Pushyamitra Sunga

 Pushyamitra Sunga was Brahmin army chief of Brihadratha, the last king of the Mauryas.
 During a military parade, he killed Brihadratha and established himself on the throne in
185 or 186 BC.
 According to some historians, this was an internal revolt against the last Mauryan king.
Some say it was a Brahminical reaction to the Mauryan overwhelming patronage of
Buddhism.
 Pushyamitra Sunga’s capital was at Pataliputra.
 He successfully countered attacks from two Greek kings namely, Menander and
Demetrius.
 He also thwarted an attack from the Kalinga king Kharavela.
 He conquered Vidarbha.
 He followed Brahminism. Some accounts portray him as a persecutor of Buddhists and a
destroyer of stupas but there has been no authoritative evidence to this claim.
 During his reign, the Stupas at Sanchi and Barhut were renovated. He built the
sculptured stone gateway at Sanchi.
 He performed Vedic sacrifices such as Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya.
 Pushyamitra Sunga patronised the Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali.
 According to the Puranas, his reign lasted for 36 years. He died in 151 BC.

Agnimitra

 Was Pushyamitra’s son who succeeded him to the throne.

 His reign lasted from about 149 BC to 141 BC.
 By this time, Vidarbha broke away from the empire.
 Agnimitra is the hero of Kalidasa’s poem, Malavikagnimitram.
 His son Vasumitra succeeded him as king.

Last of the Sunga kings

 Vasumitra’s successors are not clearly known. Different names crop up in several
accounts such as Andhraka, Pulindaka, Vajramitra and Ghosha.
 The last Sunga king was Devabhuti. He was preceded by Bhagabhadra.
 Devabhuti was killed by his own minister, Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC. This
established the Kanva dynasty at Magadha from 73 to 28 BC.

Effects of Sunga rule

 Hinduism was revived under the Sungas.

 The caste system was also revived with the rise of the Brahmanas.
 Another important development during the Sunga reign was the emergence of various
mixed castes and the integration of foreigners into Indian society.
 The language of Sanskrit gained more prominence during this time. Even some Buddhist
works of this time were composed in Sanskrit.
 The Sungas patronised art and architecture. There was an increase in the usage of
human figures and symbols in art during this period
Saka Era (The Shakas) - [NCERT
Notes - Ancient Indian History For
UPSC]
Sakas belonged to Scythian Ethnic stock. The movement of Sakas into north-western India
came to heels of their displacement from the plains of Syr Darya (Jaxartes) by the Great Yueh
Chi tribe (Chinese Tribe) in the 2nd century BCE. Aspirants should know that the term,
‘Sakas’ is interrelatedly used with ‘Shakas’ and ‘Indo-Scythians;’ meaning of all is the same.
Learning about Shakas is important for the IAS Exam. This article will talk about Shakas
while providing important facts for UPSC.

Candidates can refer to articles related to Shakas for UPSC in the table below:

Indo-Greek RuleKushana Empire

The Satavahanas Sunga Dynasty

Introduction to Shakas
After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, northwest India was constantly under attack from
various invaders from Central and West Asia. The Indo-Greek rule lasted from about 180 BC
till about 55 BC. The Sakas (also written Shakas), alternatively known as Indo-Scythians,
invaded northwest India in the first century BC onwards.

Saka Era (The Sakas) (UPSC Notes):- Download PDF Here

 Indo-Scythian Kingdom | Shakas

Saka Era Origin

The beginning of the Saka Era can be related to the ascent of the king Chashtana. The period
of the Saka Era falls between 11 years and 52 years. This information was retrieved from the
inscriptions of the king Chashtana.

 Scythians (referred to as Sakas in Indian sources) were a group of Iranian nomadic

pastoral tribes.
 In the second century BC, central Asian nomadic tribes and tribes from the Chinese
region invaded the region of present-day Kazakhstan whose inhabitants were
Scythians.
 This promoted the Scythians to move towards Bactria and Parthia. After defeating the
Parthian king, they moved towards India. Scythians who migrated to India are known
as Indo-Scythians.
 The Sakas had an Indian kingdom larger than the Indo-Greeks.

Shakas – Rulers
Maues (Reign 98/50 BC – 60/57 BC)

 Maues, also known as Moga was the earliest Indo-Scythian king.

 He ruled over Gandhara (present Pakistan and Afghanistan).
  He invaded the Indo-Greek territories but unsuccessfully.
 His capital was at Sirkap (Punjab, Pakistan).
 Many coins issued by Maues have been found. They contain Buddhist and also Hindu
symbols. The languages used in these coins were Greek and Kharoshti.
 His son Azes I acquired the remaining Indo-Greek territories by defeating
Hippostratos.
Chashtana (Reign 78 AD – 130 AD)

 He was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas (Satraps) dynasty who ruled over
Ujjain.
 The Saka Era is believed to have started at his ascension to power in 78 AD.
 Ptolemy mentions him as “Tiasthenes” or “Testenes”.
 He was the founder of one of the two major Saka Kshatrapa dynasties in northwest
India, the Bhadramukhas. The other dynasty was called Kshaharatas and included the
king Nahapana (who was defeated by Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni).
Rudradaman I (Reign 130 AD – 150 AD)

 He is considered the greatest of the Saka rulers.

 He is from the Western Kshatrapa dynasty.
 He was the grandson of Chastana.
 His kingdom included Konkan, Narmada valley, Kathiawar, other parts of Gujarat and
Malwa.
 He conducted the repair work of the Sudarshana Lake at Kathiawar.
 He married a Hindu woman and had converted to Hinduism.
 He also issued the first long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
 He took up the title of Makakshatrapa after becoming king.
 He maintained marital relationships with the Satavahanas. Vashishtiputra Satakarni
was his son-in-law. But he also fought numerous wars with them.
 He regained through conquests most of the territories previously under Nahapana.
 He supported Sanskrit literature and cultural arts.
 It was during Rudradaman’s reign that Yavaneshwara, the Greek writer lived in India
and translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit.

The decline of the Shakas

 The Saka Empire started declining after their defeat at the hands of the Satavahana
Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni.
 The Saka rule in northwest India and Pakistan came to an end after the death of Azes
II (12 BC) when the region came under the Kushanas.
 In western India, their rule came to an end in the 4th century AD when the last
Western Satrap Saka ruler Rudrasimha III was defeated by Chandragupta II of the
Gupta dynasty
Indo-Greek Rule [NCERT Ancient
Indian History For UPSC]
The Bactrian Greeks moved into the south of the Hindu Kush area by the early 2nd century
BCE. Indo-Greeks are these groups of these Bactrian Greeks that ruled over north-western
India between the 2nd century BCE and early 1st century CE. NCERT notes on Indo-Greek
rule are important for the IAS Exam. These notes will also be useful for other competitive
exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil service exam, and so on. This article talks about the
Indo-Greek Rule.

Aspirants can read the important articles similar to Indo-Greek rule from the links provided
below:

The Sakas Kushana Empire

The Satavahanas Sunga Dynasty

Indo-Greek Rule (UPSC Notes):- Download PDF Here

Indo-Greek Rule
After the decline of the Mauryas, northern India was split into several kingdoms. In the
Magadha region, the Sungas came to power in about 185 BC. After that, the Kanvas came to
power who were defeated by the Satavahanas originally from the Deccan. Northwest India
was constantly under attack from powers in Central Asia and northwest. The Indo-Greek or
the Graeco-Indian Kingdom has established around 180 BC when the Graeco-Bactrian king
Demetrius invaded the Indian subcontinent.

Read about Chandragupta Maurya and Mauryan Empire in the linked article.

Indo-Greeks – Initial presence of Greeks in India

 After Alexander invaded the northwest part of the subcontinent, one of his generals,
Seleucus Nicator, founded the Seleucid Empire.
 In Seleucus’s conflict with the mighty Chandragupta Maurya, he ceded large parts to
the west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, present-day Afghanistan and
Balochistan to the Mauryan king.
 After this, Megasthenes was sent to reside at Chandragupta Maurya’s court. Other
Greek residents at Mauryan courts were Deimachus and Dionysius.
 Greek populations lived in the north-western part of the Mauryan Empire as evident
from Ashoka’s edicts.
  Mauryas also had departments to take care of foreigners like Yavanas (Greeks) and
Persians.
 In ancient Indian sources, Greeks were called Yavanas (Sanskrit) and Yonas (Pali).
Read about Persian and Greek Invasions of Ancient India in the linked article.

Indo-Greek Kingdom
 The Indo-Greek kingdom was ruled by over 30 Hellenistic (Greek) kings in the
northwest and north India from the 2nd century BC to the beginning of the first
century AD.
 The kingdom started when Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius (son of Euthydemus I)
invaded India around 180 BC. He conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of
Punjab.
 The Indo-Greek kings imbibed Indian culture and became political entities with a mix
of Greek and Indian culture.
 For about 25 years, the Indo-Greek kingdoms were under the Euthydemid rule.
 Many coins have been unearthed of these kings and most of the information we get
about them is from these coins. Coins have been found with Indian and Greek
inscriptions. Many coins have been found with images of Indian deities also. The
Indo-Greek kings did this to perhaps placate the population most of whom were not
Greeks.
 The civil wars among the many Bactrian kings after the death of Demetrius facilitated
the independent kingdom of Apollodotus I who, in this way, can be regarded as the
first proper Indo-Greek king (whose rule was not from Bactria).
 His kingdom included Gandhara and western Punjab.
 Most of the Indo-Greek kings were Buddhists and Buddhism flourished under their
rule.
 Greek influence is mostly seen in art and sculpture, particularly the Gandhara School
of art.
Also, learn the difference between the Gandhara School of Art and Mathura School of
Art from the linked article.

Indo-Greek Rulers – Menander I (165 BCE- 145 BCE)

 Menander I Soter was also known as Minedra, Minadra, or Milinda (in Pali).
 He was initially a king of Bactria. His empire extended from Kabul river valley in the
west to the Ravi River in the east, and from Swat valley in the north to Arachosia
(Helmand in Afghanistan).
 According to some Indian sources, he went as far as Rajasthan and Pataliputra.
 He converted to Buddhism and patronised the faith.
 He died in 130 BC and was succeeded by his son Strato I.
 The Milinda Panha (composed around 100 BC) records a dialogue between Milinda
and the Buddhist sage Nagasena. Originally written in Sanskrit, only the Pali version
 is available now. In the work, Milinda is described as a wise, learned, and able king.
At the end of it, Milinda accepts Buddhism and converts.

Coins of Indo-Greeks
The following points are important to remember for UPSC Prelims:

Coins circulated to the north of Hindu Kush region during the rule of Indo-Greeks

1. There were gold, silver, copper and nickel coins

2. The coins had greek legends
3. The Indo-Greek coins had royal portraits on the obverse and greek deities (Zeus,
Apollo, and Athena) on the reverse.
Coins circulated to the south of Hindu Kush region during the rule of Indo-Greeks

1. There were silver and copper coins (mostly in square shape)

2. Indian weight standards were followed in the making of these coins.
3. They had bilingual inscriptions – Greek and Kharoshthi
4. On the obverse of the coin, royal portraits were present and on the reverse, religious
symbols (mostly Indian in inspiration) were present

Decline of the Indo-Greek Kingdom

 The last Indo-Greek king was Strato II. He ruled the Punjab region until 55 BC, some
say until 10 AD.
 Their rule ended with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians (Sakas).
 It is believed that Greek people lived for several centuries more in India under the
Indo-Parthians and the Kushans

Kushan Empire - Origin,

Achievements & Kanishka's Rule
[NCERT Ancient Indian History Notes
For UPSC]
Kushans or Kuei-Shang were one of the five Great Yueh-chi (tribes) principalities. In the 1st
century CE, Kujula Kadphises (Kadphises I) brought together these five principalities and
founded the Kushan Empire. The Kushans movement in India can be traced back to the first
century CE during Kadphises I time. The facts about the Kushan dynasty are important for
the IAS Exam and this article will provide important details about it along with Kanishka’s
rule.
Aspirants can also refer to similar articles provided in the table below:

Mauryan Empire Indo-Greek Rule Persian and Greek Invasions of Ancient India

The Sakas The Satavahanas Sunga Dynasty

Kushan Empire Origin

 Kushanas are considered to be one of the five branches of the Yuezhi tribe who lived
in the Chinese frontier or central Asia.
 They are known as Guishuang in Chinese sources.
 They eventually acquired dominance over the other Yuezhi tribes.
 They moved eastward towards India defeating the Parthians and the Sakas in the 1st
century AD.

Kushan Empire – Ruler Kujula Kadphises or

Kadphises I [AD 30-AD 80)
 Kujula Kadphises was the first Yuezhi chief to lay the foundation of the Kushana
Empire in India.
 He established his supremacy over Kabul, Kandahar and Afghanistan.
 He was succeeded by his son Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95) who
expanded the empire into northwest India.

Kushan Empire – Ruler Vima Kadphises [AD 95-AD

127]
 An inscription found at Rabatak in Afghanistan mentions that he was the son of Vima
Taktu and the father of Kanishka.
 He has issued a large number of gold coins.
 He was a Shiva devotee as is clear from coins issued by him.
 A large number of Roman gold coins found from this era indicate the prosperity of
India at that time and also the growing trade with the Romans.

Kanishka of Kushan Dynasty [127 AD – 150 AD]

 Considered the greatest Kushana king and also a great king of ancient India.
 Son of Vima Kadphises.
 His kingdom included Afghanistan, parts of Sindhu, parts of Parthia, Punjab,
Kashmir, parts of Magadha (including Pataliputra), Malwa, Benaras, perhaps parts of
Bengal, Khotan, Kashgar, Yarkhand (last three in modern China). His empire covered
 Gandhara, Peshawar, Oudh, Pataliputra, Kashmir and Mathura. His kingdom also
included parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
 His main capital was Peshawar, then known as Purushpura.
 After the capture of Pataliputra, he is said to have taken away the Buddhist monk
Ashvaghosha with him to Peshawar.
 The scholars in his court included Parsva, Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna,
Charaka and Mathara. He also patronised the Greek engineer Agesilaus.
 Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalvana in Kashmir.
 He patronised Buddhism although he was very tolerant in his religious views. His
coins contain a mix of Indian, Greek and Zoroastrian deities.
 He was also a patron of art and architecture. The Gandhara School of art flourished
under him.
 He also propagated the Mahayana form of Buddhism and he was largely responsible
for propagating it in China.
 It is not known how he died.

Achievements of Kushanas – Significance of the

Kushana Empire
 Sanskrit literature began to be developed during this time. The fourth Buddhist
council was held in Sanskrit.
 Ashvoghosha is considered to be the first Sanskrit dramatist.
 During this time, three distinct schools of art flourished: Gandhara School in
northwest India, Amaravati School in Andhra and the Mathura School in the Ganges
valley.
 Trade prospered between India and China, and India and the Roman Empire.
 The Kushanas controlled large parts of the Silk Route which led to the propagation of
Buddhism into China. It was during this time that Buddhism began to spread to Korea
and Japan also.
 Many towers, Chaityas, towns and beautiful sculptures were built under the patronage
of the Kushana kings.
 Kushanas were foreign invaders, to begin with, but they were completely Indianised
in ways and culture.
 It is said that the Kushana period in Indian history was a perfect forerunner to the
golden age of the Guptas.

The decline of the Kushana Empire

 Kanishka was succeeded by his son Vasishka.
 Vasishka was followed by Huvishka and Kanishka II (son of Vasishka).
 Kanishka II was followed by Vasudeva I.
 Vasudeva I was the last great king of the Kushanas. After his death, the empire
disintegrated away. He probably died in 232 AD.
Satavahana Dynasty - Important
Rulers of Satavahana Empire [UPSC
History Notes]
The reign of the Satavahana Dynasty began in the mid-1st century BCE and came to an end
in the early 3rd century CE. The area of the Satavahana Dynasty is debated where
some historians argue that the Satavahanas initially established their hold over the area
around Pratishthana (modern Paithan) in the western Deccan, and expanded from there into
the eastern Deccan, Andhra, and the western coast. The topic is important for Ancient History
preparation in the IAS Exam. Read on to know about the Satavahana empire, its rulers and
coinage for UPSC preparation.

Prepare similar topics like Satavahana Dynasty for Ancient History preparation that comes in UPSC Prelims:

1. Mauryan Empire
2. Gupta Empire
3. Indus Valley Civilization
4. Vedas
5. Sangam Literature
6. Vedic Literature
Satavahana Dynasty:- Download PDF Here

Origin & Development of the Satavahana

Dynasty
The Sunga dynasty came to an end around 73 BCE when their ruler Devabhuti was killed by
Vasudeva Kanva. The Kanva dynasty then ruled over Magadha for about 45 years. Around
this time, another powerful dynasty, the Satavahanas came to power in the Deccan area.

The term “Satvahana” originated from the Prakrit which means ” driven by seven” which is
an implication of the Sun God’s chariot that is driven by seven horses as per Hindu
mythology.

The first king of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. Before the emergence of the
Satavahana dynasty, a brief history of the other dynasties are mentioned below:

Kanva Dynasty:

 According to the Puranas, there were 4 kings of the Kanva dynasty who were, Vasudeva, Bhumimitra,
Narayana and Susarman.
 The Kanvas were said to be Brahmins.
 The Magadha Empire had declined by this time to a great extent.
 The Northwest region was under the Greeks and parts of the Gangetic plains were under various rulers.
 Susarman, who was the last Kanva king, was killed by a Satavahana (Andhra) king.

Read in detail about the Kanva Dynasty in the linked article.

Chedi Dynasty:

 The Chedi/Cheti dynasty rose in Kalinga in the 1st century BCE.

 The Hathigumpha inscription situated near Bhubaneswar talks about this.
 This inscription was engraved by king Kharavela who was the third Cheti king.
 King Kharavela followed Jainism.
 Chedi dynasty was also known as Cheta or Mahameghavahana or Chetavamsa.

Facts about Satavahana Dynasty

In the northern region, the Mauryas were succeeded by the Sungas and the Kanvas. However,
the Satavahanas (natives) succeeded the Mauryas in Deccan and in Central India.
  It is believed that after the decline of the Mauryas and before the advent of the
Satavahans, there must have been numerous small political principalities that were
ruling in different parts of the Deccan (for about 100 years).
 Probably the Rathikas and the Bhojikas that have been mentioned in the Ashokan
inscriptions gradually progressed into the Maharathis and Mahabhojas of pre-
Satavahana times.
 The Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras who are mentioned
in the Puranas, but neither the name Andhra appears in the Satavahana inscriptions
nor do the Puranas mention the Satavahanas.
 According to some Puranas, the Andhras ruled for 300 years and this period is
assigned to the rule of the Satavahana dynasty, with their capital at Pratishthana
(modern Paithan) on the Godavari in Aurangabad district.
 The Satavahana kingdom majorly comprised present Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
and Telangana. At times, their rule also included parts of Gujarat, Karnataka as well
as Madhya Pradesh.
 The kingdom had different capitals at different times. Two of the capitals were
Amaravati and Pratishthana (Paithan).
 The earliest inscriptions of the Satavahans belong to the first century BCE when they
defeated the Kanvas and established their power in parts of Central India.
 It is important to mention that the early Satavahana kings appeared not in Andhra but
in Maharashtra, where most of their early inscriptions have been found. Gradually
they extended their power over Karnataka and Andhra.
 Their greatest competitors were the Shaka Kshatrapas of western India, who had
established themselves in the upper Deccan and western India.
 The Satavahans were Brahmanas and worshipped gods like Vasudeva Krishna.
 The Satavahans kings used matronyms like Gautamiputra and Vaishishthiputra,
although they were not matriarchal or matrilineal in any sense.
 They assumed the title of Dakshinapatha Pati (Lord of Dakshinapatha).
 The Satavahanas are known for starting the practice of giving royal grants of land to
Brahmans and Buddhist monks.
 Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana Dynasty.
 The Satavahanas were the first native Indian kings to have issued their own coins
which had the rulers’ portraits on them. Gautamiputra Satakarni started this practice
which he imbibed from the Western Satraps after vanquishing them.
 The coin legends were in Prakrit. Some reverse coin legends are in Tamil, Telugu
and Kannada also.
 They patronised Prakrit more than Sanskrit.
 Even though the rulers were Hindus and claimed Brahmanical status, they
supported Buddhism also.
 They were successful in defending their areas from foreign invaders and had many
battles with the Sakas.
The Satavahana Dynasty map is given below:
Important Rulers of the Satavahana dynasty

Simuka
 Considered to be the founder of the Satavahana dynasty and was immediately active
after Ashoka’s death.
 Built Jain and Buddhist temples.

Satakarni I (70- 60 BC)

 Satakarni I was the 3rd king of the Satavahanas.
 Satakarni I was the first Satavahana king to expand his empire by military conquests.
 He conquered Kalinga after the death of Kharavela.
 He also pushed back the Sungas in Pataliputra.
 He also ruled over Madhya Pradesh.
 After annexing the Godavari Valley, he assumed the title of ‘Lord of Dakshinapatha’.
 His queen Nayanika wrote the Naneghat inscription which describes the king as
Dakshinapathapati.
 He performed Ashvamedha and revived Vedic Brahmanism in the Deccan.
Hala
 King Hala compiled the Gatha Saptashati. Called Gaha Sattasai in Prakrit, it is a
collection of poems with mostly love as the theme. Around forty of the poems are
attributed to Hala himself.
 Hala’s minister Gunadhya composed Brihatkatha.

Gautamiputra Satakarni of Satavahana Dynasty (106

– 130 AD or 86 – 110 AD)
 He is considered the greatest king of the Satavahana dynasty.
 It is believed that at one stage, the Satavahanas were dispossessed of their dominions
in the upper Deccan and western India. The fortunes of the Satavahanas were restored
by Gautamiputra Satkarni. He called himself the only Brahmana who defeated the
Shakas and destroyed many Kshatriya rulers.
 He is believed to have destroyed the Kshaharata lineage to which his adversary
Nahapana belonged. More than 800 silver coins of Nahapana (found near Nasik)
bears marks of being restruck by the Satavahana king. Nahapana was an important
king of the Western Satraps.
 His kingdom ran from Krishna in the south to Malwa and Saurashtra in the north and
from Berar in the east to the Konkan in the west.
 In a Nasik inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri, he is described as the destroyer
of the Shakas, Pahlavas and the Yavanas (Greeks); as the uprooter of the Kshaharatas
and the restorer of the glory of the Satavahanas. He is also described
as Ekabrahmana (a peerless Brahmana) and Khatiya-dapa-manamada (destroyer of
the pride of Kshatriyas).
 He was given the titles Rajaraja and Maharaja.
 He donated land to the Buddhist monks. The Karle inscription mentions the grant of
Karajika village, near Pune, Maharashtra.
 In the later part of his reign, he probably lost some of the conquered Kshaharata
territories to the Kardamaka line of the Shaka Kshatrapas of western India, as is
mentioned in the Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman Ⅰ.
 His mother was Gautami Balasri and hence his name Gautamiputra (son of Gautami).
 He was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi/Pulumavi or Pulamavi II.
(Alternatively spelt Pulumayi.)

Vashishthiputra Pulumayi (c. 130 – 154 CE)

 He was the immediate successor of Gautamiputra. The coins and inscriptions of
Vashishthiputra Pulumayi are found in Andhra.
 According to Junagadh inscriptions, he was married to the daughter of Rudradaman Ⅰ.
 The Shaka-Kshatrapas of western India recovered some of their territories due to
his engagements in the east.
Yajna Sri Satakarni (c. 165 – 194 CE)
 One of the later kings of the Satavahana dynasty. He recovered north Kokan and
Malwa from the Shaka rulers.
 He was a lover of trade and navigation, as is evident from the motif of a ship on his
coins. His coins have been found in Andhra, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and
Gujarat.

Satavahana Dynasty Administration

The administration of the Satavahana dynasty was entirely based on the Shastras, and it had
the following structure:

1. Rajan or the king who was the ruler

2. Princes or Rajas who had their names inscribed on coins
3. Maharathis, who had the power of granting villages and also had the privilege of
maintaining marital relations with the ruling family.
4. Mahasenapati
5. Mahatalavara
The inscription of the ruler Guatamipurna Satakarni throws some light on the bureaucratic
structure of administration. However, clarity on the detailed structure is still awaited by
historians.

Features of Satavahana Administration

 The king was represented as the upholder of dharma and he strove for the royal ideal
set forth in the Dharmashastras. The Satavahana king is represented as possessing
the divine qualities of ancient gods such as Rama, Bhima, Arjuna, etc.
 The Satavahanas retained some of the administrative units of Ashokan times. The
kingdom was divided into districts called ahara. Their officials were known
as amatyas and mahamatras (same as in Mauryan times). But unlike Mauryan
times, certain military and feudal elements are found in the administration of the
Satavahanas. For instance, the senapati was appointed provincial governor. It was
probably done to keep the tribal people in the Deccan who were not completely
brahmanised under strong military control.
 The administration in the rural areas was placed in the hands of gaulmika (village
headman) who was also the head of a military regiment consisting of 9 chariots, 9
elephants, 25 horses and 45 foot soldiers.
 The military character of the Satavahana rule is also evident from the common use of
terms like kataka and skandhavara in their inscriptions. These were military camps
and settlements which served as administrative centres when the king was there. Thus,
coercion played an important part in the Satavahana administration.
 The Satavahanas started the practice of granting tax-free villages to brahmanas and
buddhist monks.
  The Satavahana kingdom had three grades of feudatories – Raja (who had the right to
strike coins), Mahabhoja and Senapati.

Economy of Satavahana Empire

Agriculture was the backbone of the economy during the rule of Satavahana kings. They also
relied on trade and production of various commodities within and outside India.

Satavahana Coins

Some important points related to Satavahan coinage are mentioned below:

1. The coins of the Satavahanas have been excavated from Deccan, western India,
Vidarbha, Western and Eastern Ghats, etc
2. Most of the coins in the Satavahana dynasty were die-struck.
3. Cast-coins too existed in the Satavahana empire and there were multiple combinations
of techniques that were used to cast coins.
4. There were silver, copper, lead and potin coins in the Satavahana empire.
5. The portrait coins were mostly in silver and some were in lead too. Dravidian
language and Brahmi script were used on portrait coins.
6. There were punch-marked coins too that were circulated alongside the Satavahana
dynasty.
7. The importance of maritime trade was derived from the images of ships present on the
Satavahana coins.
8. Many Satavahana coins bore the names of ‘Satakarni’ and ‘Pulumavi.’
9. Satavahana coins were of different shapes – round, square, rectangular, etc.
10. Many symbols have appeared on the Satavahana coins, the major ones of which are:

 Chaitya symbol
 Chakra symbol
 Conch Shell symbol
 Lotus symbol
 Nandipada symbol
 Ship symbol
 Swastik symbol
11. Animal motifs were found on the Satavahana coins.

Religion & Language of Satavahana Kingdom

The Satavahanas belonged to the Hindu religion and the Brahmanical caste. But, the
interesting fact is their generosity towards other castes and religions which is evident from
the donations made by them towards Buddhist monasteries. Many Buddhist monasteries were
constructed during the rule of the Satavahana dynasty.
The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit, though the script was Brahmi (as was
the case in the Ashokan times). Political inscriptions also threw some light on the rare use of
Sanskrit Literature.

Satavahanas – Material Culture

The material culture of the Deccan under the Satavahanas was a fusion of local elements
(Deccan) and northern ingredients.

 The people of the Deccan were fairly acquainted with the use of iron and agriculture.
The Satavahanas probably exploited the rich mineral resources of the Deccan such as
iron ores from Karimnagar and Warangal and gold from Kolar fields. They
mostly issued coins of lead, which is found on the Deccan and also coins of copper
and bronze.
 The paddy transplantation was an art well known to the Satavahanas and the area
between the Krishna and Godavari, especially at the mouth of the two rivers, formed a
great rice bowl. The people of the Deccan also produced cotton. Thus a good portion
of the Deccan developed a very advanced rural economy.
 The people of the Deccan learnt the use of coins, burnt bricks, ring wells, etc. through
its contacts with the north. There was regular use of fire-baked bricks and use of flat,
perforated roof tiles which must have added to the life of the structures. The drains
were covered and underground to lead wastewater into soakage pits. The Andhra in
the east Deccan included 30 walled towns, besides numerous villages.

Satavahanas – Social Organizations

 The Satavahanas originally seem to have been a tribe of the Deccan. They, however,
were so brahmanized that they claimed to be Brahmanas. The most famous
Satavahana king Gautamiputra claimed to be a Brahman and thought it his duty to
uphold the four-fold varna system.
 The Satavahanas were the first rulers to make land grants to the Brahmans and there
are also instances of grants made to Buddhist monks, especially to Mahayana
Buddhists.

 Nagarjunakonda and Amravati in Andhra Pradesh and Nasik and Junar in

Maharashtra became important Buddhist sites under the Satavahanas and their
successors, the Ikshvakus.
 The artisans and merchants formed an important class of society due to flourishing
trade and commerce.
 Merchants took pride in naming themselves after the towns to which they
belonged.
 Among the artisans, the Gandhikas (perfumers) are mentioned as donors and
later the term came to be used for all kinds of shopkeepers. The title
‘Gandhi’ is derived from this ancient term Gandhika.
  It was customary for their king to be named after his mother, (Gautamiputra and
Vashishthiputra) which indicates that the women occupied an important position in
the society.

Satavahana Architecture
In the Satavahana phase, many temples called chaityas and monasteries called viharas were
cut out of the solid rock in the northwestern Deccan or Maharashtra with great precision and
patience.

 The Karle chaitya is the most famous in western Deccan.

 The three viharas at Nasik carry inscriptions of Nahapana and Gautamiputra.
 The most important stupas of this period are Amravati and Nagarjunakonda. The
Amaravati stupa is full of sculptures that depict the various scenes from the life of the
Buddha. The Nagarjunakonda stupa contains Buddhist monuments and also the
earliest Brahmanical brick temples.

The Decline of the Satavahanas

 Pulamavi IV is considered the last king of the main Satavahana line.
 He ruled until 225 AD. After his death, the empire fragmented into five smaller
kingdoms

Imperial Cholas (Period from c. 850 – 1200 CE)

The Cholas are believed to have overthrown the Pallavas in south India. They
became prominent in the 9th century and established an empire comprising the
major portion of South India. They also extended their control in Sri Lanka and
the Malay peninsula and are thus called ‘Imperial Cholas’. Thousands of inscriptions
found in the temples provide detailed information regarding the administration,
society, economy and culture of the Chola period. The founder of the Imperial Chola
line was Vijayala.

Chola Rulers

Vijayala (c. 850 CE)

 Earlier, a feudatory of the Pallavas.

 Captured Tanjore and built a temple for Durga.

Aditya (c. 871 – 907 CE)

 He put an end to the Pallava kingdom by defeating Aparajita and

annexed Tondaimandalam (southern Tamil country).

Parantaka Ⅰ (c. 957 – 973 CE)

  He defeated the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon at the famous Battle of Vellur.
 He suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna Ⅲ in the famous battle
of Takkolam. The Rashtrakuta army overran Tondaimandalam.
 Parantaka Ⅰ was a great builder of temples. He also provided the vimana of the famous
Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof.
 The two famous Uthiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village
administration under the Cholas belong to his reign.

Parantaka Ⅱ/ Sundara Chola (c. 957 – 973 CE)

 Invaded Sri Lanka and regained some parts of Tondaimandalam.

Uttama Chola (c. 973 – 985 CE)

 Most of Tondaimandalam was recovered when he occupied the throne.

Rajaraja Ⅰ/Arumolivarman (c. 985 – 1014 CE)

 It was under Rajaraja Ⅰ and his son Rajendra Ⅰ that the Chola power reached its highest
point of glory. The following were his military conquests:

 The defeat of the Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravivarman in the naval battle of
Kandalur Salai and the destruction of the Chera navy.
 The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and the establishment of Chola
authority in the Pandya country.
 The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son Rajendra Ⅰ. As the Sri
Lankan king Mahinda Ⅴ fled from his country, the Cholas annexed northern Sri
Lanka.
 Another military achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldive Islands
which were conquered.
 The Chola victory over the growing power of the western Chalukyas of Kalyani.
Satyasraya was defeated and Rajaraja Ⅰ captured Raichur Doab, Banavasi and
other places. Hence, the Chola empire extended up to the river Tungabhadra.
 By his conquests, the extent of the Chola empire under Rajaraja Ⅰ included the Pandya,
Chera and the Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi,
Notambapadi and the Telugu Choda territories in the Deccan and the northern part of
Ceylon and the Maldive Islands beyond India.
 He constructed the famous Rajarajeshwara temple or Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore
in 1010 CE.
 He developed an advanced revenue system wherein the land was surveyed and then
revenue was assessed. He was referred to as “Ulagalanda Perumal” (the king who
measured the earth).

Rajendra Ⅰ (c. 1014 – 1044 CE)

Rajendra Ⅰ demonstrated his military capabilities by participating in his father’s

campaigns. He continued his father’s policy of aggressive conquests and expansion.

 During his reign, the whole of Sri Lanka was made part of the Chola empire.
 He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya countries.
 He defeated Jayasimha Ⅱ – the western Chalukya king and the river Tungabadhra was
recognised as the boundary between the Cholas and the Chalukyas.
  His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to North India. The Chola empire
crossed the Ganges by defeating a number of rulers on its way. Rajendra Ⅰ defeated
Mahipala Ⅰ (Pala empire) of Bengal. To commemorate this successful north India
campaign, Rajendra Ⅰ founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the
famous Rajesvaram temple in that city. He also excavated a large irrigation tank
called Cholagangam on the western side of the city.
 Another famous venture of Rajendra Ⅰ was his naval expedition to Kadaram or Sri
Vijaya (Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands and controlled the
overseas trade route to China). The naval expedition was a success and a number of
places were occupied by Chola forces. He assumed the title Kadaramkondan.
 He was also a great patron of learning and was called Pandita Cholan.

At the death of Rajendra Ⅰ, the extent of the Chola empire was at its peak. The river
Tungabhadra was the northern boundary, the Pandya, Kerala, Mysore regions and
also Sri Lanka formed part of the empire.

Rajadhiraja (c. 1044 – 1052 CE)

 He was called Jayamkonda Chola (the victorious Chola king), as he fought with his men
on the front.
 He destroyed the Chalukyan cities such as Kalyani and planted a Jaystambha at Yadgir.
Cholas were known for plunder and they massacred the people of the region they
conquered.
 He was killed on the battlefield while fighting in the battle of Koppam against Someshwar
– western Chalukyan king. He earned the title of Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (the king who
died on the back of an elephant).

Rajendra Ⅱ (c. 1054 – 1063 CE)

 Rajendra Ⅱ defeated Someshwar, planted a Jaystambha at Kolhapur.

Virarajendra (c. 1063 – 1067 CE)

 He defeated Someshwar Ⅱ and laid the foundation of a Vedic college of learning.

Athirajendra (c. 1067 – 1070 CE)

 He died while suppressing one of his rebels.

Kulottunga Ⅰ (c. 1070 – 1122 CE)

 Kulottunga Ⅰ sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial

relations with the kingdom of Sri Vijaya.
 He united the Vengi kingdom of Chalukyas with the Chola empire.
 The classic writer Kamban (who wrote Ramayana in Tamil) was at his court.

The later rulers like Kulottunga Ⅱ, Rajaraja Ⅱ, and Kulottunga Ⅲ tried to maintain the
Chola rule but it gradually suffered a downfall and came to an end in the 13th
century. The Cholas were replaced by the Pandyas and the Hoysalas in the south,
and of the later Chalukyas by the Yadavas and the Kakatiyas. These states were
continuously in a state of war with each other and hence, weakened themselves.
Finally, at the beginning of the 14th century, they were destroyed by the Sultans of
Delhi

Chola Administration
The king was at the top of the administration and Chola inscriptions refer to him as
Ko, Perumal Adigal (the great one) and Ko-Konmai Kondan (king of kings). The
Chola inscriptions describe the king as a great warrior, conqueror, a great patron of
art, destroyer of the evils, generous and a protector with a pleasing personality. The
king undertook royal tours to increase the efficiency of the administration.

 The administration set up was larger as compared to that of the Cheras, the Pandyas
and the Pallavas. However, it witnessed a decline after the death of Kulottunga Ⅰ and
thereafter, the power of local chieftains increased.
 The Rashtriyam/Rajyam (empire) consisted of eight Mandalams (provinces) and each
Mandalam had a governor/viceroy (generally a prince). The provinces were further
divided into Valanadus or Kottams and each Valanadus were divided into Nadus
(districts) under Nattar. The Nadus consisted of a number of autonomous villages. The
guilds/Shrenis were also part of the administration.
 The assembly of the mercantile groups/merchants was known as Nagaram and was
specific to different trades and specialised groups. For example, the Shankarappadi
Nagaram were ghee and oil suppliers, the Saliya Nagaram and Satsuma Parishatta
Nagaram were associated with the textile trade. The Ayyavole (the five hundred) in the
Aihole, Karnataka and Manigramam were powerful and important guilds. These guilds
became more powerful and subsequently, independent.

Chola Village Administration

 The Chola village administration had two types of assemblies:

 Ur – The general assembly of the local residents of non Brahmadeya villages (or
Vellanvagai villages). It is believed that members of the assembly were less than
ten.
 Sabha or Mahasabha – Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka Ⅰ
found at Uttaramerur provide details about the formation and functioning of
Sabhas. The Sabha was an assembly of Brahmans/adult male members in the
agraharas i.e, rent-free Brahmadeya villages which enjoyed a large measure of
autonomy.

The Brahmana sabha and the Chola court were closely associated e.g, the
resolution of the sabha was made in presence of an official deputed by the king. The
members of the committee were elected by drawing lots or by rotation. The
membership was governed by certain criteria such as the ownership of land,
knowledge of Vedas, good conduct, etc. The committee members were called Variya
Perumakkal and usually met in a temple or under a tree. The Chola village assembly
was the absolute proprietor of the village lands and also of the newly acquired lands.

 Land revenue was the main source of income for the Chola empire and it was
usually one-sixth of the produce. The revenue was collected by the village assembly and
 was paid in cash, kind or both. The land survey was conducted by the Chola government.
The inscriptions also refer to land transfers via sale or gift.
 There are also certain references to villages that were headed by women. In a 902 CE
inscription, there is mention of a woman Bittaya who headed the village Bharangiyur.

Chola Society and Economy

The caste system was prevalent in the society and the condition of the Paraiyar
(untouchables) was miserable. The higher orders like the Brahamans and Kshatriyas
enjoyed special privileges. The Chola inscriptions mention the major divisions among
the castes:

1. Valangai -mainly agricultural groups.

2. Idangai – mainly artisans and trading class.

 Brahmanism (Shaivism and Vaishnavism) continued to flourish during the Chola reign.
Apart from granting gifts to Brahmanas, gifts were generously given to temples by the
royal families. Rich merchants also contributed to the temples. Under the patronage of
Chola kings and queens, a large number of temples were built. Brahmana Sabha was
involved in the management of finances and maintenance of the temples.
 The economy was mainly agrarian – reclamation of forest land, construction of irrigation
tanks, expansion in the variety of crops led to agricultural prosperity.
 The industrial sector also witnessed a leap in the Chola period e.g, Kanchipuram
emerged as an important weaving industry centre, Kudamukku was an important centre
of betel nut and areca nut cultivation and it was also known for metal works, textiles and
coin minting. The Chola kings also maintained close commercial ties with south-east Asia
and China. Arabian horses were imported in large numbers to strengthen the cavalry.

Chola Art and Literature

There was also the growth of literature during the reign of the Cholas. Alvars
(devotees of Vishnu) and Nayannars (devotees of Shiva) composed a lot of literature
in Tamil and other regional languages between the 6th and 9th centuries. This
literature has been collected into eleven volumes and given the name Tirumurais in
the early 12th century. They were considered to be the fifth Veda.

 The classic writer Kamban wrote Ramayana in Tamil.

 The famous trinity of Pampa, Ponna and Ranna were the three priced jewels of Kannada
poetry