fifty years of this century nearly half of those
condemned to death were reprieved before the death sentence was carried
out.

About one category of murder has also received special attention and is
judged' more: severely than other, namely the killing of law-enforcement
officers such as policemen and prison warders. Such people run a much
greater risk of death than the ordinary citizen because their duties bring
them in close contact with the world of criminals, and many people 'who are
otherwise against capital punishment feel that they deserve the maximum
protection that the law can provide.
The numbers of those who feel strongly, about- the question of capital
punishment (either for or against) are in fact quite small, although they are
'very active in publicizing their views and in attempting to win converts. The
great majority of the public in most cases have no strong convictions but
respond to what they feel to be evidence. The evidence of the British five-
year experiment, during which time no. executions took place, indicates that
while crime as a whole, and violent crime in particular, noticeably increased,
the number of' murders that would formerly have merited the death penalty
remained very much the same as in the previous period.

Lately, however there has-been a marked extension of warlike violence,

often involving death, into the sphere-of civil life - the planting of bombs by
radical political groups, the hijacking of aircrafts, the kidnapping and killing
of diplomats who are used as political hostages. Such activities are not likely
to encourage liberal or humanitarian attitudes in the average citizen. It is
significant that 'Law and Order' has become a slogan at elections on both
sides of the-Atlantic in recent months. The Liberal abolitionists, after having
made great headway during the past decades, are now beginning to meet
determined opposition to their cause from the normally uncommitted man in
the street. (l,l.167 words)

Model Notes on Passage A

"Capital Punishment-For And Against"
I capital punishment is a controversial subject " A. Many countries have
abolished or suspended it.
1. Mainly European countries
2. Latest Britain; 1970 - after 5 years trial period.
3. U.S. situation not clear.
a. States have own laws

b. G'.P. not abolished but has not been carried out in 10 years
'B..Other areas accept it as normal :

1. African
2. Asia
3. South Africa

II arguments for C.P.

A..An eye for an eye .
B. Deterrent to would be murderers
C. cheaper than imprisonment .
D. Safer because it means the end of-original or political opponent.

III argument against C.P.

A. Immoral, sanctioned murder .
B. Danger of people being wrongly accused ,
C. Mistakes cannot be-rectified.
D. Not a deterrent.

1. Many murderers commit suicide after.

2. People who commit crimes of passion don't consider the consequences.
3. Mature, expd. criminals do not murder.
4. Most murderers are young and inexpd,
a) Low intelligence
b) Little-sense of social responsibility
c) Optimistic
d) Impulsive
e) Panic and reach for a gun.

IV. Both sides agree on certain issues.

A. Insane murderers not be put to death.
B. Killing of law enforcement officers' judged more severely because of their
vulnerability;

V. Public concern
A. Most people not actively concerned about the issue
B. The British expt. showed that although other crimes of violence increase,
murder the same"
C. Abolitionists meeting new opposition on because of the new wave of war-
like crime.
1. Civil bombings
2. Kidnapping and killing of diplomat
3. Hijacking