Experiment No.

Objective: To design a coupling that can transmit torque and power between two
rotating shafts with minimum power loss and maximum efficiency.

THEORY: Shafts are usually available up to 7 metres length due to inconvenience in

transport. In order to have a greater length, it becomes necessary to join two or more
pieces of the shaft by means of a coupling.
Purposes of couplings:
I. To provide for the connection of shafts of units that are manufactured separately
such as a motor and generator and to provide for disconnection for repairs or
alternations.
II. To provide for misalignment of the shafts or to introduce mechanical flexibility.
III. To reduce the transmission of shock loads from one shaft to another.
IV. To introduce protection against overloads.
V. It should have no projecting parts.

The usual proportions for an unprotected type cast iron flange coupling, as shown in
figure above, are as follows :
If d is the diameter of the shaft or inner diameter of the hub, then

Outside diameter of hub,

D = 2 (d)
Length of hub, L = 1.5 (d)
Pitch circle diameter of bolts,
D1 = 3(d)
Outside diameter of flange,
D2 = D1 + (D1 – D) = 2 D1 – D = 4 d
Thickness of flange, tf = 0.5 d
Number of bolts = 3, for d up to 40 mm
= 4, for d up to 100 mm
= 6, for d up to 180 mm

DESIGN FOR HUB

The hub is designed by considering it as a hollow shaft, transmitting the same torque
(T) as that of a solid shaft.

The outer diameter of hub is usually taken as twice the diameter of shaft. Therefore,
from the above relation, the induced shearing stress in the hub may be checked.
The length of hub (L) is taken as 1.5 d.
The material of key is usually the same as that of shaft. The length of key is taken
equal to the length of hub.

DESIGN FOR FLANGE

The flange at the junction of the hub is under shear while transmitting the torque.
Therefore, the torque transmitted,

T = Circumference of hub × Thickness of flange × Shear stress of flange × Radius of

hub

DESIGN FOR BOLTS

The bolts are subjected to shear stress due to the torque transmitted. The number of
bolts (n) depends upon the diameter of shaft and the pitch circle diameter of bolts
(D1) is taken as 3 d.

We know that
Question: Design a cast iron protective type flange coupling to transmit 15 kW at 900
r.p.m. from an electric motor to a compressor. The service factor may be assumed as
1.35. The following permissible stresses may be used:
Shear stress for shaft, bolt and key material = 40 MPa
Crushing stress for bolt and key = 80 MPa
Shear stress for cast iron = 8 MPa
Draw a neat sketch of the coupling.
 Experiment No. 2
Objective:To design a power screw that can efficiently convert rotary motion into
linear motion with high accuracy and repeatability.

Theory: The power screws (also known as translation screws) are used to convert
rotary motion into translatory motion.
For example, in the case of the lead screw of lathe, the rotary motion is available but
the tool has to be advanced in the direction of the cut against the cutting resistance of
the material.
In case of screw jack, a small force applied in the horizontal plane is used to raise or
lower a large load. Power screws are also used in vices, testing machines, presses, etc.
In most of the power screws, the nut has axial motion against the resisting axial force
while the screw rotates in its bearings. In some screws, the screw rotates and moves
axially against the resisting force while the nut is stationary and in others the nut
rotates while the screw moves axially with no rotation.

Torque Required to Raise Load for Square Threaded Screws

W  Load to be raised in N.
P  Effort applied at the circumference of screw
p  Pitch of the screw in mm
d  mean diameter of the screw in mm
α Helix angle
 coefficient of friction between screw-and nut
Ø friction angle
L  Lead of screw
Torque Required to Lower the Load
Design of Screw Jack
The various parts of screw jack are
1. Screw spindle having square thread screw.
2. Nut and collar for nut.
3. Head at the top of the screw spindle for handle.
4. Cup at the top of head for the load.
5. Body of the screw jack.
6. A handle or Tommy bar.
Question:
 Experiment No. 3

Objective:To design a shaft that can withstand the applied loads and stresses without
deformation or failure.

The shafts may be designed on the basis of

1. Strength, and
2. Rigidity and stiffness
In designing shafts on the basis of strength, the following cases may be considered:
(a) Shafts subjected to twisting moment or torque only,
(b) Shafts subjected to bending moment only,
(c) Shafts subjected to combined twisting and bending moments, and
(d) Shafts subjected to axial loads in addition to combined torsional and bending
loads.

Shafts Subjected to Combined Twisting Moment and Bending Moment:-

When the shaft is subjected to combined twisting moment and bending moment, then
the shaft must be designed on the basis of the two moments simultaneously.

The following two theories are important from the subject point of view:
1. Maximum shear stress theory or Guest's theory. It is used for ductile materials such
as mild steel.
2. Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine’s theory. It is used for brittle materials
such as cast iron.

Let τ = Shear stress induced due to twisting moment, and

𝜎𝑏= Bending stress (tensile or compressive) induced due to bending moment.

According to maximum shear stress theory, the maximum shear stress in the shaft,

From this expression, diameter of the shaft (d) may be evaluated.

Now according to maximum normal stress theory, the maximum normal stress in the
shaft,
The expression known as equivalent bending moment and is
denoted by Me.

From this expression, diameter of the shaft (d) may be evaluated.

Note: It is suggested that diameter of the shaft may be obtained by using both the
theories and the larger of the two values is adopted.
 Experiment No. 4
Objective:To design a lever that can provide a mechanical advantage in lifting or
moving heavy loads with minimum effort.

Theory:

Designing a lever for mechanical advantage involves understanding the basic

principles of lever mechanics, which can significantly reduce the effort needed to lift
heavy loads. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you design an effective lever:

1. Understanding Lever Types

There are three classes of levers:

Class 1: Fulcrum in the middle (e.g., seesaw). Load and effort are on opposite
sides.
Class 2: Load in the middle (e.g., wheelbarrow). Effort is applied at one end, and
the fulcrum is at the other.
Class 3: Effort in the middle (e.g., tweezers). Load is at one end, and the fulcrum
is at the other.

2. Identify Your Requirements

Load: Determine the maximum weight you need to lift.

Effort: Assess how much force you can exert comfortably.
Distance: Consider the space available for your lever.

3. Choosing Lever Class

For lifting heavy loads, Class 2 levers are typically the most effective, as they allow
for greater mechanical advantage.

4. Calculate Mechanical Advantage

The mechanical advantage (MA) of a lever is calculated using the formula:

MA=Length of effort arm/length of load arm

To maximize MA:

Length of Effort Arm: Increase this length.

Length of Load Arm: Keep this length short.

5. Designing the Lever

Materials: Choose a strong material (wood, metal, or composite) that can handle
the load without bending or breaking.
Fulcrum: Select a sturdy, stable fulcrum point. It should be robust enough to
withstand the forces applied.
Arms: Decide on the lengths of the effort arm and load arm based on your
calculations.
6. Prototype Development

Create a prototype using your chosen materials.

Ensure the fulcrum is positioned correctly and can handle the pivoting motion.

7. Testing and Adjustment

Test the lever with weights to ensure it operates effectively.

Make adjustments to arm lengths or fulcrum position if needed to achieve the
desired mechanical advantage.

8. Considerations for Use

Safety: Ensure the lever is stable and will not tip over during use.
Ergonomics: Design the lever handle for comfortable gripping.
Portability: If you need to move the lever frequently, consider how to make it
lightweight or collapsible.

9. Additional Features

Consider adding a locking mechanism or a way to secure the load if needed.

Think about integrating wheels or rollers to aid in moving the load if applicable.

Conclusion

By applying these principles, you can design a lever that effectively provides
mechanical advantage, making it easier to lift and move heavy loads with minimal
effort. Whether for construction, gardening, or another application, the right lever
design can make a significant difference.

Questions:
 Experiment No. 5
Objective: To design a spring that can store and release mechanical energy with
minimal deformation and fatigue.

Objective For The Design:

 The spring should possess sufficient strength to withstand the external load.
 It should have different load-deflection characteristic.
 It should not buckle under the external load.

Types Of Springs:

3.1. Two basic types of helical spring:

(i) Compression spring: shorten under the action of external load
(ii) Extension spring: elongate under the action of external load
Terminologies Used In Helical Springs:

Solid Length: It is defined as the axial length of the spring, which when compressed,
the adjacent coils touch each other. No compression is possible beyond this point.
Solid length = Ntd, Nt = Total no. of coils.

Compressed Length: It is defined as the axial length of the spring, which is

subjected to maximum compressive force. In this case, the spring is subjected to a
maximum deflection of δ. Some gap is provided between the adjacent coils to prevent
their clashing.

Clashing allowance = 15% of maximum deflection. Also, 1 - 2 mm gap between the

adjacent coils is provided as a thumb rule.
Total gap = (Nt -1)xGap between adjacent coils.

Free Length: It is defined as the axial length of the unloaded spring. In this case, no
external force acts on the spring.
Free length = compressed length + δ
= solid length + total axial gap + δ
 Pitch: It is defined as the axial distance between the adjacent coils in the
uncompressed state.
p = free length/(Nt - 1)

Stiffness: k = P/ δ
P = Axial Spring Force
δ = Axial deflection of spring corresponding to force P.

6. PROCEDURES FOR DESIGNING A HELICAL SPRING:

The basic procedure for the design of helical spring consists of following steps :
(i) For the given application, maximum spring force (P) and corresponding deflection
(δ) are to be estimated.
In some cases, maximum spring force (P) and the stiffness (k) of the spring is
specified.
(ii) A suitable spring material is to be selected and its ultimate tensile strength has to
be ascertained. The permissible shear stress for the spring wire is estimated by :
 Experiment No. 6
Objective:To design a cotter joint that can connect two members with axial forces
and prevent relative motion.

FUNCTION‐ A cotter joint is used to connect one end of a rod is provided with a
socket type of end and the other end of the rod is inserted to a socket. The end of
the rod which goes into a socket is also called Spigot.
APPLICATIONS‐
1. Joints between the piston rod and the cross need of the steam engine.
2. Joints between the side spindle and the fork of the valve mechanism.
3. Joint between the piston rod and the tail or pump foundation bolts.
ASSUMPTIONS‐
1. The rods are subjected to axial tensile force the effect of steels
Concentration due to shaft is neglected.

Notations
used in design are as follows,P= Load on the joint or pull acting on rods, d= Diameter
of the rod, d1= outer diameter of socket,d2= Diameter of spigot or inside diameter of
socket, d3= Outside diameter of spigot collar,d4= Diameter of socket collar, t1=
Thickness of spigot collar, a = Distance from the end of the slot to end of spigot, c=
thickness of socket collar, b,t,l= width , thickness and length of cotter

Step 1 : Design of rod( ‘d’)

Step 2 : Design of Spigot { ‘d2’,’d3’,t1’,’a’}
 Area resisting is a hollow square minus a rectangular strip having length (d1-d2) andthickness t, so the
strength equation becomes,
 Experiment No. 7
Objective:To design a knuckle joint that can provide flexibility and motion in
different directions while maintaining structural integrity.

Knuckle Joint:
These joints are used for different types of connections e.g. tie rods, tension links in
bridge structure. In this, one of the rods has an eye at the rod end and the other one is
forked with eyes at both the legs. A pin (knuckle pin) is inserted through the rod-end
eye and fork-end.

eyes and is secured by a collar and a split pin

 Experiment No. 8
Objective:To study different types of stress, such as tension, compression, shear,
bending, and torsion, and their effects on mechanical components.

Studying the different types of stress is essential for understanding how mechanical
components behave under various loading conditions. Here’s an overview of each
type of stress, its characteristics, and effects on materials:

Tension

Definition: Tension stress occurs when a material is subjected to forces that pull it
apart.
Effects:
Increases length and reduces cross-sectional area.
Can lead to necking or eventual fracture.
Applications: Cables, beams under load, and structural elements in bridges.

2. Compression

Definition: Compression stress occurs when forces act to compress or shorten a

material.
Effects:
Decreases length and increases cross-sectional area.
Can lead to buckling in slender structures.
Applications: Columns, concrete structures, and load-bearing walls.

3. Shear

Definition: Shear stress arises from forces that cause layers of a material to slide
past each other.
Effects:
Can lead to shear failure, where the material fails along a defined plane.
Often results in distortion without significant change in volume.
Applications: Bolted joints, rivets, and structural connections.

4. Bending

Definition: Bending stress occurs when a moment is applied to a beam, causing it

to curve.
Effects:
Creates both tensile stress on one side and compressive stress on the
opposite side.
Can lead to deflection, yielding, or cracking.
Applications: Beams in floors, bridges, and frames.

5. Torsion

Definition: Torsional stress occurs when a material is twisted about its axis.
 Effects:
Produces shear stress that varies linearly from the center to the outer
surface.
Can lead to warping or failure if the material exceeds its torsional strength.
Applications: Shafts in engines, transmission systems, and any rotating
equipment.

Study Approaches

Analytical Methods: Use equations and principles of mechanics to calculate

stress and strain.
Experimental Methods: Conduct tests such as tensile tests, compression tests,
and torsion tests to observe material behavior.
Finite Element Analysis (FEA): Utilize software to model complex structures
and simulate how they respond to various stress types.

Conclusion

Understanding these stresses and their effects is crucial for designing safe and
efficient mechanical components. By analyzing how materials respond under different
conditions, engineers can make informed decisions to prevent failures and ensure
structural integrity.

Experiment No. 9
Objective: To study different types of joints, such as welded, bolted, riveted, and
adhesive joints, and their strength and reliability.

Studying different types of joints is crucial for ensuring the strength and reliability of
mechanical structures. Here’s a breakdown of common joint types—welded, bolted,
riveted, and adhesive joints—along with their characteristics, advantages,
disadvantages, and applications.

1. Welded Joints

Description: Welded joints are formed by melting and fusing materials together,
often using heat.
Types:
Fillet welds: Used for corner and edge joints.
Butt welds: Used for joining two pieces end-to-end.
Strength:

High strength, often exceeding that of the base materials.

Good fatigue resistance.

Reliability:

Continuous structure reduces stress concentration.

Susceptible to defects (e.g., cracks, incomplete fusion).

Applications: Structural steel work, pipelines, automotive components.

2. Bolted Joints

Description: Bolted joints use fasteners (bolts, nuts, washers) to hold materials
together.
Strength:

Strength depends on bolt grade, tensioning, and material properties.

Can handle both tensile and shear loads.

Reliability:

Easy to inspect and replace.

Potential for loosening over time due to vibration (use of lock washers or
adhesives can mitigate this).

Applications: Steel structures, machinery, and transport systems.

3. Riveted Joints

Description: Riveted joints involve fastening materials together with metal pins
(rivets) that are deformed to hold the components in place.
Strength:
 Traditionally strong, particularly in shear.
Limited tensile strength compared to welded joints.

Reliability:

Ductility of rivets can absorb shock loads.

Less common today but still used in historical structures and some modern
applications.

Applications: Bridges, ships, and some aerospace components.

4. Adhesive Joints

Description: Adhesive joints use chemical bonds created by applying adhesives to

join materials.
Strength:

Strength varies widely based on adhesive type and surface preparation.

Can distribute stress over a large area, reducing stress concentration.

Reliability:

Good for joining dissimilar materials (e.g., metals to plastics).

Long curing times and sensitivity to environmental conditions
(temperature, moisture).

Applications: Automotive, aerospace, electronics, and woodworking.

Comparative Analysis

Welded vs. Bolted: Welded joints provide a continuous connection with greater
strength, while bolted joints allow for easier disassembly and maintenance.
Riveted vs. Welded: Riveted joints are less common now but were historically
favored for their shock absorption; welded joints are preferred for their
structural integrity.
Adhesive vs. Mechanical Joints: Adhesives can join dissimilar materials
effectively, but mechanical joints (like bolted or riveted) offer easier
inspection and repair.

Conclusion

Each joint type has its own strengths, weaknesses, and applications. The choice of
joint depends on factors such as load conditions, material types, environmental
conditions, and whether disassembly is required. Understanding these aspects is key
to designing reliable and effective mechanical systems.
 Experiment No. 10
Objective: To study different types of screws, such as machine screws, wood screws,
self-tapping screws, and sheet metal screws, and their applications and properties.

Studying different types of screws is essential for understanding their applications,

properties, and the best practices for their use in various mechanical and construction
projects. Here’s an overview of common screw types, their characteristics, and their
applications:

1. Machine Screws

Description: Machine screws are designed for fastening metal parts and are
typically used with a nut or tapped hole.
Properties:
Available in various diameters and lengths.
Often made from steel, stainless steel, or other materials for strength and
corrosion resistance.
Head styles include flat, pan, round, and hex.
Applications: Used in machinery, automotive, and electronics, where a strong,
permanent joint is required.

2. Wood Screws

Description: Wood screws are specifically designed for joining wood pieces
together.
Properties:
Often have coarse threads to grip the wood securely.
Usually feature a tapered shank to aid in driving into wood.
May have a sharp point to ease penetration into the material.
Applications: Used in furniture assembly, cabinetry, and other woodworking
applications.

3. Self-Tapping Screws

Description: Self-tapping screws can create their own thread when driven into a
material, eliminating the need for a pre-drilled hole.
Properties:
Available in various thread designs (e.g., sharp, blunt) for different
materials (metal, plastic, or wood).
Often have a drill point to facilitate penetration.
Applications: Commonly used in metal fabrication, HVAC, and automotive
applications where quick assembly is desired.

4. Sheet Metal Screws

Description: Sheet metal screws are designed to fasten thin sheets of metal
together or to other materials.
Properties:
Typically feature sharp threads for easy insertion into metal.
 Can be self-tapping or require a pilot hole.
Available in various head styles (e.g., pan, flat) for different applications.
Applications: Used in HVAC systems, metal enclosures, and automotive
bodywork.

Comparative Overview

Material Compatibility:
Machine screws are versatile for metal, while wood screws are specifically
designed for wood. Self-tapping and sheet metal screws excel in metal
applications.
Thread Design:

Coarse threads are common in wood screws for better grip, while finer
threads are found in machine screws for greater holding power.

Driving Mechanism:

Self-tapping screws simplify assembly by eliminating the need for a

separate drilling step, making them suitable for quick repairs.

Conclusion

Choosing the right screw type is crucial for achieving the desired strength and
reliability in assemblies. Each screw type serves specific functions based on its
design, thread characteristics, and intended material. Understanding these differences
helps in selecting the appropriate fasteners for your projects.