 Backlash refers to the slight movement or looseness

between two meshing gears when they are not in contact.

 It’s necessary to allow for the gears to fit together and
rotate smoothly, but too much backlash can result in
noise, inefficiency, and even wear on the gear teeth.
Harmonic Drives:
 Harmonic drives are special types of gears designed to
reduce backlash, wear, and friction, making them ideal
for applications in robots.
 A harmonic drive works through three main components:
 Wave Generator
 The wave generator is a key component of the harmonic
drive. It’s typically a type of cam or an elliptical
mechanism that rotates.
 Elliptical mechanism is a mechanical system that utilizes
two sliding joints and two rotational joints to precisely
trace out an elliptical path. When it rotates, it creates a
wave-like deformation in another component, which is
the flex-spline.
 Flex-Spline
 The flex-spline is a flexible, thin-walled gear that
deforms when the wave generator rotates. The wave
generator causes the flex-spline to change shape,
allowing it to engage with the teeth of another gear called
the circular spline.
 Circular Spline
 The circular spline in a harmonic drive is a rigid, fixed
gear with a set number of teeth. It doesn't move or rotate;
instead, it stays stationary while the flex-spline, a flexible
gear with teeth on its outer diameter, moves around it.
Splines transfer the rotary motion of an input to an output
through a mechanical connection
Belts:
When gears are not suitable for transferring power in a robotic
system, belts and chains provide alternative solutions. Belts
are commonly chosen because they offer several advantages
in specific robotic applications. The reasons are:
Quieter: Belts generate less noise compared to gears or
chains, making them ideal for applications where noise
levels need to be kept low.
Flexible: Belts are more adaptable to different
configurations compared to rigid gears. They can handle
slight misalignments between components and can be
used in various setups without needing precise
alignment.
Shock Absorption: Belts can absorb some of the shock
from abrupt or sudden movements in robots. This is
particularly useful for reducing wear and tear in both the
robot and the components it interacts with.
1. V-Belts: These belts are shaped like a "V" and are
typically made from rubber with reinforced cords. They
are commonly used in power transfer applications,
particularly in motors and pulleys.
2. Synchronous Belts: These belts have evenly spaced
teeth that mesh with corresponding grooves in pulleys.
This design ensures a positive grip and eliminates
slippage, making them ideal for applications requiring
precise and constant motion, such as robotic manipulator
wrist assemblies. These belts are also found in
automobile engines as timing belts.
3. Flat Belts: These are simple, rubber-based belts with
reinforcement cords running through them. While
 inexpensive and good for transferring power at moderate
speeds, they can slip under large loads, making them
suitable for low-to-moderate torque applications in
smaller robots.
Chains in Robotics:
Chains are a reliable method for transferring power in robotic
systems.
They offer advantages in certain situations where belts can
slip or stretch, and gears may be impractical for longer
distances. Chains are preferred when high torque or reliable
energy transfer is needed.
Advantages of Chains:

 No Slipping: Unlike belts, chains don't slip, ensuring that

energy transfer remains consistent.
 Handling Large Loads: Chains can support large
amounts of torque, making them ideal for heavy-duty
applications in robots.
 Long-Distance Energy Transfer: refers to the ability of
chains to efficiently transmit power over a certain range
of distance. In this context:
 Chains are effective at transferring power over distances
that are longer than gears can handle but shorter than
belts can cover.
There are two main types of chains used in robots:
1. Roller Chains:
  Roller chains are the same type used in bicycles and are
typically used in robotic systems for transferring energy
between actuators and drive mechanisms.
 These chains offer high torque transmission and are
precise in their movement.
 Roller chains consist of a series of linked rollers that
mesh with sprockets, making them durable and reliable
for heavy-duty applications.
 They are ideal for applications that require consistent,
high-torque power transmission without slippage.
2. Bead Chains:
 Bead chains are not used for high-torque or precision
applications like roller chains but are found in devices
like curtain pullers or light switches.
 Bead chains are designed for low-torque applications
and are made of small metal or plastic beads that fit into
sprocket dimples.
 They are not suitable for robots because they are fragile
and break easily under stress.
 Bead chains are ideal for simple, low-power devices but
should not be relied upon for anything requiring
significant energy or precision.
Sensors and Sensing in Robotics:
In robotics, sensors play a crucial role in enabling robots to
interact with their environment and perform tasks accurately.
One of the key tasks for robots is picking and placing
objects, and in order to do this, the robot must sense when it
has securely gripped an object without crushing it. To achieve
this, various types of sensors are used to measure and control
the forces applied by the robot’s gripper or end effector.
Transducers and Their Role:
 Transducers convert physical properties (like pressure)
into electrical signals. In robotics, these are used to
monitor and control the pressure applied by a robot's
gripper or end effector. For instance, a piezoresistive
transducer can measure pressure changes (as shown in
Figure 4-1), providing feedback to the robot's controller.
The controller adjusts the gripper's force based on the
signal, ensuring that the object is held tightly enough
without being crushed.
Limit Switches:
 Limit switches are simple devices that detect when an
object triggers them by pushing a lever or roller (Figure
4-2). They are useful for basic tasks where the robot
simply needs to stop, start, or reverse its motion in
response to the presence or absence of an object. These
switches are either on or off, making them ideal for
repetitive, simple operations. However, for more
complex tasks, additional sensors like force sensors or
vision sensors are needed.
Types of Sensors:
1. Contact Sensors:
o Contact sensors are activated when they physically

make contact with an object. Examples include

force, pressure, temperature, and tactile sensors.
These sensors send signals to the robot's controller
when they detect a physical change or force, which
is processed to adjust the robot's actions accordingly
(Figure 4-3).
 o Limit switches are a basic form of contact sensor,
commonly used to detect the presence of an object
and inform the robot of its position.
2. Noncontact Sensors:
o Noncontact sensors detect changes without
physically touching the object. These sensors are
often used to monitor light patterns, magnetic
fields, or temperature. They detect when
something has disturbed the environment, such as a
light beam being broken or a magnetic field being
altered.
o LED Sensors: These sensors use a light-emitting

diode (LED) to emit a low-level light beam, and

when the beam is interrupted (e.g., by an object),
the robot knows that the part is present (Figure 4-5).
o Television Cameras: A camera mounted on the end

effector or manipulator can provide vision feedback,

allowing the robot to recognize parts and make
decisions based on the visual input, comparing the
image to the programmed data to determine the
correct action (Figure 4-6).
Proximity sensors are essential components used in robotics to
simulate the senses of touch and sight. These sensors can
detect the presence or absence of objects without making
physical contact. They come in different types, each utilizing
specific principles and technologies. Below is a breakdown of
the different types of proximity sensors and how they work:
1. Inductive Proximity Sensors (LC Oscillator-based)
 These sensors are based on an LC (inductive-
capacitive) oscillator circuit.
  When a metallic object comes near the sensor, it alters
the inductance of the circuit, causing a change in
frequency.
 The change in frequency is detected, and the signal is
amplified and processed to turn a switch on or off.
 Inductive sensors are best suited for detecting metallic
objects only.
2. Resistive-Capacitive (RC) Proximity Sensors
 These sensors work on the principle of an RC oscillating
circuit, where the frequency is altered by the proximity
of an object.
 The signal is amplified and processed to turn a switch on
or off.
 The key advantage of RC sensors is their ability to detect
both metallic and non-metallic objects, making them
more versatile than inductive sensors.
3. Pulsed Infrared (IR) Photoelectric Sensors
 These sensors use infrared (IR) light to detect objects.
 They emit a signal and detect the presence of objects
based on the reflection or interruption of the IR light.
 Commonly used to detect products on conveyors or to
monitor robot workstations.
 IR sensors are useful in environments where non-contact
detection is required.
4. Eddy-Current Proximity Detectors
 These sensors use magnetic fields to detect nearby
objects.
 A magnetic field is induced in any nearby object, and a
small coil detects changes in the magnetic field.
  The changes are sent to the controller, which processes
the information.
 Eddy-current sensors are ideal for detecting metallic
objects and are highly sensitive to small changes in the
magnetic field.
5. Reed Switches (Magnetic Proximity Switches)
 A reed switch contains two flat metal strips (reeds) inside
a hermetically sealed glass tube filled with an inert gas.
 The reeds are pulled together or separated when exposed
to a magnetic field, making or breaking contact to
trigger the switch.
 Reed switches can be either normally open or normally
closed, depending on the type of switch required for the
application.
 These switches are robust and used in various industrial
applications for detecting magnetic fields.
6. Range Sensors
 Range sensors are used when precise distance
measurement is required.
 One example is the laser interferometric gauge, which
provides highly accurate measurements, but is sensitive
to humidity, temperature, and vibration.
 Television cameras can also serve as range sensors,
providing visual data for object localization.
7. Tactile (Touch) Sensors
 These sensors detect the presence of objects through
physical contact.
 There are two main types:
 o Touch Sensors: These sensors respond only to the
touch of an object, typically used for simple on/off
detection.
o Stress Sensors: These sensors generate a signal

based on the magnitude of contact between the

sensor and an object. The signal varies depending
on the force applied.
 Microswitches are an example of a simple touch sensor,
commonly used in a wide range of applications.
 Strain gauges are a good example of stress sensors, used
to measure the amount of strain or force exerted on the
sensor.
Displacement Sensing
Displacement sensing is crucial in robotics to track the exact
position of the robot's gripper or manipulator. Knowing the
location of these components is necessary for controlling their
movement and performing specific tasks. Different methods
of displacement sensing provide feedback to the robot's
controller, allowing it to determine the exact placement of the
robot parts in real-time.
Here are a few common methods used for displacement
sensing:
1. Resistive Sensors
o How it works: These sensors use a resistive

element (often a wire-wound resistor) and a slider

contact. When the slider moves, it changes the
resistance in the circuit. This change in resistance
alters the current flowing through the circuit.
o Purpose: The current change is proportional to the

displacement, and this value is processed by the

 computer to determine the exact position of the
manipulator or gripper.
2. Capacitive Sensors
o How it works: Capacitive sensors have two plates

that form a capacitor. One of the plates is stationary,

while the other moves. The varying distance
between the plates changes the capacitance, which
in turn affects the frequency of an oscillator.
o Purpose: The change in frequency is used to

determine the location of the gripper or manipulator

by processing it with the computer.
3. Inductive Sensors
o How it works: An inductive sensor contains a coil

with a movable iron core. As the core moves, it

changes the inductive reactance of the coil. This
change is then detected as a change in current in the
circuit.
o Purpose: This information is processed to detect the

displacement of the manipulator or gripper,

allowing for precise control of movement.
4. Other Displacement Sensors
o Examples of other displacement sensors include

Linear Variable Differential Transformers

(LVDTs), Rotary Variable Differential
Transformers (RVDTs), encoders,
potentiometers, and resolvers.

Speed Sensing
Speed sensing is critical for monitoring how fast a motor or
shaft is rotating. Accurate speed detection is necessary for
tasks like controlling the speed of robotic arms or ensuring
that conveyor systems operate at the correct rate.
Here are a couple of methods commonly used for speed
sensing:
1. Tachometer
o How it works: A tachometer is essentially a

permanent-magnet motor used as a generator. The

motor is connected to the system being monitored
(directly or via a belt arrangement). The speed of
the motor is measured by the amount of current
generated.
o Purpose: The tachometer provides a reading of the

speed, which is useful for controlling motor

performance and adjusting the speed of robotic
systems.
2. Photocell (Optical Sensor)
o How it works: A photocell sensor works with a

light beam that is reflected by a reflective spot on a

rotating shaft. The interruption of the light beam by
the reflective spot causes the sensor to generate an
electrical signal based on the number of
interruptions per second (i.e., the speed).
o Purpose: This interruption-based detection allows

the system to calculate the speed of the rotating

shaft and provide real-time data to the robot's
controller.
o Other Tools: A strobe light can also be used in

conjunction with a photocell to monitor and

measure rotational speed.

Torque Sensing
Torque is the rotational force required to rotate an object
around a centre point. In robotics, detecting the torque applied
to a motor or robotic joint is essential for controlling
movement and ensuring the robot operates within safe
parameters.
1. Torque Measurement
o How it works: Torque is a product of force and the

moment arm (distance from the center of rotation).

Torque can be measured in inch-pounds, newton-
meters, or inch-ounces, depending on the
application.
o Purpose: Torque sensors allow robots to measure

the twisting or rotational effort required to perform

tasks, ensuring that movements are within the
correct force limits.
2. Force/Torque Sensors
o Force and torque sensors use piezoresistive force

or transducers to measure forces and torques in

multiple degrees of freedom(the ability to move
more than one direction). These sensors provide
data on forces applied at different points, such as the
gripper or joints of the robot.
o This information helps in tasks like adjusting robot

motion, making decisions about "go/no-go"

operations, detecting collisions, and coordinating
multiple robotic arms.
o Output: The sensors convert forces and torques into

digital signals, which are processed and sent to the

robot controller at high speeds.

Vision Sensors
A robot's ability to see its environment and adjust accordingly
is critical in many industrial applications, such as assembly
and quality inspection.
1. Machine Vision Systems (MVS)
o How it works: MVSs use cameras and other

imaging devices to capture visual data about the

robot's environment. The captured data is then
converted into digital signals that the robot's
computer can process.
o Purpose: The robot can use vision data to make

adjustments to its movements based on the exact

position, orientation, and type of object it is
interacting with. This allows for adaptive control
and real-time adjustments during tasks like
assembly, sorting, or inspection.
2. Imaging Devices
o Various types of imaging devices are used in robot

vision systems, including charge-coupled devices

(CCDs) and vidicoms (television system tubes).
These devices convert light energy into voltage,
which is then processed to form an image.
o Fiber Optics are also being introduced into robot

vision systems, providing advantages in some

specific environments.
3. Applications
o Part Recognition: MVSs are often used for part

recognition, verification, and inspection.

o Sorting and Measurement: MVSs can sort parts

based on their characteristics or perform non-

contact measurements of objects.
o Robot Adjustments: The information from the

vision system is sent to the robot controller,

allowing the robot to adjust its actions based on the
observed data.