Chapter 7

Sampling Methods

Chapter Outline
7.1 Definition 123 7.3.8 Diamond Drill Core Sampling 136
7.2 Sampling Equipment 124 7.3.9 Sludge Sampling 137
7.2.1 Conventional Equipment 124 7.3.10 Reverse Circulation Drill Sampling 137
7.2.2 Drilling Techniques 124 7.3.11 Grab Sampling 137
7.2.2.1 Percussion Drilling 124 7.3.12 Muck Sampling 137
7.2.2.2 Percussive Cum Rotary Drilling 125 7.3.13 Car Sampling 137
7.2.2.3 Auger Drilling 125 7.3.14 Bulk Sampling 137
7.2.2.4 Diamond Drilling 125 7.3.15 Ocean Bed Sampling 138
7.2.2.5 Wire-Line Drilling 129 7.4 Sample Reduction for Chemical Analysis 138
7.2.2.6 Reverse Circulation Drilling 129 7.5 Analytical Methods 139
7.2.2.7 Air-Core Drilling 129 7.5.1 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 139
7.2.2.8 Sonic Drilling 130 7.5.2 X-ray FluorescencedPortable XRF 140
7.2.2.9 Directional Drilling 131 7.5.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission
7.2.2.10 All Hydraulic Drilling 131 Spectrometry 140
7.2.2.11 Borehole Survey 131 7.5.4 Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis 141
7.2.2.12 Core Recovery 132 7.5.5 Scanning/Transmission Electron Microscope 141
7.2.2.13 Core Preservation 132 7.5.6 Electron Microprobe and Secondary Ion Mass
7.2.2.14 Core Logging 132 Spectrometer 141
7.3 Sampling Methods 133 7.5.7 Fire Assaying 141
7.3.1 Soil Sampling 134 7.5.8 Carbon Dating 141
7.3.2 Pitting 134 7.5.9 Choice of Analysis 142
7.3.3 Trenching 134 7.6 Accuracy and Due Diligence in Sampling 142
7.3.4 Stack Sampling 134 7.7 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 142
7.3.5 Alluvial Placer Sampling 135 7.8 Optimization of Samples 144
7.3.6 Channel Sampling 135 References 144
7.3.7 Chip Sampling 135

Sampling requirements are set by the orebody, not by the perspectives are granite hill, limestone deposit, alluvial
engineer. soil, weathered profile, beach sand, polymetallic nodules,
mineral occurrences, drill core, well water, oil, and gas.
Author. The sample interval and quantity will depend on homo-
geneity or complexity of minerals under search. The
“unit” of sample size, i.e., millimeter (mm), centimeter
7.1 DEFINITION (cm), meter (m), feet (f), gram (g), kilogram (kg), pound
Sampling is the process of taking a small portion of an (lb), and liter (L), must be specified in particular to
object such that consistency of the part shall represent the make it significant. The unit is needed for precise
entire property or only an adjacent portion of the object computation of the average grade conventional and sta-
under assessment. The sampling objects in geological tistical method.

Mineral Exploration. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814022-2.00007-1 123

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
124 Mineral Exploration

7.2 SAMPLING EQUIPMENT depths of þ2000 m (Banerjee and Ghosh, 1997; Atlas
Copco, 2014).
Samples are collected by various suitable and convenient The drilling techniques are essentially based on three
methods and means without compromising quality and motions: percussive, rotary, and a combined effect of
reproducibility. percussive and rotary (Bremner et al., 1996; Devereux,
1999; DMP, 2012). The various drill types are:
7.2.1 Conventional Equipment
1. Percussion drilling.
Conventional sampling tools are the hammer and chisel to 2. Percussive cum rotary drilling.
collect rock chips. Spades, shovels, and mechanized loaders 3. Auger drilling.
are preferred to signify large volumes of sample material. 4. Diamond drilling.
The other supporting tools are compass, Global Positioning 5. Wire-line drilling.
System, handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyzer, and 6. Reverse circulation drilling.
camera. The various drilling tools are for ultimate primary 7. Air-core drilling.
and authentic support in mineral exploration and invest- 8. Sonic drilling.
ment decisions. 9. Directional drilling.
10. All hydraulic drilling.
7.2.2 Drilling Techniques
7.2.2.1 Percussion Drilling
The ancient Egyptians introduced a drilling principle for
boring short holes during construction of the Great Pyra- The percussion or churn drill digs a vertical hole using the
mids of Giza during 2560 BC. The first drill machine was principle of a freely falling chisel bit hanging by a cable to
manufactured in 1862e63, operated by manual rotation. which percussive motion is imparted by power units. The
The need for drilling increasingly stimulated manufacture power units work by manual lift and drop, compressed air,
for effective design in machines and accessories to and electrically driven winches. A tungsten carbide bit
improve efficiency and cost. The search for deep-seated fitted in a hammer is lifted a few meters up and allowed to
orebody, petroleum, and gas reservoirs was unthinkable drop (Fig. 7.1) to hit the bottom of the hole. The process
without efficient drill machines that can collect samples at continues in succession. The churning motion of the bit

FIGURE 7.1 Schematic conceptual diagram of the percussion drilling procedure often used in engineering geology for foundation testing and
occasionally in the initial stage of mineral exploration and particularly for a low-profile budget.
 Sampling Methods Chapter | 7 125

FIGURE 7.3 Jackhammer drilling in rich sulfide mineralization for

multipurpose use as underground mine face development and sample
source for ore continuity and grade control.

on the bit head to penetrate into the rocks. The drill depth is
FIGURE 7.2 Percussion drilling in operation for rock quality and quick limited to 6 m. Drills are compressed air driven. Water is
target test for mineral occurrences at low cost and reduced time. The injected through hollow steel drill rods to cool the bit head
hammer is detailed in the inset.
from excessive heating. The returning water flushes out
cutting material from the hole for free movement of bit and
rods. The cuttings serve as samples to understand the metal
crushes and scrapes the ground to dig a hole. The rock
content of the advancing face. These drills are used pri-
cuttings produce mud or slurry brought about by lowering
marily for the development of tunnels, advanced mining
water. The crushed material is removed from the hole faces, and for breaking big boulders in construction areas.
bottom at regular intervals to form a sample. Churn drilling They have limited use in mineral exploration. Samples are
is suitable for soft and medium formation. The cutting bit is
used to estimate approximate metal content of big rock
required to be resharpened frequently in hard formations
exposures and mine blast quality in advance for grade
resulting in low progress at high labor cost. The capacity of
control and scheduling. They provide information about the
the churn drill is limited to relatively short holes of
roof and floor of the coal seam, including the thickness of
10e50 m.
coal bands within.
The cost of sampling is comparatively much lower than
diamond drilling under similar conditions. However, the
7.2.2.3 Auger Drilling
chances of contamination between samples are high mak-
ing the method inefficient to demarcate correct orebody The auger drill has limited use, but it plays a significant
contacts and to assess the average grade of the deposit. It role in sampling and evaluation of soft and loose ground
provides information regarding the presence of minerali- like soil, beach sand, mine dump, concentrate, and tailings.
zation that can be precisely explored by diamond drilling. Auger drills can be hand operated (Fig. 7.4A) or mechan-
Sample collection is modified by connecting a water pump ically powered. The advantages of auger drilling are
(Fig. 7.2). The returning water brings rock cuttings to the mobility and speed at low cost. The hand-operated augers
surface to form a regular sample. A further modification is can penetrate up to 3 m with hole diameters between 10 and
made by cutting a slit in the bit to hold cuttings (samples) at 15 cm. The mechanically driven augers with efficiently
standard intervals. The method is preferred for tube wells designed cutter heads (Fig. 7.4B) can drill 30 m or more
and foundation testing. depending on subsoil condition. The samples are useful to
provide grade, moisture content, and other specifications
7.2.2.2 Percussive Cum Rotary Drilling quickly at low cost. However, samples may often fail to
provide accurate information due to wall collapse and
The percussive cum rotary drill uses an integral or
related contamination.
detachable tungsten carbide bit that penetrates the ground
due to the resultant action of both percussive and rotary
7.2.2.4 Diamond Drilling
motions, e.g., jackhammer (Fig. 7.3) and wagon drills. The
percussive action produces a vertical impact on the drill rod Diamond drills, surface and underground, are most ver-
to break rock particles. The rotational motion exerts a force satile tools, and extensively used in mineral exploration, at
126 Mineral Exploration

dam sites, for other foundation tests, drainage of mine

workings, underground mine ventilation, oil structure in-
vestigations, and oil/gas well drilling (Heinz, 2009). The
extreme hardness of diamond enables it to cut all types of
rocks and minerals found in Earth’s crust. The diamond
drill unit (Fig. 7.5) consists of an engine (motor) attached to
a drilling head and hoisting units, cutting bit with crown
and reamer shell, water pump, drill rods, core barrel, core
lifter, casing pipes, cutting tools, and a tripod or single
stand.
The engine is powered by diesel, electricity, or com-
pressed air. The motor, mounted on a cemented platform or
truck, transmits rotating power through the transmission
and clutch to a set of gears to the drilling head. There are
three to four set of feed gears within the swivel head, with
capacity ranging between 100 and 1000 revolutions per
inch of rock cutting. The chuck equipped with jaws is
FIGURE 7.4 Sketch diagram of (A) auger drilling, a simplified, easy-to-
operate, low-cost sampling unit, and (B) cutter head. placed at the bottom of the feed screw through which drill

FIGURE 7.5 Schematic diagram of surface diamond drilling unit showing various components and functions to sink a borehole for recovery of core
samples of all rock types passing through, including structural features and mineralization.
 Sampling Methods Chapter | 7 127

FIGURE 7.6 Truck-mounted diamond drill rig in operation for base metal exploration in Australia. The device is capable of drilling 50e100 m a day.

rods pass. The drill rods are attached to a core barrel and
diamond bit. The total drill string is forced downward with
high-speed rotation of the chuck resulting in cutting of the
core and the making of a hole.
A tripod is commissioned by erecting three poles about
30 feet long around the drill unit. The function of the tripod
is to raise and lower 10 or 20 feet rods during the drilling
operation with the help of a hoist. Scaffolding is nailed and
chained to the tripod where the drill crew can stand safely
and operate rod hoisting/lowering. The screwing and
unscrewing of rods is done efficiently by automatic FIGURE 7.7 Standard diamond core bit studded with technically
mechanized means. The rods are withdrawn at intervals of designed tiny diamonds at the crown composed of superior quality alloy
10 feet or less depending on drilling conditions. The core is grooved with channels to cool the bit head and flash the fine cuttings.
removed from the barrel for geological studies (logging)
and storage.
The modern truck-mounted drill rig has a single hoist-
ing column with screwing/unscrewing ability and the ca-
pacity to sink to þ2000 m depth through fully mechanized
operation with two to three crews (Fig. 7.6). The drill unit
can move quickly in hilly terrain, settle in a new location,
and start drilling at minimum shift loss.
The drill rods are hollow steel, flush jointed or coupled,
10 feet (3.05 m) long through which water is pumped to
FIGURE 7.8 Standard reamer shell coupled behind the core bit
cool the bit and flush rock cuttings. Diamond core bit, the
embedded with diamonds at the outer surface to increase the hole diameter
main cutting tool, is a cylindrical hollow tube made of for easy flow of returning water and fine cuttings.
special alloys with a crown at one end (Fig. 7.7). The crown
is composed of superior diamond-holding qualities of
powdered metal alloys on which diamonds of different The reaming shell is mounted between the cutting bit
sizes, quantities, and designs are set depending on the rock and core barrel. It is an annular bit with diamonds set only
types to be drilled. The fragment sizes are denoted as “spc” on the outer surface or periphery (Fig. 7.8). The reamer
(stones per carat), say 80/120 spc, i.e., between 80 and shell widens the borehole diameter drilled by the diamond
120 spc (1 carat ¼ 200 mg). bit by about 0.30e0.40 mm. It maintains a uniform hole
128 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 7.9 Standard spring-type core lifter that protects the core from
slipping into the hole and regrinding.

diameter, reduces wear and tear of the core bit and barrel,
and improves the flow of returning water.
A core barrel is attached between the lower end of the
drill rods and the reamer shell. It holds the core inside while
drilling and is brought to the surface. The core barrels are
single tubes used for drilling under the best core recovery FIGURE 7.11 Typical compressed air-operated underground drill unit
that can operate at 0e360 degrees rotations.
conditions or noncoring bits in blast hole drilling. The
double tube core barrels are suitable for better core re-
covery, where the inner and outer tubes are connected and pumped from a nearby source or supplied periodically by
rotate simultaneously. The triple tube core barrels are tanker. Therefore utmost care is taken to recirculate water
complex and expensive, and used in broken, friable, and after settling of rock cuttings in the returning water tank.
sheared formations where samples are analyzed for esti- Any water loss in the drill hole can be prevented by casing
mation. A core lifter or core spring (Fig. 7.9) is placed at the hole or by using localized cement grouting on the
the lower end of the barrel that stops the core from drop- fractured areas. In the case of highly fractured ground
ping out of the barrel. conditions, water can be substituted by drill mud
Core, the best and most authentic sample, is a cylin- (bentonite clay, polymer). This will significantly reduce
drical piece of one or multiple pieces of rock cut (Fig. 7.10) fluid loss, hole collapse, and improve drilling efficiency.
with advancement of the bit. The core represents the sub- Salvaging is the recovery of the remaining diamonds
surface geology of the section passing through in general, from the matrix of worn-out bits and reaming shells by acid
and serves as samples for petrology and precise chemical bath. The recovered stones are sorted for size and condi-
properties for grade assessment. The core provides physical tion. They are then mixed proportionately with fresh dia-
and accurate records of formations through which the mond for setting new bits. The value of the recovered
drilling continues. diamonds is credited to the purchaser.
Water is an essential component of the drilling opera- Underground drills are lightweight compressed air or
tion. Often, drill sites are located at remote places far away electrically driven machines mounted on a single or double
from water sources. In such conditions, water is stored in a drill column (Fig. 7.11). The drill rods have a 5 or 10 feet
tank dug close to the borehole collar. The water is either pull due to inadequate space of mine workings. The drill
units can work from horizontal to 90 degrees up and down.
However, the preferred drill angle is between 0 and
45 degrees to avoid excessive load of rods and better
safety of the drill crew. Capacity is þ300 m.
Capacity of the drilling depth depends on power and
condition of the machine, terrain, angle of the hole, and
type of rocks to be penetrated. The efficiency will reduce
with steep angle holes and longer depth. Drilling can be
FIGURE 7.10 Standard drill core showing stratiform sphalerite and done beyond 2000 m depth. The size of the core is decided
galena in calc-silicate host rock with the red pencil line marked for by the exploration agency based on the type of minerals
splitting into two near-identical halves at Rajpura-Dariba Mine, India. under investigation and prevailing rock condition. The size
 Sampling Methods Chapter | 7 129

water down to a bit head outside the drill rods and returning
TABLE 7.1 Standard Drilling Type, Hole, and it up through the inside the bit, core barrel, and drill rods.
Core Diameter The effect of reverse circulating water is to continuously
Drilling Hole Diameter Core Diameter float the core back to the surface. The drill rods and barrel
Type (mm) (mm) are hollow enough to move the core upward as drilling
continues. The cores are collected at the surface and placed
American Sizes
in a core box with proper orientation and depth. The
HX 99.20 76.20 continuous core-drilling process operates for a long dura-
NX 75.70 54.70 tion until the bit is ineffective. This saves time by not
BX 59.90 42.00 lowering and hoisting the drill string every 3 m, and avoids
overgrinding of the core. Efficiency of drilling increases
AX 48.00 30.00
many times resulting in substantial cost reduction and
EX 37.70 21.40 improved core recovery.
Wire-Line
HQ 96.10 63.50
7.2.2.6 Reverse Circulation Drilling
NQ 75.80 47.60 Reverse circulation drilling prefers compressed air pro-
duced by a hydraulic top drive motor under dry drilling
BQ 60.00 36.50
conditions. The compressed air is introduced into the drill
AQ 48.00 27.00 through a dual concentric air pipe (between the outer and
inner pipe) and flows to a down-the-hole tungsten carbide
hammer bit. The compressed air and hammering initiate
of the bit, reamer shell, barrel, and drill rods is selected breaking of chips at drill head depth, and are set in
accordingly. Generally, drilling starts with HX size and continuous motion upward by high-pressure return air
progressively reduces to NX, BX, AX, and rarely to EX through the inner sample tube. The return air is supplied by
(Table 7.1). The cost of drilling will be higher with larger installing a high-pressure vacuum pump. The entire rock
core diameter and more reliable sample representation, and cuttings move to the surface, and are collected as an
vice versa. inverted sequence in a cyclone above ground level
The collar (starting point) of the surface exploration (Fig. 7.12). The samples are separated at regular intervals
drill hole must be closed after completion with a wooden/ representing particular depths.
cement plug to prevent pebbles and soil being dropped Reverse circulation drills (Fig. 7.13) are used for open
down the hole, thus making it difficult to move back in the pit excavation of iron ore, bauxite, limestone, rock phos-
hole again if required. It is also desirable to fill the entire phate, and coal seam. They drill 10e15 cm large diameter
hole with cement at a later date to prevent inundation of the vertical blast holes at high speed and low cost. The modi-
underground mine by water gushing during heavy rains or fied reverse circulation drills can rotate the drill string from
from interconnected water channels. The top of the collar vertical to any steep angle and are popular for mineral
should be covered with a cemented platform marking the prospecting. The reverse circulation drill sample enables
project and drill hole number, coordinates, angle, direction, quick testing of drill targets during reconnaissance and
depth, and start and end of drilling date for future reference. prospecting. It creates a base for further diamond drilling
The collars of underground boreholes must be plugged to programs to acquire precise sample locations and high-
avoid accidents at the upper or lower levels by explosive quality core samples.
gases during mine blasts. The best advantage of reverse circulation drilling is its
capability of drilling in the hardest of formations with easy
7.2.2.5 Wire-Line Drilling penetration at high speed and recovery of uncontaminated
Wire-line drilling works by withdrawing the core and samples even in broken and fractured formations. The fast
inner tube assembly from the hole without pulling out the rate of drilling helps the planning of future core drilling
hollow drill rods by a separate hoisting unit fixed on a programs and mining operations. It is cost effective and
different pulley. The inner tube assembly is lowered down provides mobility of the rig from one location to another for
inside the barrel after taking out the core and drilling both prospecting and mining.
continues. Therefore lowering and hoisting of drill string,
barrel, and drilling head is not required after every run
7.2.2.7 Air-Core Drilling
drilled. It also saves considerable time and energy. Air-core or rotary air blast drilling is preferred to cut into
Continuous core drilling works on the principle of unconsolidated weathered regolith ground mass. The drill
reverse circulation. Reverse circulation refers to circulating bit has three hardened steel or tungsten carbide blades
130 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 7.12 Conceptual framework of noncore reverse circulation drilling and sample collection, widely adopted by exploration companies all over
the world due to fast sampling at low cost with reasonable reliability.

FIGURE 7.13 Reverse circulation drilling in operation and sample collection for iron ore deposits.

arranged around a bit head. The drill rod comprises a hollow lateritic aluminum, nickel, cobalt, and platinum-group ele-
inner tube placed inside a hollow outer rod barrel. A small ments within saprolite and other horizons (Fig. 5.4).
compressor provides rotation of the cutting bit and blows air
to remove rock cuttings to the surface through an inner tube, 7.2.2.8 Sonic Drilling
which passes through a sample separating system to form a
sample. It is low cost with a faster speed up to a depth of Sonic or rotasonic drilling is a high-speed, low-cost soil
w125 m, and is often used in first pass exploration drill penetration technique for collecting soil/rock samples. It is
programs. Air-core drilling is efficient in the delineation of suitable to identify detailed stratigraphic information of
 Sampling Methods Chapter | 7 131

thick glacial sediments. It recovers uncontaminated tube is washed, and an etching line is marked with ink. The
continuous core and works on a variable frequency drill angle of the hole at that point is measured as shown in
head to transmit vibration energy through a drill pipe and Fig. 7.14. The method could provide deviation of angle
core barrel. It can penetrate overburden, fine sand, boul- only, has no direction, and could be used in the case of low-
ders, hard rock, and collect samples up to 254 mm in budget exploration for limestone, etc.
diameter from w200e250 m deep vertical/inclined holes. Tropari is a single-shot, micromechanical borehole
Sonic drilling recovers 100% core in glacial till, clay, survey instrument operated by a timing device. The unit
sands, gravels, and hard rock. Sonic holes are useful for the provides both inclination and direction at high precision
installation of groundwater monitoring devices, geotech- that defines the borehole attitude at a desired survey depth.
nical instruments, and geothermal sensors (Gandhi and The instrument is essentially a pivoted ring-mounted
Sarkar, 2016). compass (Fig. 7.15). It is attached with a time-clock
mechanism to lock the compass needle and dip indicator
7.2.2.9 Directional Drilling within a preset delay between 5 and 90 min from lowering
the unit. It is hoisted to the surface after automatic locking
Directional drilling under controlled deviation will result
of the system to record inclination and azimuth direction.
in multiple intersections from a single drill collar, follow a
The device can record one set of readings at a time. It has to
common path in waste formation without any physical
be lowered/hoisted repetitively to all desired depths
drilling, and change drilling by using a wedge to deviate the resulting in loss of drill shifts. The time loss will be
drilling course in desired angles and directions (refer to
considerable in the case of a drill hole with extended depth.
Figs. 15.3 and 15.8). The system achieves multiple in-
Regular surveys at intervals as the borehole progresses will
tersections at much reduced time and cost.
allow a realistic plot of the borehole.
The reflex multishot borehole camera resolved the
7.2.2.10 All Hydraulic Drilling foregoing issues by using a digital multishot digital device
All hydraulic drilling is performed by single-handed, ideal for nonmagnetic borehole paths. Features include
computer-controlled total automation that includes rotation, capabilities like robust, reliable, and fully integrated per-
penetration, hoisting and lowering, screwing and formance on a precise electronic measuring principle,
unscrewing of rods, and lifting of accessories from rack to measurements in all directions, fast speed, and user
feed frame and back. The unit follows safety features in friendliness. The unit comprises a multishot camera, a tiny
operations, bit efficiency, productivity, quality output, and magnetic compass, a flashlight, and an autolocking clock
clean work environments. (Fig. 7.16). The shot and flash are synchronized with the
clock. The angle and directional data are recorded on a
7.2.2.11 Borehole Survey 16 mm film/chip/data card. The string slowly moves in the

Boreholes have a tendency to deviate both in inclination

(angle) and direction from original settings due to drilling
through rock types of different hardness and structures, and
using overspeed drilling, defective drill rods, barrel, and
bits. Drill hole deviation at certain depth intervals
(30e50 m), depending on the rock strength and formation
structure, is suggested and measured by various ways
(Devico, 2010). There are three types of borehole survey
method available: the old style etch testing, low-cost Tro-
pari, and advanced reflex multishot borehole camera with
individual merits.
Etch testing is the simplest way to survey the angles of
a borehole. It consists of a hollow container fitted at the
lowering end of the drill rod in place of a barrel and bit. A
special type of glass test tube w13 cm long, partially filled
with hydrofluoric acid and corked with a rubber stopper is
placed in the container. The container is lowered to the
desired depth of survey and kept stationary for w45 min.
The hydrofluoric acid reacts with the glass tube and forms a
FIGURE 7.14 Borehole survey by special type of glass test tube-acid
horizontal etch in the inner surface during the stationary
etching method at lowest cost for measuring the deviation of angle but
period. The container is withdrawn from the drill hole, the not direction.
132 Mineral Exploration

7.2.2.13 Core Preservation

A drill hole costs millions of dollars. The valuable cores are
collected carefully from barrel, and kept in wooden or
aluminum core boxes marking the direction of drill depth
with an /. Each run length is separated by a peg mark
indicating depth of drilling. The core boxes are generally
1.5 m long and can hold about 8 m of core in channels
separated by thin separation plates (Fig. 7.17). The box
may have a hinged or nailed cover to protect the core while
FIGURE 7.15 Borehole survey by Tropari unit capable of measuring
shifting. The drill core is a valuable resource that needs to
both angle and direction for one reading at a time.
be accessed easily and kept in good condition. Many
exploration companies create core library facilities to store
for 15e30 years. The core boxes are stacked in order in
uniquely designed shacks. Each box in the library can be
identified by project name, box and borehole number, drill
run, and date of drilling. The complete core boxes from
standard sections are preserved for future study, and the rest
can be destroyed during mining stages. Special lighting is
provided to view the core. The online core library data
repository is an emerging technology for exploration and
mining companies.

FIGURE 7.16 Borehole survey by reflex multishot camera is ideal for 7.2.2.14 Core Logging
measuring both angle and azimuth with highest precision for holes at a
number of depths at one loweringda total borehole survey solution. Diamond drilling and drill core play key roles in mineral
exploration. The quality of drilling is judged by best
possible core recovery, proper core placement in preser-
borehole and is kept stationary for 2 min at the desired vation box with correct arrow marking, and shifting to the
depth. The process of lowering continues until the end of core shade from drill-site. Each activity needs extreme care
the hole, and the entire drill depth is surveyed in one single before core logging study, and finally sampling. Any slip of
run. The survey data are processed for a total set of in- the core in between will add the uncertainty of accurate ore
clinations and bearings. Contemporary models conduct boundaries in space. The reason may be due to misplacing
borehole orientation surveys and allow onsite access to or missing cores during drilling, collection, placement in
survey data for incorporating corrective measures. The core box, and shifting to core library. Apparently, it may
device is useful to geologists, drillers, tunnel borers, and look insignificant in comparison to shifting of contacts by
ground engineers.

7.2.2.12 Core Recovery

Core recovery is a significant parameter for efficient
mineral exploration programs. Good core recovery is the
responsibility of drill crews. A careless crew can ruin a core
by drilling too fast, overdrilling a run beyond core barrel
capacity, and using an unsuitable type of barrel and
defective core lifter. It can cause core drop in the drill hole
and regrinding. A core recovery of 100% is hoped for,
except when drilling through fractured, sheared, and caved
zones. The minimum recovery through a mineralized zone
must be þ90%. The driller should use double or triple tube
barrels in fractured mineralized formations. The driller may
even change to a short run length with dry drilling. The best
core recovery ensures reliability and precision of estimation.
The existing hole should be rejected in the worst core re- FIGURE 7.17 Standard wooden, plastic, and metallic (aluminum) core
covery conditions and a fresh hole drilled with extreme care. boxes essential for drill core preservation.
 Sampling Methods Chapter | 7 133

and appreciates the unique sincerity of geologists at Len-

nard Shelf exploration camp of Meridian Minerals Limited,
Australia.
Core logging is the geological study and recording of
drill cores. Records are made on printed sheets (Table 7.2).
This covers a general description of the core, i.e., from and
to, core size (NX, BX, AX, BQ), run and core length, %
recovery, color, grain size, textures, structures, foliation
with core axis, fractures, shears, folds, faults, mineral
composition, alterations, visual estimates of metal values,
sample number, and finally rock name. The lines are
marked on mineralized core for splitting into two halves of
identical mirror images. The visual estimates are made
FIGURE 7.18 The resident geologist checks the placement of each core before sample preparation and assaying. Each visual esti-
piece to be in perfect order, carry thorough wash before logging, and mate is compared with the assay value; the core is
sample demarcation to the best of his sincerity. His work efficiency
indorse the reliability of data collection norm in mineral exploration (at
rechecked in case of major differences; and a duplicate is
Lennard Shelf camp, Australia). Any discrepancy may reject the expen- sent for reanalysis. Tough-book core logger (Fig. 7.19), a
sive diamond drill hole. portable rugged laptop, is extensively used for recording at
site. It is designed with multiple Excel sheets for a database
comprising collar, survey, rocks, and assay files. It can be
fractions of a meter, change of reserve by a few thousand
interfaced to a process computer by both wireless and
tonnes, and metal grade in the second decimal. However,
hardware transmission for 3D modeling and reserve esti-
maintaining importance at each insignificant and major
mate. Many exploration companies conduct continuous
issue is important. Therefore the core is spread initially on
color photography of the entire length of a borehole by a
extra-long conical plastic trays in the core laboratory. The
high-tech scanner as permanent records.
arrow direction on each piece is checked and the edges of
two successive core pieces are perfectly matched. Any
discrepancy in identical matching must be sorted out
7.3 SAMPLING METHODS
without any compromise, and recorded. The core is washed
thoroughly by water spray (Fig. 7.18) and is then ready for A variety of sampling methods exist as appropriate for the
geological studies and sampling. The author experienced mineralization environment. Sampling aims to generate the

TABLE 7.2 A Sample Borehole Core Log Sheet

Project Name: BH No. Date of Logging

Logged by
From To Core Run Core % Core Color Grain Structure RQD RFM OFM VE Remarks
(m) (m) Size Length Length Recovery Size
(m) (m)

BH, Borehole; OFM, ore-forming minerals; RFM, rock-forming minerals; RQD, rock quality designation; VE, visual estimate.
134 Mineral Exploration

sufficient material for further processing and provides

maximum contrast between background and threshold
value. The standard practice is to obtain () 80 mesh
fraction for analysis of various elements.

7.3.2 Pitting
Pitting is practiced during the initial stage of surface
geochemical exploration. Sampling is carried out by
excavating w1  1 m2 pits in a rectangular or square grid
pattern covering the entire target area. Pit depth varies
depending on extent of weathering and nature of rocks.
FIGURE 7.19 Tough bookda high-tech internet interfaced data-sharing The material from each meter of the vertical depth is kept
drill core logger used at Lennard Shelf zinc deposit, Australia. in separate low-height rectangular flat stacks to determine
the variation in grade and other distinctive features. Each
stack represents a sample. The pits showing the presence
best representative of the object under search (Moon et al., of mineralization can be contoured (Fig. 5.2) to identify
2006; Dowing, 2014). Soil and rock chipping, pitting, the strike and depth continuity of the orebody for drill
trenching, stack, and placer sampling are practiced for testing.
surface features. Channel and chip sampling, both surface
and underground, is of limited application today, but has its
own merits. The diamond drill core, reverse circulation drill 7.3.3 Trenching
cuttings, and sludge collection are suitable for both surface Trenches are cut across the orebody (Fig. 7.21) after the
and underground mineral exploration, and constitute þ95% probable configuration of mineralization is outlined either
of the samples for the most reliable estimation of reserves by pitting or by rock/soil sampling. The sample recovered
and resources. Grab, muck, car, and bulk sampling are from each meter of trench is stacked separately as a sample
suitable for quick estimation of run-of-mine grade and are for analysis to identify variations across mineralization. The
useful in both grade monitoring and control for blending. walls of trenches can be sampled by channel cut or chip-
ping for comparing with results of stack samples.
7.3.1 Soil Sampling
7.3.4 Stack Sampling
Soil samples from residual or transported material are
collected (Fig. 7.20) at a specified grid pattern designed Stack sampling is the collection of representative broken
during orientation survey. The sieve analysis of samples material generated by pitting, trenching, or any mine
indicates that 80 mesh fraction of soil represents production. The samples are collected by inserting a

FIGURE 7.20 Collection of soil sample during reconnaissance for Pte FIGURE 7.21 Trench sampling for platinum-group elements and chro-
Pd target search around Tagadur chromite-magnesite open pit mine at mite during reconnaissance survey at Sitampundi layered igneous com-
Nuggihalli schist belt, Karnataka, India. plex, Tamil Nadu, India.
 Sampling Methods Chapter | 7 135

washing with a hose pipe (air/water) or scrubbing with a

stiff brush or by chipping of the outer part of rocks to
smoothen the sampling face. A linear horizontal channel is
cut between two marked lines at a uniform width and depth
(Fig. 7.23). The width is between 5 and 10 cm at a depth of
1e2 mm. Sample length varies depending on variation in
mineralization. The length is preferred at a uniform unit
between 1 and 2 m within mineralization to promote sta-
tistical applications.
The standard tools are hammer and a sharp pointed end
chisel made of drill steel, or pneumatic hammer with a
pointed/chisel bit (Fig. 7.24). While the sampler cuts the
channel, a second person collects chips, fragments, and
fines in a clean box, sack, or on a canvas sheet spread on
the floor. A sample of 1 m length will weigh w1e2 kg.
FIGURE 7.22 Stack sampling of chromite mine production ore at
Sukinda belt, India. 7.3.7 Chip Sampling
Channel sampling may not be representative in the case of
10e40 cm diameter cylinder down to the base of the mineralization that is irregularly distributed or dissemi-
stack. It is also done by collecting buckets full of sample. nated, and is not easily recognized by eye. Chipping
A number of collection points from a stack are selected. A fragments of w1e2 cm by 1e2 cm size covering the
composite sample is prepared by a combination of one entire surface exposure, underground mine face, walls, and
from the central part and four more from halfway between roof in a regular grid interval of 25 cm 25 cm (Fig. 7.25)
the center and corners (Fig. 7.22). Alternatively, particu- will be a better alternative. The area is cleaned before
larly in the case of small pits and narrow trenches, the sample cutting. The sampler chips off fragments by
total recovered material can be reduced by successive
crushing, coning, and quartering, and treated for chemical
analysis.

7.3.5 Alluvial Placer Sampling

Alluvial placer deposits are formed by weathering,
transportation, and deposition of valuable minerals. The
large alluvial placer platinum deposit at the Ural Moun-
FIGURE 7.23 Schematic presentation of channel sampling of mineral
tains in Russia is an example of such deposits discovered exposure at surface and underground mine cross-cut wall at 1 m intervals.
way back in 1823. In general these deposits are less
consolidated, loose, and soft materials. Scooping by hand
spade or the use of auger drills is employed to collect wet
or dry loose sandy samples at regular grid intervals up to
certain depths. A casing is driven into the deposit to
protect wall collapse and avoid contamination during
sample collection.

7.3.6 Channel Sampling

Channel sampling is suitable for uniformly distributed
mineralization in the form of veins, stringers, and dissem-
inations. Sampling is performed by the cutting of channels
across a mineralized body in fresh surface exposures or
underground mine workings, such as the mine face, walls, FIGURE 7.24 Channel sample cut by pneumatic drill machine for
and roof. The area is cleaned to remove dust, dirt, slime, exploration of platinum-group elements at open pit bench face, Boula-
and soluble salts by any of three processes. These are Nausahi chromite mine, Orissa, India.
136 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 7.25 Chip sampling (þ) of wall/face in irregular vein-type

deposits such as auriferous quartz veins.

hammer and a pointed chisel. The chips are collected in a

clean box or satchel or on a canvas sheet spread on the
floor. The weight of samples from a 3 m  3 m area is FIGURE 7.26 Semimechanical core splitter used at Khetri copper mine
during the 1970s.
between 1 and 2 kg. Channel sampling is laborious,
tedious, time consuming, and expensive compared to chip
sampling. Chip sampling is preferred due to low cost, faster
identification of mineralized contacts, and quick evaluation
of grade of the area.

7.3.8 Diamond Drill Core Sampling

Diamond drill core sampling cuts/splits the core along its
length into two identical halves or mirror images with
respect to mineral distribution as observed during logging.
One half is grinded, reduced, and sent to the laboratory for
chemical analysis. The other half is preserved in the core
boxes as a primary record for future check studies. The
second half can also be used as a composite sample for
metallurgical test works during the initial stage of explo-
ration to develop a laboratory-scale beneficiation process
flow diagram. Metallurgical test work will indicate FIGURE 7.27 Fully mechanized electric core cutter used at Lennard
amenability, optimum grinding, liberation, and recovery Shelf zinc deposit, Australia.
leading to producing clean marketable concentrates.
A simple type of core splitter operates manually by
framing a splitting unit comprising a short piece of rail
foundation, with a matching chisel fitted on top and a
hammer as illustrated in Fig. 7.26. The core is placed
tightly between the rail and chisel, and hammered from the
top to split the core into two identical halves. Hammering
can be powered by compressed air. The unit is handy and
low cost, and can be used in remote camp locations.
The modified form works by electric power. The cutting
head is either a diamond cutting unit or a blade made of
hard metal alloy (Fig. 7.27) that cuts the core into two FIGURE 7.28 Stratiform sulfide drill core split into two identical halves
smooth identical halves (Fig. 7.28). by electric core cutter.
 Sampling Methods Chapter | 7 137

7.3.9 Sludge Sampling

Sludge is the finer coproduct particles of diamond drilling
generated by cuttings of rocks between core and outer hole
diameter. Sludge sampling forms an integral alternative in
case of poor core recovery due to drilling through fractured
mineralized zones. It is pertinent to recover the maximum FIGURE 7.29 Muck sampling collected from all sides using a handheld
portion of sludge in such circumstances. spade or mechanized shovel depending on the volume of the sample.
Sludge collection is done in various ways as suits the
operator. The simplest way is to use a plastic or metallic tub
are useful to compare with drill estimates, as well as cut-
and allow the returning water to pass. The cuttings settle
tings/sludge sample values of jackhammer and long hole
and can form a sample corresponding to the drilling inter-
drills. The grades rarely match on a day-to-day basis.
val. The method can be modified by using a large sludge
However, the average production grade over a period of a
box with three to four longitudinal partitions. The returning
week, fortnight, month, quarter, or year can be comparable
water can flow in a zigzag pattern between successive
depending on heterogeneity of the deposit. It also helps to
partitions so that settling of materials is improved.
indicate the intrinsic external mining dilution.
Commercially designed sludge cutters with mechanical
operation are available. The sludge samples are not
incredibly authentic due to contamination between drill 7.3.13 Car Sampling
runs. However, they show the existence and to some extent A car sample comprises a handful of broken pieces picked
the quality of mineralization in the absence of good core up randomly from every 5th/10th/15th moving mine car
recovery. from an underground mine (Fig. 7.30), or dumpers/trucks
from a surface mine, or aerial ropeway tubs that transport
7.3.10 Reverse Circulation Drill Sampling ore to integrated or third-party beneficiation plants and
Reverse circulation drill sampling is the collection of smelters. The sample values are compared between run-of-
rock cuttings with respect to drill depth. The entire rock mine and mill head grade for valuation, grade control, and
cuttings are raised to the surface by return air pressure and reconciliation. The method is suitable for valuation of metal
collected in glass chambers in an inverted sequence of grade, penalty components, and moisture content of ore/
depth (refer to Figs. 7.12 and 7.13), forming a sample. concentrate being shipped for integrated or third-party
Reverse circulation drill samples are not an exclusive and smelters.
ultimate solution to mineral deposit evaluation. These
samples are supported, complemented, and balanced by a 7.3.14 Bulk Sampling
certain amount of diamond drilling from a global
A bulk sample comprises a large volume of material
perspective. Reverse circulation drill samples are exten-
(100e1000 tonnes) representing all metal grades and
sively used in grade control of mine production in advance,
and particularly for large open pit mines.

7.3.11 Grab Sampling

Grab sampling is performed at any stage of exploration,
and more so during mine production for a quick approxi-
mation of run-of-mine grade. The samples are randomly
picked up from loose broken material from outcrops, pits,
trenches, mine workings, stope drawpoints, mine cars, load
shipments, and all types of stockpiles. Good care should be
taken to avoid inclusion of any foreign objects like wood,
iron pieces, nails, masonry, and plastics.

7.3.12 Muck Sampling

Muck sample is composed of a few handheld spades or
mechanized shovels full of mineralized fragments and fines
collected from the mine face or stope drawpoints FIGURE 7.30 Car sample in underground mine by collecting a handful
(Fig. 7.29). These samples collected from mine production of ore randomly from mine cars.
138 Mineral Exploration

mineral distributions of an entire orebody. Samples are analysis. Therefore samples collected by different methods
collected from different parts of stockpiles generated from are reduced without sacrificing the property of mass being
surface trial pits, underground cross-cuts, and run-of-mine sampled. Sample reduction is done by progressive
ore of regular production. The best collection equipment is grinding of fragment size and gradual reduction of quantity
shovels to handle huge volumes. Total material is mixed at stages. Samples can be prepared manually by mortar and
thoroughly to reduce heterogeneity. Samples are used for pestle. Manual processing is slow and precision is low due
developing beneficiation flowsheets for optimum reagent to uncontrolled bias. Therefore the size is reduced succes-
consumption and maximizing recovery efficiency. sively by using a succession of mini-crusher (jaw crusher)
(Fig. 7.32), grinding roll crusher, (Fig. 7.33), and pulver-
izing disc/ball/rod pulverizer/mill, (Fig. 7.34).
7.3.15 Ocean Bed Sampling
The final samples change to relatively homogeneous
Deep ocean floor mineral resources include polymetallic after each stage of crushing, grinding, and pulverizing. The
nodules, manganese crusts, active/extinct hydrothermal sample quantity is further reduced by coning and quartering
sulfide vents, and diamonds. They cover large areas as shown in Fig. 7.35 for procedural concept and Fig. 7.36
between 4000 and 6000 m below the ocean’s surface. The for technical application. A Jones refill splitter (Fig. 7.37) is
polymetallic nodules contain mainly nickel, copper, cobalt, a mechanical device for sample reduction. The laboratory
and manganese. The manganese crusts include primarily crusher/grinder/pulverizer is small in size and low cost. The
manganese, copper, vanadium, molybdenum, and platinum. units can be easily moved to other exploration camps and
The sulfide vents contribute largely copper, zinc, lead, gold, installed as and when necessary.
and silver. These raw materials are found in various forms Two identical samples of 50 g each are prepared: one
on the ocean floor, usually in higher concentrations than in part is sent to an analytical laboratory and the duplicate is
land-based mines. preserved at the exploration department for future refer-
Sample collection from prospective areas of the sea bot- ence. Laboratory chemists/technicians further grind the
tom is conducted by progressive reduction of sample grids material, mix thoroughly, and reduce to w5 g for analysis
through 100  100, 50  50, 25  25, and 12.5  12.5 km2. and to preserve the remainder for reference.
The collection unit is designed as a bucket-in-pipe nodule-
lifting system (Fig. 7.31), and tested successively. The
quantity of materials collected in a trip is w10 tonnes and
reduces to 200e500 kg.

7.4 SAMPLE REDUCTION FOR

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Analytical laboratories require a few grams (w5 g) of
homogeneous fines at w100 mesh size for chemical

FIGURE 7.31 Bucket-in-pipe polymetallic nodule sample lifting system FIGURE 7.32 Sample size reductions by a small, portable, laboratory
collected from the deep ocean floor. jaw crusher.
 Sampling Methods Chapter | 7 139

FIGURE 7.33 Sample grinding by a laboratory-scale small roll crusher.

FIGURE 7.34 Sample size reductions by a laboratory-scale disc, ball, or
rod pulverizer.
7.5 ANALYTICAL METHODS
Analytical methods must satisfy optimum cost, best accu-
racy, and precision to create an unbiased database for
resource estimation acceptable by international major in-
vestment stakeholders. The standard methods in order of
applicability, affordability, and precision are as follows.

7.5.1 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry

Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) is a widely
accepted, rapid, precise, and commonly used method for
quantitative determination of a large number of samples for
multielemental analysis. About 5 mg of sample is treated
with 5 mL of aqua regia and digested over a hot plate. The
solution is aspirated into an air-acetylene or N2O-acetylene
flame for complete atomization of test metals. Absorbance
of a characteristic radiation of desired metal is measured for
computation of elemental concentration. Approximately 30
elements can be determined from one solution, one after
FIGURE 7.35 Sample quantity reductions by coning-and-quartering
another, by AAS using specific hollow cathode lamps with principles.
background correction.
140 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 7.36 Sample quantity reductions for chromite production grade

at the mine head by coning-and-quartering practices. Quarters II and IV
will be mixed for further reduction.

FIGURE 7.38 Handheld portable XRF analyzer. From Gandhi, S.M.,

Sarkar, B.C., 2016, Essentials of Mineral Exploration and Evaluation,
Elsevier Publication, 422 p.

exploration and mining projects, alloy in industrial loca-

tions and scrap markets, environmental remediation, and
lead paint identification. The portable XRF unit has
revolutionized the sampling of soil and stream sediment.
The instrument/method is handy as part of core and rock
chip logging, and with an additional bonus of mineral
identification.

7.5.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic

Emission Spectrometry
Inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrom-
etry (ICP-AES) works on an optical emission method
excited by inductively coupled plasma. It is a promising
emission technique that has been successfully used as a
powerful tool for fast multielemental analysis since 1975.
FIGURE 7.37 Sample quantity reductions by a Jones refill splitter. The flame for this technique consists of incandescent
plasma of argon heated inductively by radiofrequency en-
ergy at 4e50 MHz and 2e5 kW. The energy is transferred
7.5.2 X-ray FluorescencedPortable XRF
to a stream of argon through an induction coil, whereby
The XRF technique uses high-energy X-ray photons from temperatures up to 100 K are attained.
an X-ray generation analyzer to excite secondary fluores- Sample solutions are forced through a capillary tube,
cence characteristic X-rays from samples. The characteristic nebulizer system, and spray chamber to a relatively cool
line spectra emitted by the different elements of sample are central hole of the plasma torus. The spray chamber reduces
detected in an analyzer. The intensity of each line is pro- the particle size of the aerosol to an ideal 10 mm. The
portional to the concentration of individual elements. sample atomizes and ionizes. The radiation from plasma
The portable XRF or handheld XRF is a lightweight enters through a single slit, and is then dispersed by a
rapid analytical instrument (Fig. 7.38). It is used as a concave reflection grating. The light from each exit slit is
nondestructive test to detect elemental/chemical analysis directed to fall on the cathode of a photomultiplier tube, one
ranging between Mg and U. Typical applications are for each spectral line isolated. The light falling on the
detection of minerals, including precious metals in photomultiplier gives an output that is integrated on a
 Sampling Methods Chapter | 7 141

capacitor; the resulting voltages are proportional to the stimulated on the surface of the sample by a narrow focused
concentration of the elements in the sample. Multichannel beam of electrons; the resulting X-ray emission is detected
instruments are capable of measuring the intensities of and analyzed with either a wavelength or energy dispersive
emission lines of up to 60 elements simultaneously. spectrometer.
The secondary ion mass spectrometer (SIMS) has
proven useful for determining both the atomic and molec-
7.5.4 Instrumental Neutron Activation
ular composition of solid surfaces. SIMS is based upon
Analysis bombarding the surface of the sample with a beam of
The instrumental neutron activation analysis technique 5e20 KeV ions, such as Arþ, CSþ, N2 þ, and O2 þ. The ion
utilizes high-energy neutrons for irradiation of a sample to beam is formed in an ion gun in which gaseous atoms or
produce gamma radiation that can be analyzed for the molecules are ionized by an electron impact source. The
detection of elements. The method is suitable for the positive ions are then accelerated by applying a high DC
detection of trace elements and rare earth elements with a potential. The impact of these primary ions causes the
high level of accuracy. surface layer of atoms of the sample to be tripped off,
largely as neutral atoms. A small fraction, however, forms
as positive (or negative) secondary ions that are drawn into
7.5.5 Scanning/Transmission Electron
a spectrometer for mass analysis.
Microscope
Detailed knowledge of the physical nature of the surfaces 7.5.7 Fire Assaying
of solids is significant in geology, chemistry, and material
science. Finer surface information at considerably higher Fire assaying is quantitative determination in which a
resolution is obtained by scanning electron microprobe. metal or metals are separated from impurities by fusion
The surface of a solid sample is swept in a raster pattern processes and weighed to determine the amount present in
with a finely focused beam of electrons in the scanning the original sample. The fire assay method is most accurate,
electron microscope technique to obtain a precision image. but totally destructive for determination of precious metals.
The beam is swept across a surface in a straight line (the X- It is a critical cupellation step by refining in metallurgy,
direction), then returns to its starting position and shifts where ore/precious metals/alloys are treated in fire under
downward (the Y-direction) by standard increments. The extremely high temperatures, and have controlled opera-
process is repeated until a desired area of the surface has tions to separate noble metals like gold, silver, platinum,
been scanned. A signal is received above the surface (the Z- and palladium from base metals like copper, lead, zinc,
direction) during the scanning process and stored in a arsenic, antimony, and bismuth present in ore. If performed
computer for conversion to the final image. on ore materials using fusion followed by cupellation
A transmission electron microscope is used either in separation, detection may be in parts per billion/million.
biological applications for ultrahigh-resolution trans- Fire assaying can be applied for proving the existence of
mission electron photomicroscope studies of thin slices of precious metals, especially as a prerequisite concentrating
cell and tissue material, or in metallurgical studies, step prior to neutron activation analysis or ICP-MS analysis.
including investigation of defect structures in alloy mate-
rial. Subject to some limitations, equivalent studies are 7.5.8 Carbon Dating
carried out on geological samples. However, samples must
be prepared as thin foils. The quantitative measurements of Carbon dating is a standard method for determining the
photomicrograph data can be derived in two ways: (1) age of an object containing organic material (plant or ani-
crystal structure data from the pattern resulting from elec- mal) by using properties of radiocarbon (14Cda radioiso-
tron diffraction within the sample, and (2) compositional tope of carbon). 14C is continuously being created in the
data from characteristic X-ray emissions excited by the atmosphere by the interaction between cosmic rays and
electron beam as it is transmitted through the foil. atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting 14C combines with
atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive CO2. 14C in-
7.5.6 Electron Microprobe and Secondary tegrates into plants by photosynthesis and subsequently
imparts to animals through nourishment. The process stops
Ion Mass Spectrometer
exchanging carbon in its environment after demise of the
The electron microprobe provides a wealth of information organism, and the contained 14C endures radioactive decay.
about the physical and chemical nature of surfaces. With Amounts of 14C decay can be measured to predict when the
the electron microprobe method, X-ray emission is organism died with a range of accuracy. The best samples
142 Mineral Exploration

for 14C age dating include wood used as wall supports, 7.7 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
baskets, ladders, platforms, water channels (Figs. 4.3, QUALITY CONTROL
4.5e4.7), and animal bones from ancient mining/smelting
sites. The critical issue in sampling is to identify bias expected to
Examples can be cited from ancient mining history at be associated with any activity of collection, preparation,
Kolar (1290  90 to 1500  115) and Hutti (1945  70) and analysis. QA/QC measures are essential in current
gold mine (Agarwal and Margabandu, 1975e1976) and exploration programs for creating a reliable database free of
Zawar (2410  100) and Rajpura-Dariba (3040  150) any bias/error (McDonald and Leclair, 2004; Mitchell,
zinc-lead mines, (Willies, 1987), India. 2006). QA/QC pass database assures a trustworthy quantity
(tonnes) and quality (% grade) within an acceptable con-
fidence of reserve and resource base of the deposit under
7.5.9 Choice of Analysis feasibility study and mining investment. Sample audit
eliminates the risk factors. This is more relevant when the
The primary objective is to identify techniques that are
investigation data and reports in standard stock exchanges
widely used for the unbiased reporting of elements, and
for commercial trading in a competitive manner are
examine the analytical potential of individual techniques.
uploaded. Some of the control measures are as follows:
1. AAS, XRF, and portable XRF are most widely used,
1. The reserve and resource estimation of mineral deposits
and acceptable for determination of major elements.
is based on several sampling methods conducted during
2. Since 1984, ICP-AES has become better established for
exploration, such as drill core, channel, and chip. A
trace and rare earths, but is costly. SEM, TEM, and
multiple sampling campaign should be piloted during
electron microprobes are excellent, efficient, and accu-
the feasibility/mine development stage by creating a
rate for surface- and structure-related compositional
comparable sample database of several sampling
analysis. Instruments are expensive, research oriented,
methods over the fixed designed location and length
and may not be within the reach of everyone.
of mineralization, as conducted at Rampura-Agucha
3. Fire assaying is a link between (2) and (3). 14C age
exploration program, India.
dating is used to establish exploration/mining/smelting
An incline was developed along a controlled drill sec-
heritage.
tion up to a limited depth from the surface to access
the orebody (Fig. 7.39). An underground borehole
7.6 ACCURACY AND DUE DILIGENCE was drilled along the dip direction and kept unsampled.
IN SAMPLING A cross was developed following the borehole. The face
chip and grab/muck sample from each mine blast was
Sampling due diligence, which makes an authentic
collected. The borehole, cross-cut wall channel, and
geological resource assessment, needs the validation of six
chip samples were prepared following the exact length
principal components:
of mine face advancement, and analyzed. A set of five
1. Sample representation, integrity, and security. types of samples of the same location and length
2. Accuracy of laboratory assays. comprising borehole, channel, chip, grab/muck, and
3. Insertion of blank and standard samples at industry- face chip were available. The results were compared
accepted intervals in the sample string within and statistically tested before accepting the best suitable
mineralization. sampling technique for estimation of reserves and
4. Adequacy of sample. resources.
5. Quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) 2. In the case of drill core sampling, usually one half of the
protocols. core is processed for analysis and used for reserves/re-
6. Mineral resource continuity. sources estimation without confirming the grade repre-
sentation of the other half (mirror image) in the
Sampling errors generally occur due to the following
system. The second half of the core should be pro-
reasons:
cessed, analyzed for a certain length of mineralization,
1. Improper choice of sampling method. statistically verified, and accepted/modified/rejected
2. Bias and selective collection of heterogeneous mineral- (Fig. 7.40).
ization, including salting. 3. There can be an inherent human and process error in a
3. Bias and selective collection from host rocks with var- laboratory while analyzing a sample. The duplicate
iable hardness. samples of known value are inserted at an industry-
4. Mirror image of drill core splitting. accepted protocol of 10th or 20th positions in the sam-
5. Errors in chemical analyses. ple run and analyzed throughout the exploration phase
 Sampling Methods Chapter | 7 143

every 10th or 20th position in the sample string. It is

desirable to change the sequence of insertion of blanks
and standards from time to time for quality assurance
(similar to Fig. 7.40) in case of major differences. Sam-
ples are sent for repeat reanalysis. The QA/QC can be
repeated in batches.
5. If the samples are analyzed at different laboratories
there is likely to be some bias due to different laboratory
personnel (analysts), analytical procedures (AAS, volu-
metric, XRD, etc.), and location-based laboratory envi-
ronment (water used for analysis, contamination,
cleanliness, and work culture). A set of the same sample
should be analyzed at all the concerned laboratories, as
well as in a referee laboratory of international repute.
Results are statistically tested for equality.
Surface exploration at the newly rediscovered zinc, lead,
and silver deposit, India, was conducted with great ur-
gency to complete w24,000 m of surface drilling in
FIGURE 7.39 Comparative sampling study is necessary for a new
exploration project before accepting/rejecting any sampling method. 18 months between 1978 and 1980. This resulted in
Various types of samples are compared using statistical tests before esti- 12,000 samples for chemical analysis. None of the Hindu-
mation of reserves and resources, Rampura-Agucha exploration program, stan zinc chemical laboratories were equipped to analyze
India. large amounts of zinc, lead, silver, and iron. Therefore the
samples were sent in batches to five company laboratories
at Zawar group of mines, Rajpira-Dariba Mine, Agnigun-
dal lead mine, Debari zinc smelter, and Central Research
and Development Laboratory.
A lot of 46 samples from the Rampura-Agucha project
were selected, divided into seven identical sets, and sent
to five company laboratories in India, one to SNC Lab-
oratory in Canada for authentication and reference, and
one as a reserve. The results of all the six laboratories
are statistically analyzed, compared, and accepted for
reserve estimation. Reserve estimation is accepted as a
bankable document for investment by all related
stakeholders.
6. The data error between paired sets can be analyzed by
various statistical tests. The simplest one is a scatter plot
of paired data. The scatter diagram will easily identify
the presence of extreme, erratic, high, or low values
in the system. The erratic sample pair must be sorted,
FIGURE 7.40 Scatter plot of original and duplicate half core sample identified, and isolated, and their authenticities investi-
values confirms significant statistical reproduction. gated along with probable source of errors. The samples
can be verified and rejected if they do not satisfy and fit
at the same laboratory without disclosing the identity of into geological conditions. The filtered dataset will be
the sample. The results of two sets can be tested statis- suitable for QA/QC analysis.
tically for mean, variance, scatter plot, correlation coef- 7. The plot must show a remarkable degree of correlation
ficient, “f,” paired “t,” and pool “t” before final at high confidence (r2) level. If the check assay results
acceptance/modification/rejection. are lying in the acceptable range of standard deviation
4. Standard (certified reference material of known value) or within less than 5% variation from the mean value
and blank (certified reference material of zero value) at 95% level of significance, then assay results are
samples are inserted within the routine samples at captured in a main assay database. The file turns into
industry-accepted intervals and dispatched to labora- a stable database. It is a continuous process with
tories for quality control purposes. These standard and incoming additional assay input until the exploration
blank samples can be inserted at the start, end, and ends. In the process, some of the results are
144 Mineral Exploration

unacceptable and the rejected values are not included in specific requirements, such as, weathering profile, and
the database. A complete set of sample data base, tech- grade control.
nically accepted by QA/QC protocol, can only be used Drill sampling can be optimized, and exploration stops
for the estimation of reserve and grade of a deposit. at that point. Mine development is initiated and regular
8. The confirmation of correlation between two comple- production continues. Exploration drilling will begin again
mentary assay data strings can be performed by: in the future for the enhancement of ore reserves along dip
a. A percentile/percentile plot. and strike. The cycle of exploration repeats and finally
b. A quartile/quartile plot. closes when the deposit is fully exhausted in all respects.
c. A cumulative frequency plot.
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7.8 OPTIMIZATION OF SAMPLES Agarwal, D.P., Margabandhu, C., 1975e1976. Puratattva. Bull. Arch.
Soci. 8, 139.
Sampling is a continuous process during exploration and Atlas Copco, 2014. Prospecting and Exploration for Minerals. Talking
grade control. Diamond drilling is the most authentic and Technically, pp. 14e19. http://www.atlascopcoexploration.com/1.0.1.
accepted process, but is costly. The hardest question often 0/354/TS3.pdf.
raised in an exploration program is: “When does drilling Bremner, H.T.M., Garland Wayne, Savage, J.R., 1996. Trends in deep
start?” Even harder is: “When does it stop?” drilling in the sudbury basin. In: Short Course on Technologies, and
The first issue is guided by evidence from surface Case Histories for the Modern Explorationist, Toronto, pp. 53e75.
signature, supported by airborne and ground geophysical Banerjee, P.K., Ghosh, S., 1997. Elements of Prospecting for Non-fuel
and geochemical anomalies indicating subsurface continu- Mineral Deposits. Allied Publishers Ltd., p. 320
ity of mineralization during reconnaissance/prospecting. Devereux, S., 1999. Drilling Techniques. Penwell, Tulsa, OK, p. 337.
The decision for drilling is based on above evidences, with Devico, 2010.DeviDrill- Directional Core Drilling and Borehole Survey Tools.
http://www.mining-technology.com/contractors/exploration/device.
a view to establish and delineate the deposit for continuity
DMP, 2012. Mineral Exploration DrillingdCode of Practice: Resources
in strike and depth.
Safety. Department of Mines and Petroleum, Western Australia, p. 56.
Drilling continues in sequence to achieve defined ob- Dowing, B., 2014. ARD Sampling and Sample Preparation. http://www.
jectives. Drill interval depends on complexity and value of technology.infomine.com/enviromine/ard/sampling/intro.html.
commodity as in the case of the platinum group of precious Gandhi, S.M., Sarkar, B.C., 2016. Essentials of Mineral Exploration and
metals. Drilling quantity should be adequate to establish Evaluation. Elsevier Publication, p. 422.
60% of the total resources in the demonstrated reserve Heinz, W.F., 2009. Diamond Drilling Handbook, fourth ed. Sigma Press,
(measured þ indicated) category for investment decision. Halfway House, Ganteng province, South Africa, p. 533.
Drilling can be stopped for the time being until additional McDonald, D., LeClair, D., 2004. Methods and Quality Assurance In-
reserve is required. vestigations for Trace Metals Data from the Long-term River
Precision for width (tonnage) and grade (% or g/t metal) Network, 2003. Env. Monit. and Eval. Br. Alberta Environment, p. 77.
Mitchell, P., 2006. Guidelines for Quality Assurance and Quality Control
with increasing number of boreholes in an ongoing
in Surface Water Quality Program in Alberta. Alberta Environment,
exploration can be determined by applying statistical/geo-
p. 67.
statistical tools, and exploration can be optimized. The Moon, C.J., Whateley, M.E.G., Evans, A.M., 2006. Introduction to Min-
tools include frequency, probability, and geostatistical eral Exploration, second ed. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, p. 481.
models. The curves become steady and flat after drilling at Willies, W., 1987. Ancient zinc-lead-silver mining in Rajasthan, India e
optimum interval with adequate confidence, and suggest for interim report. Bull. Peak Dist. Mines Hist. Soc. 10 (2), 123.
investment decision without further drilling, other than