U:MfM-Oim$>

09 = ;: :
rn c-,
>< m
>
3:

11.5
lU 12.l
14.6
 1.4(2%)
~ -6(1%)
9%

0
01 ~ Electric Charges and Fields 1.1'1 ., 1.10
1.11
'
U(3tt.J
1.9(4%)
5%

, 1,13
'~ I,, '

Electric Field
Definition Variable Unit l E;atio~
NC- 1
1
An electric field is a region around a charged particle where other charge E I E = /cq = -q
p
7i
particle experiences a force. It is the amount of force (in newtons) a charge [
will experience at a given point per coulom.=b_::o:_
f ~ch=a=r~ge=·- - - - - - _ J _ - - - . , _ _ _ _ _ _ __,

Dipole in Uniform External Field

• When a dipole is placed in a uniform external electric field,

then net force ( + qE - qE) on it is zero, but it experiences a Electric field
torque. q10 · ----.. atPductoq1
t =p x E , t = pE sin8 = 2qaE sin8 Electric fieid . · ~ · • • · -:.:J.___ /
• Minimum torque : Dipole is parallel or antiparallel to the atPduetoq2 ~
• • • • • • • "j!_
+ ?E1
➔
electric field •• .LrJ. E
q20 • · - Net electric
tmin = 0, when 8 = 0° or 180°
field
• Maximum torque : Dipole is perpendicular to the electric
field tmax =pE = 2qaE, when 8 =90°

Gauss's Law and It's Applications

Gauss's law is used to determine the electric field due to charged symmetrical bodies.

S.No. I Charge distribution Electric field Graph

1. Infinitely long straight
uniformly charged wire E=--
A.
21tfor E
L,
2.

3.
I Uniformly charged infinite

I
plane sheet

Uniformly charged thin

E=-
O'

2£o

Ei
E
L ,
1 q a 1 q a R2
spherical shell E;=O, E5 = - - · = - , E = - - - = - ·- E, ... . . . . . .
41teo 2
0
R Eo 41teo r 2 Eo r 2
i ➔ inside, s ➔ surface, o ➔ outside ~ ., I

1
4. Uniformly charged non- E _ 1 qr _ pr E _ _!_ q _ pR E
I conducting sphere i - 41tEo R3 3Eo ' s 41t£o R2 - 3FQ E,

E0 - -
-
1 q pR 3
-2= - -
4ne0 r 3e0r 2
~ R
. r

-- - -

G) • PHYSICS FOR YOU I FEBRUARY '25

 2~)
2.3(2")
2A(l1{t)
.5(3%)

Electrostatic Potential and ~ itance tK

\ Potential du~ t~ Sy~t~m:~(Ch71rges'

• Electrostatic potential ( V) at a point is equal to
the work done by an external force in bringing a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point, i.e.,

•
V = W . Its SI unit is volt.
q
Net potential = Algebraic sum of the potential due
to the individual charge
• q,,

V = V1 + V2 + V3 + .... =_I_ (qi + q2 + q3 +....)

41t£o '1 r2 r3

Equipotential Surf ac~s

• An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant Equipotential
value of potential at all ponts on the surface. For a single surfaces
1
point charge q, the potential is given by V = --1
4xe0 r
• V is a constant if r is constant. Thus, equipotential
surfaces of a single point charge are concentric spherical
surfaces centred at the charge.

t. Potential Energy of a System of Charges

1 n
• For two point charges, U = _l_ qlql • For system of n point charges, U = - Lq,\'J
41t£o 'i2 2 ,=1
For three point charges, where, V1 is the potential at the location of the ,a
1 1 1 charge due to the presence of all other charges in
U= q1V1 + q2V2 + q3V3
2 2 2 the system.

Energy Stored in a Capacitor .

• A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that
can store energy in the form of an electric charge.
• Eis algebraically manipulated into three equivalent
expressions:
E = QV/2=CV 2l2=cfl2C ( ·: Q = CV)

where, Q is the charge and V the voltage on a

capadtorC. Battery

PHYSICS FOi YOU I FEBRUARY '25 • (D

j
 3.3(1%)
(7%)3.13, 3.4(6%)
12%

Current Electricity _; 31%

15%

Drift of Electrons and tht~rigin of Resistivity

• As we know that, under normal circumstances i.e.,
in the absence of external electric field, the free
electrons move randomly from one atom to another. Electron ,'vlctal ion
The velocity with which the random motion is taking
place is called thermal velocity. The average thermal
velocity is said to be zero as the electron do not move
in a particular direction. Their motion is in random 0~ 0 04 00 "
direction. ,,cp o ~o o o
' Electron d
• When we apply an external electric field across the
conductor, the electrons are attracted towards the
positive terminal. When the electrons rush out from the atom, the atom then becomes a positive ion.
• These positive ions are attracted towards the negative terminal. But as the mass of the positive ion is very
large comparing to that of electrons, the positive ions do not move. The electrons are accelerated towards
the positive terminal. A number of collisions also take place during the process and thus, electrons possess
a velocity. The average of this velocity is called the drift velocity. With the drift velocity, the flow of electrons
is drifted towards the positive end and current flows in the opposite direction.
• When the electrons are drifted towards the positive potential end of the conductor, they collide with other
electrons and the walls of conductors. The average time between two successive collisions is known as the
average relaxation time.
eE
• Drift velocity of electron, vd =- ,:
m

: Cells in Series and in Parallel ~ \

• For series combination, Eeq = £ 1 + E2, req = r1 + r2

• For parallel combination. e = e1r2 + E27j , req = '1' 2 . In general, £eq =£ 1 + £ 2 + ....... + £n
eq rl + r2 1j + r2 req rl r2 rn

©0 ©0 ©0 ©0

(E, r)i (E, rh (E, rh (E, r)n

~ • PHYSICS FOR YOU I FEBRUARY '25

 Kirchhoff'_~., Rul~~
Kirchhoff's rules can be applled to any circuit, even when the resistors are not in series or in parallel. The

...
two rules are summarized below.

- Junction Rul
It
The sum of the magnitudes of the current directed
into a Junction equals the sum of the magnitudes
of the current directed out of the junction. This ls
Around any closed-circuit loop, the sum of the
potential drops equals the sum of the potential rises.
This ls b~d on the conservation of energy.
based on conservation of charge. • From the figure. - V1 - V1 + v., - V,. = 0. Boxes
• From the figure, 11 - 12 _ 13 + 14 +Is= o may contain resistor or battery or any other
11 + 14 + 15 = 12 +13 element (linear or nonlinear).

0
+

s R

4.3(1ftt)

Moving Charges and Magnetism__ 49 I ,1

7%
4.8 45

."► Motion in Magnetic Field

X X X X X X
• If vJ. Bthen the particle will describe a circle.
mv
► ·Radius of the circle, r = qB
X
qB V
> Angular frequency of charged particle, ro = - = -
r m
21t 21tm
> Time period of charge particle, T
0)
=- =-
q8
X X X X X

• If vis not perpendicular to B then velod~ has two components : one

along B and other one perpendicular to B . Hence, the particle will
follow a helical path.
> The linear distance moved along the magnetic field in one rotation
is called pitch (p).
21tmv11 21tmv cos 8
p=v11T- B = qB
q
mv.1
.
mvsm
a Hclical moC10D ofcb.qc
► Radius of helix, r= qB = qB

Q)

j
PHYSICS FOR YOU I FEBRUARY '25 •
• Magnetic field at a point P due to a current
element Idl depends as dB oc I, dB oc dl

➔
I dBi •
kldl sin 9 h k { µo = 10- 7 (S.I.)
dB = - - - ,were = 41t
,2
=1 (C.G.S,)
Vector form of Biot-Savart Law
I
p
-B _ µ Idlx r _ µ Idlxr
d - -0 - - - - -0 - - -
41t r3 47t ,2

' " •,t: ~ ·11,: ~ ,r ,•:,,,"[• "> ,

The Moving Coil Galvanc>meter --"l~.

• In a moving coil galvanometer, the current (I) passing

through the galvanometer is directly proportional to
its deflection (q>).

• We define the current sensitivity of the galvanometer

as the deflection per unit current.
• We define the voltage sensitivity as the deflection per j"..........;·
·.....................................
· i r ,

IT
I I : g
~ ! :
I ! G i

~
unit volt of applied potential difference.
• Galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter as !
~
!. .~. . . . . .....! i................................·-·····----·-······j
Is = I - lg
well as voltmeter as shown in the figure. I__ Ammeter Voltmeter

m: Magnetism and Matter

45% \

6%

The Bar Magnet

• Given figure is used for calculation of the axial field of a finite - - - - - - - - - - --
solenoid in order to demonstrate its similarity to that of a bar
magnet.
• Magnetic field at point P due to a circular element shown in the
figure
B=~ 2m
41t ,3
:+-1-
which is the magnetic field due to a bar magnet at far axial point - - - :21---
obtained experimentally.
Hence, a bar magnet and a solenoid produce similar magnetic fields.

e • PHYSICS FOR YOU I FEBRUARY '25

 Magnetic Properties of Materials
C Properties Dlamagnettc Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
,___Cause .. _magnetism O rb 1·t a1 motion of electrons
____ of Spin motion of electron Formation of domains
Substanceplacedin , Poor magne tisation in Poor magnet isation in Strong magnet isation in
I uniform magneti c I opposite direction. same direction. same direction .
field. I Here, Bm < Bo

- > >---
- >-
I Here B,,, > B0
I ..:_
Here B,,, >>> Bo
> ~-
>
GJ
M ~ [---1 ~>- . ~ --- I- -I > -> >M -

- ·---1- · - - - ~ - . ---~ ~- __- . .! ~

- >-->- ~=--==-
Xm - T curve ; Xm ➔ Small, negative and I Xm ➔ Small, positiv e I Xm ➔ very large, positive
tempera ture indepen dent and varies inversely with ' and tempera ture depende nt

r~ __
___ ------- ---~ Xm-~ _ ____ _ /te~~er~ture_Xm oc ~ __
1
_ _ _ _ _ __

µ,. (µ < JJ.o}, 1 > µr > 0 (1 + E} > µr > 1, (µ > JJ.o) µr >>> 1, (µ >>> JJ,o)
---- ---- Atoms have perman ent
' Magnetic momen t Atoms do not have any Atoms have perman ent
I

, of single atom I
perman ent magnetic moment magnetic moment which are magnet ic momen t which
randomly oriented. (i.e., in I are organise
d in domains .
absence ofexternal magnetic
field the magnetic moment ,
i 1 of whole material
is zero)
------ - --- - -

6.8 6.4

Electro~agnetic Induction

Faraday's Law of lnductio~

First Law
Whenever there is change in magnetic flux with respect to time for a
coil or circuit, an emf is induced in it till change in flux takes place.
Second Law
The induced emf is directly proporti onal to the rate of change of
Direction of motion
flux through the coil.
dcp Sensitive Ammeter of tbe magnet
-
Mathematically,, £ = -dt

through it.
• Inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in electric current flowing
ratio of flux
• Inductance depends only on the geometry of the coil and intrinsic material properties. It is the
N~ NBA ~total
linkage to the current. L =
1 = - 1- = - 1 -
PHYSICS FOR YOU I FEBRUARY '25 • 6)
 Mutual Inductance

• Whenever the current passing through a coll Voltmeter

or circuit changes, the magnetic flux linked _o_
with a neighboring coil or circuit will also Resistance
change. Hence, an emf will be induced in the - Induced emf
neighboring coil or t ircuit. This phenomenon
I nd uced
current l Coll 2

is known as mutual inductance. The coil or

circuit in which the current changes is known as
primary while the other in which emf is set up is
known as secondary.
• M12 =M21 =mr mo n1 n2 pr12 l
• For two coupled coils, M = k.JL1½ , where k
denotes the coefficient ofcoupling between the coils. AC power supply

AC Generator

• In an ac generator, mechanical energy is

converted to electrical energy by virtue of
electromagnetic induction.
• If the coil of N turns and area A is rotated at
u revolutions per second in a uniform magnetic
field B, then the motional emf produced is
£=NBA (2nu) sin (2n ut) = NBAro sin rot
where we have assumed that at time t = 0 s, the
plane of coil is perpendicular to the field.

I.
07 \ \,
Alternating Current
AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Cirucit

• The alternating e.m.f. leads/lags behind

the current by a phase angle f given by
"' roL - 1 / roe
tan"'= - - - - R L C
R 1
• The e.m.f. leads the current, if roL > C and it
Resistor Inductor Capacitor
1 (J)
lags behind the current, if roL < -
roe

• Impedance of LCR circuit, z = R + ( roL- 2

~J 2

V
R R
• Power factor, cos cp = --;::====== == -

R2 +( roL- ~c) Z

~ • PHYSICS FOR YOU I FEBRUARY '25

 Transformer

• For 1'deal transformer, _s N =K

I = _p_
V = _£_
VP Is Ns
where, K is called transformation ratio
• For a step-up transformer, K > 1 Input
i.e., Vs > Vp, Is < Ip and N s > Np
• :or a step-down transformer, k < 1
!c=-_
,.e., Vs. < Vp, Is > Ip and N s < Np
• Effic1ency of transformer,
=Output power _ V) 5
11
Input power - ~
p p ~ 17%
55% ---...

Electromagnetic Waves 28%

Electromagnetic Waves ~Wavelength

Electric field
Elerctromagnetic waves are those waves in which there ~ Magnetict
fi~
is a sinusoidal variation of electric and magnetic field
Direction
at right angles to each other as well as at right angles
to the direction of wave propagations. For a wave of
frequency u, wavelength A and propagating along
z-direction, we have
E = Ex(t) = E0 sin(kz - rot)
B = By(t) = B0 sin (kz - rot)
They are related by E0/ B0 = c.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
An orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves according to their frequency or wavelength is known as the
electromagnetic spectrum.
-4---------Energyincreases - - - - - - - - -
Long wavelength

!nm Im

Infrared Microwaves Radio waves

Gamma rays Xrays

10:wHz 1o"Hz 1020Hz 1o•'Hz

Low frequency
High frequency
Visible light

[_ 14 4 x 1014 Hz
7 x 10 Hz

PHYSICS FOR YOU I FEBRUARY '25 0 6)

 11
r- 13(2%)
~
92
30% , • ,- 5%

Rai Optics and Optical Instruments (, ~

9.6 30%
22%-'

Refraction at a Spherical Surface • Refractive index of prism

Object O is kept in a medium of refractive index µ and
1
refracted ray travels in a medium of refractive index µ •
Due to this refractio n, image I is formed.
2 µ=
sin(A:O m) t __ ~
; =e :
µ 1sini = µ 2sinr (Snell's law) sin(~)
➔;

• If A and Om are small then, Om=(µ - 1) A.

Optical Instruments

I
0 I
Compound Microscope
• Magnifying power M = m0xme
For small angle of incidenc e (Paraxia l rays) • When final image is formed at infinity (normal
µ1i = µ2r ... (i)
From triangle OAP, i = a. + ~
adjustment) M = :: (~)
... (ii)
and from triangle IAC, ~ = y + r or r = ~ - y ... (iii) Length of tube, L = v0 +le
Here, a., ~ and y being small can be written as • When final image is formed at least distance of
AP AP AP distinct vision
a.=tan a.= - , ~=tan ~=-, y=tan y=-
OP CP IP M = Vo (1 + _Q_)
(·: AP .,. AD = h) Uo le
From (ii) and (iii), putting the values of i and r in (i),

_,. ,
Length of tube, L = v + ( leD )
µ1(a. + ~) = µ2(~ -y) 0
le+D

I ⇒

⇒
( AP
µ, OP + CP
AP )

µ1( ~+~ )=µ 2( ~ - ~ )

-u +R
( AP

+R
AP )
= µ 2 CP - IP

+v
\.

~ µ, µ2 -µI
---=
⇒
V u R
Refraction T~~ough a Prism
• Angle of deviation,
o= (i - r 1) + (e - r 2) = i + e - A
• Angle of minimu m deviation occurs at i = e.
Om = 2i-A Telescope
Also, r 1 = r2 =A/2
• Astronomical telescope (Refracting type)
p
► Normal adjustm ent (Final image is formed at
infinity)
Magnifying power,

A
m = Angle subtended at the eye by the image = lo
Angle subtended at the eye by the object le
~ • PHYSICS FOR YOU I FEBRUARY '25
 Length of tube, L = fo +Jc
► ·
Fina l image 1·s formed at the near point

m = lo ( 1+le )
le D

Length of tube = lo + l eD
l e +D
• Reflecting type telescope

► Magnifying power, M = lo = ( R I 2 )
le le

r- 21"'

Wave Optics
'---~--- -------- --------- -"
Interference of Light Waves and
Young's Experiment y-coordinate of nth order minima (dark fringe) on
• Path difference = S2P - S1P = tu ')..[)
screen is, Yn =(2n+l) d, n = 0, ±I,± 2, ......
2
=d sin 0 =d tan 0 = yd
D
Diffraction
► Condition for constructive interference,
tu = nA ; bright fringes • The phenomenon of diffraction involves the
or ~«I>= 2n7t, (n =0, I, 2, ....... ) spreading out of waves past openings which are on
the order of the wavelength of the wave.
Incident
wave

Diffracted
wave

J.
·--------...._ P,

► Condition for destructive interference •

1B

All the rays arriving at P0 are in phase. Maximwn

C

intensity will be produced at point P0.

t\x = ( n + ½)1. ;dark fringes • In general, the minima in diffraction pattern occurs
at
or ~«I>= (n+½ )n, (n = 0, 1, 2, ...... )
a sin 8 = mA; m = ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ....... .
Secondary maxima occur at
• y-coordinate of nth order maxima (bright fringe) on
nW m+½)A
the screen is, Yn = 7, n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ...... asin8= (

PHYSICS FOR YOU I FEBRUARY '25 • ~

 45%
11.3(3°/4)
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
I
Photoelectric Effect
• The photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of emission of electrons by a metallic surface

•
under the action of light.
Observation of the experiments on photoelectric effect:
j~ Intensity ➔

t
Pbocoelectric
i
Stopping
potential
Saturation cunent
<Vo)
Stopping ~tial u > u'0
-V03 -V02 -V01 0 Collectorplatepotent ial-
'-
-V0 0
+-Retarding potential Collcclor plate-
+ - Rdarding potential 0 Frequency of incident radiation (u) - +
polential

Atoms

Alpha Particle Scattering and Rutherford's Nuclear Model of Atom

Atom
IL VK
i uwn =~-~:;: pass

S• Beam~f Iii F. :··1········· : ~

-+
I
a-particles •• •• 8
•• • •· •• • •• L Some a-particles
.. ... · --~TS deviate through :!=~:;::=t=::."""-r__
• •• 1 a large angle
About I in 8000 a-particles <W._f 8
is repelled back S' ~ 0° 60° 120° 1so0
(a) (b) (c)

Line Spectra of the Hydrogen Atom de-Broglie's Explanation of Bohr's Second Postulate
of Quantisation
• While transition • For electron moving in the nth orbit,
between different nh nh nh
27trn =nA.=-= - ~mvr. = -
atomic levels, light P mv " 27t
radiated in various ..,.,..
discrete frequencies <u11n i::'l=F~:I..
are called spectral
series of hydrogen
atom.
hu=M=E1 -Et

e • PHYSICS FOR YOU I FEBRUARY '25

►

15% _;

, ,®__ _
~
Nuclear size : The nun1ber of protons and neutrons per , p \
I \

unit volume is approxin1ately constant over the entire :@ Iii'\ @:

I I
\ \V , ~ Nucleus
range of nuclei. •r EIJ "' (llM){?
Ii \.' -®
i.e.,
A
= constant => A oc R3 => R oc A 1/3 ; R = RoA t /3
~Nucleus ® @®
4
-7tR3
3
Ro= 1.2 fermi = 1.2 x 10- 15 m
• Binding energy per nucleon, Mbln =
E
J = Average
energy needed to separate a nucleus into its individual
Nuclear density :

-·
nucleons.
Mass of nucleus mA 3m : ' . ..
p- -----
- Volume of nucleus - 4 3 - 4,,,. y~ Fission
-x7tRoA ....nu
3
8 ~-I-
~ p oc A 0 And p = 2.23 x 1017 kg m- 3 >
t1
j 6 14-- -~
Binding Energy ~ s
l
• The loss in energy which is responsible for binding r:i 00

2 1-1------ - + -
the nucleons together in a nucleus is called the IQ
I 2H

binding energy. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 2..0

Eb= [(Zmp + (A - Z) mN) - 1'tf] x c2 Masa number, A

(':\~
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials,
Devices and Simple Circuits
Semiconductor Diode • Current flowing through the diode,

• Baising of p-n junction I = lo [/eV/nkT) -il

1 for Ge
n =constant = { for Si
--+ id/ 2
I , I I • 1 'l•)t ,,--- +- ic1,- .1.V
Dynamic resistance of p-n junction, rd = M
Unbiased ---f-L---.x inct = 0 •
V
• Static or de resistance, 'de =
1
► p-n junction diode under forward bias
Application of Junction Diode as a Rectifier 4
c,1 1•7r'I•>~--:: Rectifier Converts ac voltage to de voltage

11 ~ _.,net Half wave Rectifier

Forward-biased x

- Effective barrier potential decreases.

- Depletion width decreases.
- Low resistance offered at junction.
Q1i L __._Output;.oltage
~--R----'-

- High current flows through the circuit.

► p-n junction diode under reverse bias

C'I Reverse-biased
,1 l·J"')l /
f-L-x
+-it1,
➔ id/

+ inet
LJ ►Time
Output frequency = Input frequency
- Effective barrier potential increases.

o,,
- Depletion width increases.
- High resistance offered at junction. Full wave Rectifier

- Low current flows though the circuit. 0

At-<J~-tpu'V'vtvv,,.
olta_ g:0-
V_.
• 1-V characteristic

HPJ\P --
80
Majority
60 cazriers
Breakdown voltage
(Zener voltage, YJ
40
; 20
yJ/..V) --11(). -60 -40 -20
Yj(V)
Reven;e
bias
Cryllal
breakdown 8 t.1in~rity
earners
H ~ -TI..
Output frequency =2 x Input frequency

~ • PHYSICS FOR YOU I FEBRUARY '25