Class 12 Physics

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 Chapter-01 - Electric Charges and Fields
1. Methods of Continuous Charge
Charging Distribution
1. For linear charge distribution,
1. Friction 2. For surface charge
2. Conduction distribution,
3. For volume charge
3. Induction distribution,

Coulomb's
Law Electric field

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 |𝑭| 𝟏 𝒒
𝐹= |𝑬| = =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝐾 𝑟 2 𝒒𝟎 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

Properties of Electric
Charges Dipole
(i) Conservation of Charge: 1 2𝑝
𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 =
(ii) Additive Property: 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
(iii) Quantisation of Charge: 1 𝑝
𝐸𝑒𝑞′ =
(iv) Charge is unaffected by 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
motion:
 Chapter-01 - Electric Charges and Fields
7. Torque in Electric field due to
Uniform Field infinitely long straight wire
1 2𝜆
𝝉 = 𝒑 × 𝑬. 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
field strength due to an
infinite plane sheet
Electric Flux 𝝈
𝑬= ,
𝟐𝜺𝟎
The total number of electric field lines independent of distance of
crossing (or diverging) a surface point from the sheet.
normally is called electric flux.
Electric flux through surface element 𝑑S
is
uniformly charged
thin spherical shell
Δ𝜙 = E ⋅ 𝑑S = 𝐸𝑑𝑆cos 𝜃 q
(i) at external point 𝐸𝛼𝑑𝑡 = ( For 𝑟 >
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

Gauss's Electric field strength due to a

𝑅)
1 𝑞
Theorem uniformly charged non-
(ii) at surface point 𝐸𝑠 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
( For 𝑟 = R)
conducting solid sphere (iii) at internal point 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0 ( For 𝑟 < R)
It states that the total electric flux through a
1 q
closed surface is equal to times the net (i) at external point 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑑 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
(For 𝑟 > R )
𝜀0
1 𝑞
charge enclosed by the surface (ii) at surface point 𝐸𝑆 = ( For 𝑟 = 𝑅)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
1 1 𝑞𝑟
i.e., 𝜙 = ‫ 𝑆׬‬E ⋅ 𝑑S = Σ𝑞 (iii) at internal point, 𝐸𝑖𝑚𝑡 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
( For 𝑟 < R)
𝜀0
 Chapter-02 - Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
1. Electric Electric Potential Due
Potential to a Dipole
1 𝑝
If 𝑊 is the work done in bringing infinitesimal (i) at its axis is 𝑉 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
positive test charge 𝑞0 from infinity to given point, (ii) at its equatorial position, 𝑉 = 0
𝑾
then electric potential 𝑽=
𝒒𝟎

General Point
Electric Potential
due to a point Charge
Due to a point charge 𝑞 at a point
Chapter-02 iii) at a general point having polar
coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃) with respect to
distant 𝑟 is Centre of dipole is
1 𝑞 MIND 𝑉=
1 𝑝cos 𝜃
𝑉= 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 MAP
Electrostatic potential
due to a system of charges Electric Potential Energy
of a System of Point
total charge configuration as the algebraic sum of Charges
the potentials due to individual Electric potential energy
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈=
charges. 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1 𝑛 𝑞𝑖
𝑉= σ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑖=1 𝑟𝑖𝑃
 Chapter-02 - Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
Electric Potential Energy of a
Dipole in Uniform Electric Field Shifting Concept
Capacitor and Capacitance
Potential energy of dipole in Work done in rotating the
dipole in uniform electric The ability of the capacitor to store
uniform electric field is
field from inclination 𝜃1 to 𝜃2 charges is known as capacitance.”
𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸cos 𝜃 = −𝑝Ԧ ⋅ E 𝑄
𝑊 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 𝐶=
𝑉
= 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2 The unit of capacitance is
Relationship between coulomb/volt or farad (F)
electric field and potential
Capacitance of Parallel
𝑑𝑉
E =-
𝑑𝑟
Chapter-02 Plate Capacitor
partly filled with a medium of thickness 𝑡
In case of cartesian coordinates
ƶ
𝐄 = 𝐸𝑥 𝐢ƶ + 𝐸𝑦 𝐣ƶ + 𝐸𝑧 𝐤 MIND and dielectric constant 𝐾, then capacitance
𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶= 𝑡 =
MAP 𝑑−𝑡+
𝐾 𝑑 − 𝑡 1 −
1
𝐾
Polar and Non-Polar
In some dielectrics the positive and negative
Combination of Capacitors in
charge centres coincide, such dielectrics are Series and Parallel
said to be non-polar dielectrics. Fully Filled Condition
(a) Series Combination: The capacitance is given by
some other dielectrics the centres of positive 1 1 1 1
= + + 𝐾𝜀0 𝐴
and negative charges do not coincide, such 𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶= ,
dielectrics have permanent electric dipole 𝑑
(b) Parallel Combination:
moment and said to be polar dielectrics.
𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
 Chapter-03 – Current Electricity
Electric Current Drift Velocity
The rate of flow of electric charges through 𝑒𝐸
a conductor is called electric current. 𝑣Ԧ𝑑 = − 𝜏
Current is defined as the rate of flow of 𝑚
𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝜏
𝒒 Mobility 𝜇 = =
electric charge. 𝑰= 𝐸 𝑚
𝒕
Relation between Drift
Velocity and Mobility
Average current &
with Electric Current
Instantaneous current
𝜟𝒒
Chapter-03 Current, in terms of drift velocity
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 ,
𝑰𝒂𝒗 =
𝜟𝒕
𝜟𝒒 𝒅𝒒 MIND Current, in terms of mobility
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝜇𝐸,
𝑰inst = 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝜟𝒕→𝟎 =
𝜟𝒕 𝒅𝒕 MAP
Ohm's Law
Current density
It states that the current flowing in a conductor is
J = I / A = nevd directly proportional to the potential difference
applied across the conductor provided physical
conditions, e.g., temperature, pressure, etc.
In vector form, I = J . A
remain the same. 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
 Chapter-03 – Current Electricity
Electrical Resistance
Power Temperature Dependence
𝜌𝑙 Rate of energy dissipation in of Resistance
𝑅=
𝐴 a resistor is called the power The resistance of a metallic conductor
𝑚 𝑚𝑙 i.e., Power increases with increase of temperature.
𝜌= 2 ∴ 𝑅= 2 𝑅𝑙 = 𝑅0 1 + 𝛼 𝑡 − 𝑡0
𝑛𝑒 𝜏 𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝜏 𝑊 𝑉 2
𝑃= = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼2 𝑅 =
𝑡 𝑅
Resistances in Series
and Parallel Electric Cell
It is a device which converts chemical
Series - 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ … + 𝑅𝑛
1 1 1 1 Chapter-03 energy into electrical energy.
𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟 ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟
Parallel - = + + ⋯ . +
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
MIND
Combination of Cells
Conductance and MAP
Conductivity (i) When 𝑛-identical cells are
The reciprocal of resistance is called the connected in series
conductance (𝐺) Mix Grouping 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑛𝐸
1 Current, 𝐼 = =
𝐺= 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 +𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑅+𝑛𝑟
(iii) When 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑛, cells are connected in
𝑅
The reciprocal of resistivity is called the mixed grouping ( 𝑚-rows in parallel, each (ii) When 𝑚-identical cells are
1 row containing 𝑛 cells in series) connected in parallel
conductivity (𝜎). 𝜎 = 𝑛𝐸
Current, 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑟 =
𝑚𝑛𝐸 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝐸
𝜌 𝑅+ 𝑚 𝑚𝑅+𝑛𝑟 𝐼= =
𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑅int 𝑅 + 𝑟/𝑚
 Chapter-03 – Current Electricity
different cells in parallel
𝐸1 𝐸2
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝐸1 𝑟2 + 𝐸2 𝑟1 Wheatstone's Bridge
𝐸= =
1 1 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
+
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝐴 potential difference is applied across
1 1 1 𝑟1 𝑟2
= + ⇒ 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑡 = terminals 𝐴 and 𝐶. A galvanometer is
𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
connected across 𝐵 and 𝐷. The
condition of null point (no deflection in
Kirchhoff's Laws Chapter-03 galvanometer) is
𝑃 𝑄
(i) First law (or junction law): The algebraic =
sum of currents meeting at any junction in
an electrical network is zero,
MIND 𝑅 𝑆

i.e., Σ𝐼 = 0
This law is based on conservation of charge.
MAP
(ii) Second law (or loop law): The algebraic sum
of potential differences of different circuit
elements of a closed circuit (or mesh) is zero,
i.e.,
෍𝑉 = 0

This law is based on conservation of energy.

 Chapter-04 – Moving Charges and Magnetism
Magnetic Effect of Current Ampere's Circuital Law
A magnetic field is associated with an It states that the line integral of
electric current flowing through a metallic magnetic field 𝐵 along a closed path is
wire.
This is called magnetic effect of current.
equal to 𝜇0 -times the current (𝐼)
passing through the closed path.
∮ 𝐵 ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
Biot-Savart Law
Magnetic Field due to a Straight
The magnitude of magnetic
field is
Chapter-04 Conductor Carrying a Current
using Biot-Savart Law
𝒅𝑩 =
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒍𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
MIND
MAP The magnetic field due to a straight current carrying wire of
finite length at a point is
𝝁𝟎 𝑰
𝑩= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓𝟏 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓𝟐
Magnetic Field due to a 𝟒𝝅𝑹
(i) If the wire is infinitely long, then
Circular Coil 𝜙1 = 𝜋/2, 𝜙2 = 𝜋/2
𝝁𝟎 𝑰
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2 𝑩=
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹
2 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 3/2 𝜋
(ii) If point is near one end of a long wire, 𝜙1 = , 𝜙2 = 0 ,
2
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼 𝝁𝟎 𝑰
At centre, 𝑥 = 0 𝐵𝑐 = then 𝑩=
2𝑎 𝟒𝝅𝑹
 Chapter-04 – Moving Charges and Magnetism
Solenoid
Helical Path Path of Charged Particle in
B = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 (iii) If a particle's velocity 𝑣Ԧ is a Uniform Magnetic Field
Magnetic field at one end of oblique to magnetic field 𝐵, then the The radius 𝑟 of path is given by
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
solenoid 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑 = particle follows a helical path of 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣
2 radius = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 ⇒ 𝑟 =
𝑚𝑣sin 𝜃 𝑚𝑣⊥ 𝑟 𝑞𝐵
𝑟= =
𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵
Force on a Moving Charged 2𝜋𝑚
Particle in Magnetic Field pitch 𝑃 = 𝑣11 𝑇 = 𝑣cos𝜃 If 𝐾 is kinetic energy of a particle, then
𝑞𝐵
The force on a charged particle moving 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 = 2𝑚𝐾
with velocity 𝑣Ԧ in a uniform magnetic 2𝑚𝐾
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵
field 𝐵 is given by
𝐹Ԧ𝑚 = 𝑞(𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵) = 𝑞𝑣𝐵sin 𝜃
Chapter-04
MIND If 𝑉 is accelerating potential in
Lorentz force
MAP volt, 𝐾 = 𝑞𝑉
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑞(𝐸 + 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵) 2𝑚𝑞𝑉 1 2𝑚𝑉
This is called Lorentz force equation. ∴ 𝑟= =
Time period of revolution is 𝑞𝐵 𝐵 𝑞
2𝜋𝑚
𝑇=
𝑞𝐵
 Chapter-04 – Moving Charges and Magnetism
Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying
Conductor of Length 𝒍Ԧ is given by Potential energy of a current
loop in a magnetic field
𝐹Ԧ𝑚 = 𝐼(𝑙Ԧ × 𝐵)
Magnitude of force is 𝑈 = −𝑀 ⋅ 𝐵 = −𝑀𝐵cos 𝜃
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵sin 𝜃 (i) When 𝜃 = 0, 𝑈 = −𝑀𝐵 (minimum
or stable equilibrium position)
Two Parallel current
(ii) When 𝜃 = 𝜋, 𝑈 = +𝑀𝐵 (maximum
carrying conductors
or unstable equilibrium position)
separation ' 𝑟 ' is given by 𝜋
𝐹 𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2 Chapter-04 (iii) When 𝜃 = , potential energy is
2
= newton / metre zero.
𝑙 2𝜋𝑟 MIND
−7
𝐼1 𝐼2 Moving Coil Galvanometer
=2× 10
𝑟
MAP A moving coil galvanometer is a device
used to detect flow of current in a
Torque Experienced by a
Current Loop circuit.
𝜏Ԧ = 𝑁𝐼(𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵) = 𝑀 × 𝐵 Sensitivity of a galvanometer: torque 𝜏 = 𝐶𝜃
where 𝑀 = 𝑁𝐼 𝐴Ԧ is magnetic moment 𝜃 𝑁𝐴𝐵 ∴ For equilibrium 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝜃
of loop. The unit of magnetic moment Sensitivity 𝑆𝐼 = = 𝑁𝐴𝐵
in SI system is ampere ×
𝐼 𝐶 𝜃= 𝐼⇒𝜃∝𝐼
𝜃 𝑁𝐴𝐵 𝐶
metre2 Am2 Voltage sensitivity:, 𝑆𝑉 = = ,
𝑉 𝑅𝑔 ⋅𝐶
 Chapter-04 – Moving Charges and Magnetism
Conversion of Galvanometer into
Conversion of Galvanometer
Ammeter
A galvanometer may be converted into into Voltmeter
ammeter by using very small resistance A galvanometer may be converted into
in parallel with the galvanometer coil. voltmeter by connecting high
The small resistance connected in resistance (𝑅) in series with the coil of
parallel is called a shunt. galvanometer. If 𝑉 volt is the range of
𝐼𝑔 𝐺
𝑆= voltmeter formed, then series
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 resistance is given by
Chapter-04 𝑉
𝑅 = −𝐺
𝐼𝑔
MIND
MAP
 Chapter-05 – Magnetism and Matter
Magnetic Field
Magnetism
Lines
Phenomenon of attracting magnetic
substances like iron, nickel, cobalt, • Magnetic field lines are closed
etc. continuous curves.
A body possessing the property of • Tangent drawn at any point on
magnetism is called a magnet. magnetic field lines gives the direction
of magnetic field at that point.
Properties of a bar • Two magnetic field lines cannot
magnet intersect each other.
Chapter-05 • Outside a magnet, they are directed
from north to south pole and inside a
1. A freely suspended magnet
aligns itself along North - South
MIND magnet they are directed from south
direction. MAP to north.
2. Unlike poles attract and like
poles repel each other.
3. Magnetic poles always exist in
pairs. i.e. Poles can not be
separated.
4. A magnet can induce magnetism
in other magnetic substances.
5. It attracts magnetic substances.
 Chapter-05 – Magnetism and Matter
Magnetic Dipole Moment of a
Current Loop Gauss's law in magnetism
𝑀 = 𝑚2𝑙,
. Magnetic dipole moment of a The net magnetic flux through any
current loop is closed surface is zero.
𝑀 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴 ∮ 𝐵 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 = 0

Magnetic dipole moment of Classification of

a revolving electron Magnetic Materials
𝑒𝑣 𝑒𝑣𝑟 (i) Diamagnetic substances:
= 𝐼𝐴 =
2𝜋𝑟
2
× 𝜋𝑟 =
2 Chapter-05 These substances are repelled by a strong
magnet. These substances have small
MIND negative values of susceptibility 𝜒 and
positive low value of relative permeability
Magnetic Field Intensity
due to a Magnetic Dipole
MAP 𝜇𝑟 , i.e.,
−1 ≤ 𝜒𝑚 < 0 and 0 ≤ 𝜇𝑟 < 1
𝜇0 𝑀 2𝜃
general point 𝐵 = 1 + 3cos
4𝜋 𝑟 3 The examples of diamagnetic
At axial point 𝜃 = 0,
𝜇0 2𝑀 substances are bismuth, antimony,
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = copper, lead, water, nitrogen (at STP)
4𝜋 𝑟 3
(ii) At equatorial point 𝜃 = 90∘ and sodium chloride.
𝜇0 𝑀
𝐵eqt. =
4𝜋 𝑟 3
 (ii) Paramagnetic Chapter-05 – Magnetism and Matter
substances:
These are the substances in which
Curie Law (iii) Ferromagnetic substances:
feeble magnetism is induced in the temperature, i.e., These are the substances in which a
1
same direction as the applied 𝜒𝑚 ∝ ⇒ 𝜒 strong magnetism is produced in the
𝑇 same direction as the applied magnetic
magnetic field. These are feebly 𝐶
= where 𝐶 is called Curie constant field. These are strongly attracted by a
attracted by a strong magnet. 𝑇 magnet.

These substances have small positive These substances are characterised

values of 𝑀 and 𝜒 and relative by large positive values of 𝑀 and 𝜒
permeability 𝜇𝑟 greater than 1, 𝑖. 𝜀.
0 < 𝜒𝑚 < 𝜀, 1 < 𝜇𝑟 < 1 + 𝜀
Chapter-05 and values of 𝜇𝑟 much greater than 1
,
MIND i.e. 𝑥𝑚 > 1, 𝜇𝑟 >> 1
The examples of paramagnetic substances eg. Iron, cobalt, nickel and alloy like
are platinum, aluminum, calcium, MAP alnico.
manganese, oxygen (at STP) and copper
chloride. Curie Temperature
The temperature of transition at
which a ferromagnetic substance
changes to paramagnetic is
called Curie temperature.
𝐶
𝜒𝑚 =
𝑇−𝑇𝐶
 Chapter-06 – Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic
Induced Current and Induced
Induction Faraday's Laws Charge
The phenomenon of generation of If a coil is closed and has resistance 𝑅,
(ii) emf induced in the coil opposes the
induced emf and induced current then current induced in the coil,
change in flux, i.e.,
due to change in magnetic field lines 𝜀 𝑁 Δ𝜙
Δ𝜙 Δ𝜙 𝐼= =−
associated with a closed circuit is 𝜀∝− ⇒ 𝜀 = −𝑘 𝑅 𝑅 Δ𝑙
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 Induced charge,
called electromagnetic induction If the coil has N-turns, then 𝜀 = −𝑁
Δ𝜙
Δ𝑡 𝑁Δ𝜙 Total flux linkage
𝑞 = 𝐼Δ𝑡 = − =
𝑅 Resistance
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux through a surface of Lenz's Law
area 𝐴 placed in a uniform magnetic
Chapter-06 It states that the direction of induced
emf is such that it tends to produce a
field is
𝜙𝑚 = 𝐵 ⋅ 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐵𝐴cos 𝜃,
MIND current which opposes the change in
magnetic flux producing it.
MAP
Faraday's Laws EMF Induced in a Moving
(i) Whenever there is a change in magnetic Conducting Rod
flux linked with a coil, an emf is induced in ε = Bvl
the coil. The induced emf is proportional to force required to keep the rod in
the rate of change of magnetic flux linked
constant motion is
with the coil.
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣
Δ𝜙 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 =
𝜀∝ 𝑟
Δ𝑡
 Self Induction Chapter-06 – Electromagnetic Induction
When the current in a coil is changed, an Mutual Induction
induced emf is produced in the same coil. Two Self Inductance
This phenomenon is called self-
Mutual Induction
induction. If 𝐿 is self-inductance of coil, If 𝑀 is mutual inductance of two If 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are self-inductances of
then 𝑁𝜙 ∝ 𝐼 or 𝑁𝜙 = 𝐿𝐼 ⇒ 𝐿 =
𝑁𝜙
coils, then 𝜙2 ∝ 𝐼1 or 𝜙2 = 𝑀𝐼1 two coils with 100% flux linkage
𝐼
Δ𝐼
Definition of mutual inductance: between them, then
induced emf 𝜀 = −𝐿
Δ𝑡 𝜙2 𝑀 = 𝐿1 𝐿2 , otherwise
The unit of self inductance is henry (H). 𝑀= .
𝐼1 𝑀 = 𝑘 𝐿1 𝐿2 , where 𝑘 is coefficient
Δ𝐼1 𝜀2
𝜀2 = −𝑀 ⇒𝑀= . of flux linkage between the coils.
Δ𝑡 Δ𝐼1 /Δ𝑡

Mutual Induction of
Chapter-06 Solenoid
Mutual Inductance of solenoid-coil

MIND system
𝑀=
𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐴

Self Inductance of MAP 𝑙

where 𝐴 is area of coil, 𝑙 is length of
Solenoid solenoid, 𝑁1 is number of turns in
The self inductance of a solenoid solenoid and 𝑁2 is number of turns in
consisting core of relative coil.
permeability
𝜇𝑟 is L = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝑛2 Al
𝑁
where 𝑛 = is the number of turns
𝑙
per metre length.
 Chapter-06 – Electromagnetic Induction
AC Generator
It is a device used to convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy and is based
on the phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction.
𝜀 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔sin 𝜔𝑡 with 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑣
𝜀0 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
Peak emf, 𝜀0 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
 Chapter-07 – Alternating Current
Phase Difference between
RMS Value Voltage and Current
𝐼0 In a circuit having a reactive
Alternating Current 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼2 mean = component, there is always a phase
Alternating current is the one which 2 difference between applied voltage
changes in magnitude continuously and = 0.77𝐼0 ;
in direction periodically. 𝑉0 and the alternating current.
It is expressed as 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.77𝑉0 If 𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin 𝜔𝑡
2 Current is 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Similarly alternating voltage (or emf) is
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Impedance and

Mean and RMS Value of

Chapter-07 Reactance
Impedance: The opposition offered by
Alternating Currents
The mean value of alternating current
MIND an electric circuit to an alternating
current is called impedance. It is

over complete cycle is zero MAP denoted as Z. Its unit is ohm.

𝑍= =
𝑉 𝑉0 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
=
𝐼mean full cycle = 0 𝐼 𝐼0 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
While for half cycle it is
2𝐼0 Reactance
𝐼mean half cycle = = 0.636𝐼0 Inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
𝜋
1
2𝑉0 Capacitive reactance, 𝑋𝐶 =
𝑉𝑎𝑣 = = 0.636𝑉0 𝜔𝐶
𝜋
 Chapter-07 – Alternating Current
Purely Capacitive Circuit Series LCR Circuit

𝜋 alternating voltage
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
Purely Resistive Circuit 2 𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
If a circuit contains pure resistance, then 1
Capacitance reactance, 𝑋𝐶 = impedance 𝑍 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 2
phase difference 𝜙 = 0 i.e., current and 𝜔𝐶
Clearly capacitance reactance −1 𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿
voltage are in the same phase. and phase 𝜙 = tan
𝑅
Impedance, 𝑍 = 𝑅 𝑋C is inversely proportional to
the frequency 𝑣 Net voltage 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 2

Resonant Circuits

Purely Inductive Circuit

Chapter-07 In resonant circuit
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿 or = 𝜔𝐿 ⇒ 𝜔 =
𝜔𝐶 𝐿𝐶
If a circuit contains pure inductance, then
𝜋
𝜙 = − , i.e., current lags behind the applied
MIND Resonant angular frequency 𝜔𝑟 =
1
𝐿𝐶
2 𝜔𝑟 1
voltage by an angle
𝜋
2
. MAP (linear) frequency, 𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
=
At resonant frequency 𝜙 = 0, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
If 𝜋
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2 Quality factor (𝑸)
In this case inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
The inductive reactance increases with the 𝜔𝑟 𝜔𝑟 𝐿
𝑄= =
increase of frequency of AC linearly. 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 𝑅
 Chapter-07 – Alternating Current
Transformer Transformer (Ideal)
Power Dissipation in AC A transformer is a device which 𝑁𝑆 𝑁𝑃
Circuit is converts low 𝑎𝑐 voltage into high 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑃 and 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑃
1
𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑆
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 cos 𝜙 𝑎𝑐 voltage and vice versa. It Percentage efficiency of transformer =
2
𝑅 works on the principle of mutual output power obtained from secondary
× 100%
where cos 𝜙 = is the power factor. input power given to primary
𝑍 induction. 𝑉𝑆 𝑖𝑆
For maximum power = × 100%
cos 𝜙 = 1 or 𝑍 = 𝑅 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑃
i.e., circuit is purely resistive,
For minimum power Energy Losses
cos 𝜙 = 0 or 𝑅 = 0 Chapter-07 1. Copper Losses
2. Iron Losses (Eddy currents):
Wattless Current MIND 3.
4.
Hysteresis Loss:
Humming Losses
In purely inductive or purely capacitive
circuit, power loss is zero. In such a circuit, MAP
current flowing is called wattless current.
𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿
𝐼wattless = 𝐼sin 𝜙 = 𝐼 =𝐼
𝑍 𝑍
 Chapter-08 – Electromagnetic Waves
Mathematical Representation
Source of Electromagnetic of Electromagnetic Waves
Displacement Current Waves 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸0 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
displacement current is the current in Maxwell’s theory that accelerated
the insulated region due to the changing charges radiate electromagnetic
𝐵𝑧 = 𝐵0 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
electric flux.
dQ d𝜙E
waves.
id = = 𝜀0 Energy density of EM
dt dt
Wave
Energy density (Energy per unit
Maxwell’s Equations in
Vacuum
Chapter-08 Volume)
1 2
1 𝐵 2
𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑢𝐸 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑢𝐵 =
2 2 𝜇0
MIND
MAP Intensity of EM Waves
1
𝐼 = 𝜀0 𝐸02 𝑐 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 𝑐
2
1 𝐵02 2
𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼= 𝑐= c
2 𝜇0 𝜇0
 Chapter-08 – Electromagnetic Waves
Visible Light
Radio Waves Infrared Waves • It is the most familiar form of electromagnetic
waves.
• Radio waves: Radio waves were invented in Infrared waves often known as heat • It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the
1895 by a scientist named Marconi. waves as they are produced by hot human eye.
Important application of radio waves is in:- • It runs from about 4 × 1014 Hz to about 7.5 ×
bodies.
i. Radio and television communication systems. 1014 Hz or a wavelength range of about 700 – 400
ii. Mobile phones for voice communication. • Their wavelength is lesser than both nm.
radio and micro waves. • Visible light emitted or reflected from objects
• They readily get absorbed by water. around us provides us information about the
world.

Micro Waves Chapter-08 Ultraviolet Light

• Micro waves are short wavelength radio
waves.
• They are used in microwave ovens, and
MIND • Ultraviolet light: This region of the
e.m. spectrum has wavelengths just
radar system in aircraft navigation.
• RADAR Technology:
MAP shorter than visible light and can be
detected just beyond the violet end
• Their frequency range is 3 GHz to 300 Ghz X-Rays & Gamma-Rays of the solar
spectrum
• X-rays are used in medical diagnostics to
Uses:
detect fractures in bones, tuberculosis of
lungs, presence of stone in gallbladder and • In food preservation.
kidney • In the study of molecular structure
• Gamma −rays are highly penetrating, they
can penetrate thick iron blocks.
 Chapter-09 – Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Magnification produced
Reflection of Light
Mirror formula by mirror
The ratio of the size of image to the size of
The mirror formula is object is called linear magnification
When a light ray incident on a surface bounces 1 1 1
back to the same medium, it is called reflection of = + produced by the mirror.
light. 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 ℎ′ 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
Magnification 𝑀 = =− =− =
(i) <i=<r where ℎ 𝑢 𝑢−𝑓 𝑓
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the 𝑢 = distance of object from mirror; Where ℎ′ is the height of image and ℎ is the
normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the 𝑣 = distance of image from mirror; height of object.
same plane.
and 𝑓 = focal length of mirror.
Refraction of Light
Types of Spherical Chapter-09 When a ray of light enters from one
transparent medium into another, there is a
Mirror
(i) Concave mirror: If outer side of the
Ray Optics change in speed and direction of the ray in
the second medium. This phenomenon is
spherical surface is polished, it is called a
concave mirror.
& Optical called refraction of light.
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and
(ii) Convex mirror: If inner side of a Refractive Index the normal to the surface separating the two
spherical surface is polished, it is called a media, all lie in the same plane.
Speed of light in vacuum 𝑐
convex mirror. ., 𝑛 = = (ii) Snell's Law:
Speed of light in medium 𝑣
sin 𝑖 𝑛
𝜈𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟 = constant = 2 = 1 𝑛2
sin 𝑟 𝑛1
= =
𝜈𝜆medium 𝜆medium
 Chapter-09 – Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Refraction at Spherical
Formation of image due Critical Angle Surfaces and by Lenses
to refraction: sin 𝑖 𝑛2 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
Real depth (𝑂𝑀) 𝑡 ∴ = gives − =
𝑛= = sin 𝑟 𝑛1 𝒗 𝒖 𝑹
Apparent depth (𝑀𝐼) 𝑡 − 𝑥 sin 𝐶 𝑛𝑟
where 𝑥 is the apparent shift. ∘
= = 𝑑 𝑛𝑟
1
sin 90 𝑛𝑑
∴ The apparent shift, 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑡
𝑛
sin 𝐶 = 𝑑 𝑛𝑟 =
1
=
1 Lens Makers
𝑛𝑑 𝑛
Formula

Total Internal Chapter-09 1

= (𝜇 − 1)
1
−
1
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
Reflection
(i) The ray must travel from a denser into a
Ray Optics
rarer medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence 𝑖 > critical angle
& Optical Refraction
𝐶. Lens Formula through a Prism
Examples- 𝑨 + 𝜹𝑴
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are object and image 𝐬𝐢𝐧
formation of a mirage,
distances from a lens of focal length 𝝁= 𝟐
sparkling of a diamond, optical fibre 𝑨
𝑓, then thin lens formula is 𝐬𝐢𝐧
1 1 1 𝟐
= − 𝛅= 𝛍 −𝟏 𝐀
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
 Chapter-09 – Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Astronomical Telescope
Simple Microscope
(Refracting Telescope)
m = 1+
𝑫 Chapter-09 Final Image is formed at the least
distance of distinct vision (D)
𝒇
m=
𝑫 Ray Optics 𝒇𝟎
m = - (𝟏 + )
𝒇𝒆 𝑫
𝒇𝒆

𝒇 Final Image is formed at infinity

& Optical m=- 𝟎
𝒇
𝒇𝒆

compound microscope

Final Image is formed at the

least distance of distinct vision
𝒗𝟎 𝑫
m = - ( 1+ )
𝒖𝟎 𝒇𝒆
Final Image is formed at infinity
𝑳 𝑫
m=- ×
𝒇𝟎 𝒇𝒆
 Chapter-10 – Wave Optics
Coherent and Incoherent Interference of Light
Newton’s corpuscular Sources of Light Interference is the phenomenon of
theory of light The sources of light emitting waves of superposition of two light waves of same
According to this theory, speed of light in same frequency having zero or frequency and constant phase different
denser medium is more than speed of constant initial phase difference are travelling in same direction. The positions of
light in a rarer medium, which is called coherent sources. maximum intensity are called maxima, while
incorrect. Therefore, the Newton’s The sources of light emitting waves those of minimum intensity are called
corpuscular theory is wrong. with a random phase difference are minima.
called incoherent sources.
Type of Interference
Wavefront
Chapter-10 (i) Constructive interference:
When the two waves meet in same phase,
The locus of all the particles of medium,
which at any instant are vibrating in the
same phase, is called the wavefront.
Wave i.e. the intensity of light is maximum, is
called the constructive interference.
1. Spherical wavefront
2. Cylindrical wavefront
Optics So, for two different cases,
∴ 𝐼1 = 𝑘𝑎2 , 𝐼2 = 𝑘𝑏 2
3. Plane wavefront and 𝐼 = 𝑘𝐴2 = 𝑘 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏cos 𝜙
∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙
(ii) Destructive interference:
When the two waves meet in opposite phase, i.e.
the intensity of light is minimum is called the
destructive interference.
 Chapter-10 – Wave Optics

Conditions of Maxima Diffraction of Light

and Minima Width of Central Maximum:
𝐼 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 cos 𝜙 The width of central maximum is the
separation between the first minima
= 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙
on either side.
where 𝐼1 = 𝑎12 = intensity of one wave The condition of minima is
𝐼2 = 𝑎22 = intensity of other wave 𝑎sin 𝜃 = ±𝑛𝜆(𝑛 = 1,2,3, … ).
Diffraction Of Light
𝑛𝜆𝐷
YDSE formula 𝑦𝑛 =
𝑎
Total linear width of central
Nth Bright Fringes xn =
n𝜆D Chapter-10 2𝜆𝐷
d maximum, 𝛽 = 2𝑦 =
𝑎
Nth Dark Frings = 𝑥𝑛 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜆𝐷/2𝑑 Wave
Fring Width = 𝛽 = 𝜆𝐷
𝑑 𝜆
Angular Fring = 𝜃 = 𝑑 = 𝐷𝛽 Optics
(ii) Destructive interference:
When the two waves meet in opposite phase, i.e.
the intensity of light is minimum is called the
destructive interference.
 Chapter-11 – Dual Nature Of Radiation and Matter

Dual Nature of Light Types Of Electron Emission

Thermionic emission: 2. Field emission:
Various phenomena like interference, By suitably heating, sufficient By applying a very strong electric field
diffraction, polarisation, etc., demonstrated thermal energy can be imparted (of the order of 108 V 𝑚−1 ) to a metal,
by light were explained by considering the to the free electrons to enable electrons can be pulled out of the
light as waves. But some other phenomena
like photoelectric effect, Compton effect,
them to come out of the metal. metal, as in a spark plug
etc., could not be explained by the wave
theory of light. Photoelectric emission:
When light of suitable frequency
ELECTRON EMISSION
𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ℏ 𝒗 − 𝒗𝟎
Chapter-11 illuminates a metal surface, electrons
are emitted from the metal surface.
𝑬 = 𝑾𝟎 + 𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 Dual These photo(light)-generated
ℏ𝐯 = ℏ𝒗𝟎 + 𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 electrons are called photoelectrons.
Nature
Basic Terms
 Chapter-11 – Dual Nature Of Radiation and Matter
Effect of potential on photoelectric
Effect of intensity of current Potential vs Frequency
light on photocurrent

Effect of potential on De Broglie Hypothesis

photoelectric current
Chapter-11
Dual
Nature
 Chapter-12 – Atom
Distance of Closest Approach Bohr Model of the
(𝒓𝒐 ) Hydrogen Atom
Plum pudding model (i) Bohr postulated that an electron in an atom can
𝟐𝒛 𝒆𝟐 move around nucleus in certain circular stable
• The first model of atom was proposed by J. J.
Thomson in 1898. 𝒓𝟎 = orbits without emitting radiations
2. Bohr's postulate,
• According to this model, the positive charge of 𝟒 𝝅 𝝐𝟎 𝑲.𝑬. 𝑛ℎ
angular momentum, 𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
the atom is uniformly distributed throughout 2𝜋
where, 𝑛 is an integer (𝑛 = 1,2,3, … ) and is called the
the volume of the atom and the negatively
principal quantum number of the orbit.
charged electrons are embedded in it like seeds
in a watermelon.
• This model was picturesquely called plum
pudding model of the atom. Bohr Model of the Hydrogen
Atom
Alpha-particle Scattering and
Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of
Chapter-12 (iii) When the atom receives energy
from outside, then one (or more) of
Atom
1. Most Part of the atom is empty space
Atom its outer electrons leaves its orbit and
(Hollow). goes to some higher orbit. This state
2.There is some +ve Charge inside atom in a of the atom is called excited state.
very small space.
3.The +ve charge inside atom is Radius of electron in 𝒏𝒕𝒉 orbit
concentrated to an extremely small space
called Nucleus. 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 ∈𝟎
r=
𝒎𝝅𝒛𝒆𝟐
 Chapter-12 – Atom
Energy levels Total Energy of
Velocity of electron in P.E of electron in 𝒏𝒕𝒉 orbit Electron in 𝒏𝒕𝒉 orbit
𝒏𝒕𝒉 orbit
𝒛𝒆𝟐
v=
𝟐𝒉∈𝟎 𝒏

Frequency of electron
in nth Orbit
Atomic Spectra
Chapter-12
Atom
K.E of electron in
𝒏𝒕𝒉 orbit
 Chapter-13 – Nuclei
Isotopes
Isobars
Nucleus The atoms of different elements having the
The atoms of same elements having same mass number (A ) but different atomic
The entire positive charge and nearly the the same number of protons but
number (Z ) are called isobars.
entire mass of atom is concentrated in a very different number of neutrons are 3 3
small space called the nucleus of an atom. 1 H and 2 He ,
called isotopes. 17 and 17 are examples of isobars.
The nucleus consists of protons and 8O 9F
The isotopes of some elements are
neutrons. They are called nucleons. 1 2 3
1H , 1 H , 1 H ;
Isotopes
The atoms of different elements
having equal number of neutrons
Important Terms Chapter-13 (𝐴 − 𝑍) but different number of
protons are called isotones.
(i) Atomic Number (Z)
The number of protons in the nucleus of an
Nuclei 3 Li 7 & Be8 and H 3 & He4 are
4 1 2
atom of the elements called atomic number examples of isotones.
(Z).
(ii) Mass Number (A)
Density of Nucleus
The total number of protons and neutrons Radius of Nucleus
present inside the nucleus of an atom of the mass of nucleus
The radius of the nucleus 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴1/3 𝜌= ⇒
element is called mass number (A). volume of nucleus
⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴1/3
where, 𝑅0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m is an 3𝑚
𝜌=
empirical constant. 4𝜋𝑅03
 Chapter-13 – Nuclei
Mass Defect Mass Energy Relation
Atomic Mass Unit (AMU) Einstein-mass energy, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
The difference between the sum of
1
It is defined as th the mass of carbon-
12
masses of all nucleons (𝑀) and mass
12 atom nucleus. It is Denoted as amu of the nucleus (𝑚) is called mass
and also denoted by u. Thus defect. Binding Energy
1.992678 × 10−26 Mass defect (Δ𝑚)
1 amu = kg = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝑁 The minimum energy required to
12
= 1.6 × 10−27 kg = 931MeV separate the nucleons upto an infinite
distance from the nucleus is called
Nuclear Force Chapter-13 nuclear binding energy.
Binding energy,
The force acting inside the nucleus or acting
between nucleons is called nuclear force.
Nuclei 𝐸𝑏 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝑁 𝑐 2
1. Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in
nature.
2. It is a very short-range attractive force.
3. It is non-central and non-conservative Binding Energy Curve
force. The nuclei containing even number of protons
4. It is independent of charge. and even number of neutrons are most stable.
5. It is 100 times that of electrostatic force The nuclei containing odd number of protons
and 1038 times that of gravitational force. and odd number of neutrons are most
unstable.
 Chapter-13 – Nuclei
Nuclear Fusion Radioactivity
Nuclear Energy The phenomenon of spontaneous
The process of combining of two
emission of radiations by nucleus of
The energy released during lighter nuclei to form one heavy
nucleus is called nuclear fusion. some elements is called radioactivity.
nuclear reaction is nuclear H2 + 1 H2 + 1 H2 This phenomenon was discovered by
energy. ⟶ 2 He4 + 1 H1 + 0 𝑛1 + 21.6MeV Henry Becquerel in 1896.
(i) Nuclear fission
(ii) Nuclear fusion Three types of radiations emitted by
radioactive elements are
(i) alpha-rays
Nuclear Fission Chapter-13 (ii) Bita-rays
(iii) gamma-rays
The process of the splitting of a Nuclei
heavy nucleus into two or more Alpha Particle & Bita
lighter nuclei is called nuclear When an 𝛼-particle is emitted by a nucleus its
atomic number decreases by 2 and mass
fission. number decreases by 4 .
U 235
+ 𝑛 1
⟶ Ba141
+ 𝛾-particle 𝛼−particle
92 0 56 𝑍 𝑋 𝐴 ⟶ 𝑍−2 𝑌 𝐴−4 + He4
2
Kr 92
+ 3 𝑛 1
+ energy When a 𝛾-particle is emitted by a
36 0 When a 𝛽-particle is emitted by a nucleus its
nucleus its atomic number and mass atomic number is increases by one and mass
number remain unchanged. number remains unchanged.
𝛽−particle
𝐴 𝐴 −
𝑍𝑋 ⟶ 𝑍+1 𝑌 + 𝑒 + 𝑣 {
 Chapter-14 – Semiconductor

Conductors and
Classification of Metals
Semiconductors On the basis of the relative values of
electrical conductivity (𝜎) or
Conductor- Conductors are
resistivity (𝜌 = 1/𝜎), the solids are
the materials that easily allow broadly classified as:
the flow of electric current (i) Metals: They possess very low
through them. resistivity (or high conductivity).
Insulator- Insulators are the 𝜌 ∼ 10−2 − 10−8 Ωm
bad conductors of electricity or 𝜎 ∼ 102 − 108 S m−1
they do not conduct electric Chapter-14 ii) Semiconductors: They have resistivity
or conductivity intermediate to metals and
current through them.
Semiconductor insulators.
Semiconductor- 𝜌 ∼ 10−5 − 106 Ωm
Semiconductors are the 𝜎 ∼ 105 − 10−6 S m−1
(iii)Insulators: They have high resistivity
materials that have their (or low conductivity).
conductivity between the 𝜌 ∼ 1011 − 1019 Ωm
conductors and the insulators. 𝜎 ∼ 10−11 − 10−19 S m−1
 Chapter-14 – Semiconductor

(On the basis of

Semiconductor
conductivity and band gap)

Chapter-14
Semiconductor Intrinsic
Semiconductor
 Chapter-14 – Semiconductor
p-n Junction ,
Semiconductor Diode
Extrinsic Semiconductor
There are two types of dopants used in
doping the tetravalent Si or Ge:
(i)Pentavalent (valency 5);
like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb),
Phosphorous (P), etc.
(ii) Trivalent (valency 3); Device made by an atomic level contact of N -type
like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium and P -type semiconductors
(Al), etc. Chapter-14
p-n junction diode under
Semiconductor forward bias

+ve terminal to P-side

-ve to N –side
Diffusion current increases
Depletion layer reduced
 Chapter-14 – Semiconductor
Application of Junction
p-n junction diode under Diode as a Rectifier
Rectifier is a device that is used for
Reverse bias converting alternating current or voltage to
direct current or voltage.

Half-wave rectifier

Chapter-14
Semiconductor
 Chapter-14 – Semiconductor

Full Wave Rectifier

Chapter-14
Semiconductor