Design and Fabrication of vertical axis wind turbine

By

Muhammad Haroon
(1644-2020)

Wajahat Shahzad
(1674-2020)

Hasan Ali
(1649-2020)

Fayyaz Ashraf
(1643-2020)

A project presented to the

Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Science Mechanical Engineering Technology

Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology
Hamdard University, Karachi, Pakistan
 Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology
Hamdard University, Karachi, Pakistan.

CERTIFICATE

This project “Design and Fabrication of vertical axis wind turbine”

presented by Muhammad Haroon, Wajahat Shahzad, Hasan Ali & Fayyaz
Ashraf under the direction of their project advisor’s and approved by the
project examination committee, has been presented to and accepted by the
Faculty of Engineering Sciences and Technology, impartial fulfillment of
the requirements for Bachelor of Science (Mechanical Engineering
Technology).

Engr. Arif Rub (Committee Member)

(Project Advisor)

Engr. Muhammad Azhar (Committee Member)

(Co- Supervisor)

Prof. Dr. Khan Muhammad Brohi Prof. Dr. M Aamer Saleem

(Chairman, Department of (Dean, Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Science Science and Technology)
and Technology)
 ABSTRACT

This project involves the theoretical modelling, conceptual design,

manufacturing and testing of a small vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT).
The availability of inappropriate technologies in Asian countries has been a
largely-ignored factor preventing the expansion of renewable energy in Asia.
The promotion of certain expensive types of renewable energy with inbuilt
deficiencies, which detract from their benefits, has served as a disincentive
for switching to renewable energy on a large scale. Vertical axis wind
turbines (VAWTs) are a solution, but they are not yet widely used, and their
technology needs further development to address their shortcomings. VAWTs
operate with slower wind speeds than the required minimum speed of
HAWTs, and with very fast winds. VAWTs are much cheaper and easier to
build, install, operate, repair and maintain than HAWTs, do not require a large
area of land, and can be installed near each other, in between HAWTs and in
urban areas. Instead of promoting HAWTs, VAWTs should be introduced to
Asian countries, where they could also be used in hybrid energy systems with
continuous sources of power generation such as hydro dams, and with other
intermittent types of renewable energy like solar panels to address their
individual intermittency. Investment in their technology should also be
encouraged in order to address their shortcomings.
CERTIFICATE....................................................................................................................... 1
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................ 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... 5
LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER 01 ........................................................................................................................ 7
1.1 INTRODUCTION: ..................................................................................................... 7

1.2 A historical perspective of wind energy: ................................................................ 7

1.3 Power in the wind: ...................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Power Coefficient: ....................................................................................................... 8
1.5 Wind gradient:. ............................................................................................................ 8
1.6 Control of the blade: .................................................................................................... 9
1.7 Lift and drag force: ....................................................................................................... 9
1.8 LITERATURE REVIEW: ................................................................................................... 9
1.9 DRIVING INNOVATION FORWARD: ............................................................................... 9
1.10 Benefits of Vertical axis wind turbine: ........................................................................ 10
1.11 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: .............................................................................................. 11
1.12 PURPOSE ................................................................................................................... 11
1.12.1 Renewable Energy Generation: .........................................................................................................12
1.12.2 Omnidirectional Wind Capture: .........................................................................................................12
1.12.3 Structural Stability: ............................................................................................................................12
1.12.4 Aesthetic and Space Considerations: ................................................................................................12
1.12.5 Scalability and Applications:...............................................................................................................12
1.12.6 Performance in Turbulent Winds: .....................................................................................................12

CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................
13
2.1 METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 13
2.2 CALCULATIONS ........................................................................................................ 15
Numerical Example
1:............................................................................................................................................15
Numerical Example
2:............................................................................................................................................15
2.3 Working Principle .................................................................................................... 16
2.4 FLOW CHART/ BLOCK DIAGRAM .............................................................................. 18
2.5 PROCESS DIAGRAM ................................................................................................. 18
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................
18
3.0 PARTS OF PROJECT WITH DETAIL .............................................................................. 19
3.1 TURBINE SHAFT ........................................................................................................ 19
3.2 DC MOTORS.............................................................................................................. 20
 3.3 DC BATTERY............................................................................................................... 21
3.4 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD .......................................................................................... 23
3.5 Dc to Ac converter Device....................................................................................... 26
3.6 TURBINE BLADES ....................................................................................................... 28
3.7 TURBINE BEARINGS.................................................................................................... 29
3.8 Battery charging circuit............................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER 4 ........................................................................................................................ 35
4.0 Design of a system ................................................................................................... 35
4.1 Process Flow Diagram: ............................................................................................. 35
4.2 APPLICATIONS & USES ............................................................................................. 36
4.2.1 Urban and Residential Power Generation: ..........................................................................................36
4.2.2 Off-grid Power Systems: ......................................................................................................................36
4.2.3 Distributed Power Generation: ...........................................................................................................36
4.2.4 Educational and Research Applications: .............................................................................................36
HARDWARE ASSEMBLED/ COMPLETE PROJECT: .......................................................................... 38
4.3 Cost Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER 5 ........................................................................................................................ 40
5.0 CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................... 40
5.0.1 Project Idea: ........................................................................................................................................40
5.0.2 Project Progress: .................................................................................................................................40
5.0.3 Design and Development: ...................................................................................................................40
5.0.4 Integration of Advanced Technology: ....................................................................................................40
5.0.5 User Interface Design and Optimization: ............................................................................................40
5.0.6 Testing and Validation: .......................................................................................................................41
5.0.7 Deployment and Feedback: ...................................................................................................................41

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 42
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We want to express our profound thanks to Engr. Arif Rub sir, who served as
our advisor and consistently instilled in us a spirit of excellence and a passion
for knowledge. Without his support, assistance, and constant direction
throughout the project, we would not have been able to finish it. We also like
to thank Engr. Muhammad Azhar who came up with the idea for this project
and helped the students every step of the way. Last but not least, we would like
to express our gratitude to everyone who helped with the project and provided
us with information.
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 3.1 Turbine shaft ………………………………………………………………..

Fig 3.2 DC Motors …………………………………………………………………...

Fig 3.3 DC Battery ……….……….…………………………………………………

Fig 3.4 Printed Circuit Board ……………………………………………………….

Fig 3.5 Dc to Ac converter Device ………………………………………………...

Fig 3.6 TURBINE BLADES ………………………………………………..…….

Fig 3.7 TURBINE BEARINGS…………………………………………………..

Fig 3.8 Battery charging circuit …………………………………………………

 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology

CHAPTER 01

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

a. An aerodynamic point of view, the different VAWT, have a number of aspects

in common that distinguish them from the HAWT.
The blades of a VAWT rotate on a rotational surface whose axis is at right angle
to the wind direction. The aerodynamic angle of attack of the blades varies
constantly during the rotation. Moreover, one blade moves on the downwind
side of the other blade in the range of 180° to 360° of rotational angle so that the
wind speed in this area is already reduced due to the energy extracted by the
upwind blades. Hence, power generation is less in the downwind sector of
rotation. Consideration of the flow velocities and aerodynamic forces shows
that, nevertheless, a torque is produced in this way which is caused by the lift
forces. The breaking torque of the drag forces in much lower, by comparison. In
one revolution, a single rotor blade generates a mean positive torque but there
are also short sections with negative torque. The calculated variation of the total
torque also shows the reduction in positive torque on the downwind side. The
alternation of the torque with the revolution can be balanced with three rotor
blades, to such an extent that the alternating variation becomes an increasing and
decreasing torque which is positive throughout. However, torque can only
develop in a vertical axis rotor if there is circumferential speed: the vertical axis
rotor is usually not self starting. The qualitative discussion of the flow conditions
at the vertical axis rotor shows that the mathematical treatment must be more
complex than with propeller type. This means that the range of physical and
mathematical models for calculating the generation of power and the loading is
also wider. Various approaches, with a variety of weightings of the parameters
involved have been published in the literature. Most authors specify values of
0,40 to 0,42 for the maximum Cp for the Darrieus type wind turbine. In order to
analyze the aerodynamics of a rotor and to get information about its power
generation, it’s necessary to start by considering that a wind turbine works
converting the kinetic energy of a wind flow in electricity, following several
steps:

b. A vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT) is a type of wind turbine where the main
rotor shaft is set transverse to the wind while the main components are located at the
base of the turbine. This arrangement allows the generator and gearbox to be located
close to the ground, facilitating service and repair. VAWTs do not need to be pointed
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into the wind, which removes the need for wind-sensing and orientation
mechanisms.

Wind Transmissi Generat

turbine on or
Pw Pg
C Pm ηt Pt ηg
p

From the wind flow the turbine gets the energy to rotate the blades. The energy
produced by this rotations is given to the main shaft (or to a gearbox, if it is
present) and from here to the electrical generator, that provide the electricity to the
grid.

c. The vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) is used for domestic purpose and low
volume of production. VAWT requires low cost investment and less space for the
installation compared to HAWT. The rotational axis of vertical axis wind turbine is
perpendicular to the direction of wind. It can produce electricity at low wind speed.
The maintenance of vertical axis wind turbine is quite easy compared to horizontal
axis wind turbine. The efficiency of VAWT is optimal so it cannot be utilize for
larger volume of production [3]. The main advantages of VAWT compared with
HAWT are generation of electricity at ground level and the way of installation is
simple.
d. H-type wind turbines, characterized by their unique design resembling the letter
"H," have gained attention in the field of renewable energy. Their configuration
allows for improved stability and efficiency compared to traditional vertical and
horizontal axis wind turbines. This literature review synthesizes key findings from
various studies on H-type wind turbines, focusing on their design, performance,
advantages, and challenges.
e. H-type wind turbines typically feature a vertical axis design, which allows them
to capture wind from any direction. According to research by [Author, Year], the H-
type configuration provides a lower center of gravity, enhancing structural stability.
The blades of these turbines are often designed to optimize aerodynamic
performance, with studies indicating that blade shape significantly influences energy
capture (Smith et al., 2022).

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1.2 A historical perspective of wind energy:

1.2.1 Vertical axis windmills:

The first vertical windmills were founded in the Orient,
according to historians.
It is said that around 1700 B.C., Hammurabi used windmills for watering
the plains of Mesopotamia. Written evidence reveals an early use of wind
power in Afghanistan, moreover, documentation from 700 A.D. confirms that
millwright was considered an occupation of high social esteem over there [1].
Nowadays, is still possible to find in Iran and Afghanistan ruins of these windmills
that were operating for centuries The oldest windmills found were employed by
Persians and they were built with a vertical axis of rotation. Braided mats were
attached to a rotating axis, and therefore, driven by drag forces along with the
wind. The Persian windmills were characterized by asymmetry since half of the
rotor was screened with a wall.
The Chinese windmills (approx. 1000 A.D.), also built with a vertical axis,
used the braided mats as sails with no screening wall and therefore they had
the typical advantage of vertical axis windmills for omni-directionality which
allows them to operate with winds from any direction. The simplicity of the design
and construction of vertical axis devices allowed to attach a power extraction
component (pump, millstone, etc.) directly to the rotating shaft with no
requirement of redirecting the rotational movement and/or intermediate gears.
Advanced "Occidental" versions of vertical axis principle used, partially or totally,
the lift force as driving force.

1.3 Power in the wind:

The power of the wind is described by:

Where:
Pkin = kinetics power [W];
= mass flow = ρ*A*v [kg/s];
ρ = density [kg/m3]; A = area
[m2]; v = speed [m/s];

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The frequency distribution if the wind speed differs at different sites, but it fits
quite well with the Weibull distribution. An example of how measured data fit the
Weibull distribution is shown in the picture below

1.4 : Power Coefficient:

When a wind turbine is crossed by a flow of air, it can get the energy of the mass
flow and convert it in rotating energy. This conversion presents some limits, due to
the Betz’ law.
This law mathematically shows that there is a limit, during this kind of energy
conversion, that cannot be passed.
In order to explain this limit, a power coefficient Cp and it is given by:

The coefficient Cp represents the amount of energy that a specific turbine can absorb
from the wind. Numerically the Betz’ limit, for a HAWT, is 16/27 equal to 59,3%.
It means that, when a wind turbine operates in the best condition, the wind speed
after the rotor is 1/3 of the wind speed before, as shown in the picture below.

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The value of the coefficient Cp is affected by the type of wind turbine and the value
of the parameter λ, which is named tip speed ratio and is described by:

Where: ω = rotational speed of the turbine

[rpm]; r = radius of the rotor [m];
v = undisturbed wind speed [m/s];
The relation between Cp and tip speed ratio is shown in the picture below (source:
Developing wind power projects”, T. Wizelius)

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The different types of wind turbine have various value of optimal wind speed ratio
and optimal coefficient of power.
Savonius rotor, not shown in the picture above, usually presents an optimal λ value
around 1, as shown in the picture (source: Claesson, 1989)

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1.5 Wind gradient:

To calculate the wind speed at the height of the hub, it is necessary to take care that
the wind speed varies with height due to the friction against the structure of the
ground, which slows the wind. This phenomenon is named wind gradient or wind
profile and it is shown in Figure:

If a “z” height is considered, the average of the wind speed at this height is
described by:
!
= ∗

Where:
vz0 = wind speed at the reference height z0 [m/s]; z0 = reference height
[m]; α = value depending on the roughness class of the terrain, as shown
in the following table;

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Roughness Type of terrain α

class
0 Open water 0.1

1 Open plain 0.15

2 Countryside 0.2
with farms
3 Villages and 0.3
low forest

1.6 Control of the blade:

Usually a wind turbine operates in a range of wind speed form 4 m/s to 25 m/s. In
this range the generated power increase to the rated power, usually located between
11 m/s and 15 m/s.
After the value of rated power, a control system is necessary to avoid that too much
high wind speed causes a too high rotational speed that can create strong stress on
the tower and damage it. By changing the angle attack and the pitch angle, the
power of the turbine can be controlled and there are passive control and active
control.
The passive control, for a wind turbine with fixed rotational speed, takes advantage
from the fact that, when the wind speed increases, α increases and the blade goes
toward the stall situation, decreasing the value of the lift force and of the coefficient
of power Cp: this is a cheap technique that doesn’t need any special equipment, but
creates strong stress on the tower structure.
The active control, for wind turbine with variable rotational speed, uses some
electronically equipment to rotate the blade around their own axis in order to reach
the stall or to reach the feather of the blades, as shown in the following pictures:

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Pitch control toward the stall:

By rotating the blade, the angle of attack is
increased and the β pitch angle is reduced. This
situation bring to the stall of the blade, with a
strong reduction of the component Fc, the one that
make the turbine rotate. This is a quick way to
control the rotational speed, but creates stress on
the tower (Fs is still high).

Pitch control toward the feather:

By increasing the angle β, a reduction
of the rotational speed can be got, due
to the reduction of the component Fc.
This is a slower way of control the
blades, compared with the pitch control
toward the stall, but it reduces much
more the stress on the tower, by
decreasing also the value of Fs.

1.7 Lift and drag force:

When the air flow acts on the blade, it generates two kind of forces, named lift and
drag, which are responsible for the rotating of the blades.
An analysis of these forces, acting on a 3 blades HAWT, shown in the following
picture, can be done:

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Torque generation on a wind turbine

Where:
U = undisturbed wind speed;
Wx = component of wind speed that interacts with the blade;
Vx = rotational speed of the rotor; α
= angle of attack;

Aerodynamics forces on the blade

The undisturbed wind speed hits the blades with a certain angle α, named angle of attack, respect
to chord line of the blade.
The relationship between the rotational speed of the turbine and the undisturbed
wind speed is related to the angle φ:

= " #$%&'
In a HAWT with variable speed this angle is used to control the rotational speed,
with the stall control or pitch control: a variation of this angle is used to increase
the turbine rotational speed when the wind speed is under the rated one and to stop
the increasing of the rotational speed when the wind speed gets a value higher than
the rated one.
CL and CD are the lift coefficient and the drag coefficient and they depend on the
value of angle α. The lift coefficient is higher than the drag one and it increases
with the increasing of α until the value of 15°, where it shows a value of about 1,2.
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After this value it decreased strongly due to the stall effect. Instead the value of C D
increases with the increasing of the angle of attack, passing the value of 0,3 just for
α > 20°.

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In a VAWT the angle of attack changes during the rotation and the direction from
which the wind invests the rotor is not so important like in the HAWT, where a yam
system is necessary to rotate the wind turbine in front of the direction of the wind
speed.
The resultant force Fris of the vector sum of FL and FD can be divided in two
component: Fc: on the direction of the rotation of the wind turbine; it’s the
force that make the turbine rotate; Fs: releases its energy on the structure of
the tower, flexing it.

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1.8 LITERATURE REVIEW:

Design and Structure;

H-type wind turbines typically feature a vertical axis design, which allows them to
capture wind from any direction. According to research by [Author, Year], the H-
type configuration provides a lower center of gravity, enhancing structural stability.
The blades of these turbines are often designed to optimize aerodynamic
performance, with studies indicating that blade shape significantly influences energy
capture (Smith et al., 2022).

Performance and Efficiency;

Several studies have evaluated the performance metrics of H-type wind turbines. A
comparative analysis by [Author, Year] showed that H-type turbines can achieve
higher efficiency in turbulent wind conditions due to their ability to harness wind
from varying angles. Additionally, a study conducted by [Author, Year] found that
these turbines can operate effectively at lower wind speeds, which is advantageous
in regions with limited wind resources.

Omnidirectional Operation:
Unlike traditional turbines, H-type designs can utilize wind from any direction,
reducing the need for complex yaw mechanisms.

Energy Conversion Efficiency;

While some studies report satisfactory performance, others highlight that energy
conversion efficiency is still lower than that of conventional horizontal-axis turbines
(Brown et al., 2023).

Design and Material Limitations:

The materials used in H-type turbines must withstand various environmental
conditions, which can increase production costs and limit widespread adoption
(Garcia & Patel, 2022).

1.9 DRIVING INNOVATION FORWARD:

Driving innovation forward, researchers and manufacturers are exploring
advancements in H-type VAWT design, materials, and technology, such as:
Advanced blade materials and designs
- Optimization of control systems and power generation.
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- Integration with building architecture and urban planning.

- Development of floating and offshore installations.
- Energy storage and grid management integration.

1.10 Benefits of Vertical axis wind turbine:

The following are the benefits of vertical axis H type wind turbine:
- Increased energy production.
- Improved reliability.
- Reduced maintenance.
- Expanded installation options.
- Captures wind from any direction.
- Suitable for turbulent or urban wind environments.
- Reduced noise and vibration.
- Compact design.
- Potential for building integration.

1.11 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:

a. Injector Testing Imperatives enhanced Spark engine efficiency mandates

advanced injector testing machinery, owing to deficiencies in current
methodologies.

b. Diverse Bench capabilities commercially available Spark Tech Injector test

benches vary in functionalities and constraints, necessitating meticulous selection
aligned with project needs.

c. The Design and Development of Spark Tech Injector Test Bench boasts an
intuitive interface, requiring minimal training, rendering it accessible to novices and
small-scale operators.

d. Critical Performance Metrics: Precision, reliability, and repeatability emerge

as pivotal metrics shaping Spark injector performance evaluations, underscoring the
significance of accurate assessment methodologies.

1.12 PURPOSE

The purpose of the Design and Development of vertical axis wind turbine project is
multifaceted, aiming to address several critical needs within the electromechanical
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industry related to electricity. Below is a detailed explanation of the purposes served

by this project:

1.12.1 Renewable Energy Generation:

Sustainability: VAWTs convert kinetic energy from wind into electrical energy,
contributing to a sustainable energy supply and reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
Carbon Footprint Reduction: By harnessing wind energy, VAWTs help decrease
greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to climate change mitigation.

1.12.2 Omnidirectional Wind Capture:

Wind Direction Flexibility: VAWTs can effectively capture wind from any direction
without the need for a yaw mechanism. This feature is particularly beneficial in
urban or variable wind environments where wind directions can change frequently.

1.12.3 Structural Stability:

Lower Center of Gravity: The design of VAWTs usually positions the rotor and other
components lower to the ground, resulting in improved stability. This characteristic
makes them less susceptible to damage from high winds.

Reduced Wind Loading: Their vertical structure can handle turbulent winds better,
minimizing the structural stress typically experienced by horizontal axis turbines.

1.12.4 Aesthetic and Space Considerations:

Design Flexibility: The unique appearance of VAWTs allows for creative integration
into architectural designs. They can be installed on rooftops, urban landscapes, or
even as artistic installations.

Compact Size: Their vertical design typically requires less horizontal space, making
them ideal for urban environments or areas with limited space.

1.12.5 Scalability and Applications:

Small-Scale Energy Solutions: VAWTs are particularly well-suited for small-scale
applications, such as powering homes, streetlights, or remote telecommunications
equipment. They can be easily scaled up for community or industrial uses.
Hybrid Systems: VAWTs can be integrated with other renewable energy sources,
like solar panels, to create hybrid systems that enhance overall energy generation
and reliability.

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1.12.6 Performance in Turbulent Winds:

Adaptability to Conditions: VAWTs perform well in turbulent and variable wind
conditions, making them suitable for regions where wind patterns are
inconsistent.
Low Start-Up Speed: Many VAWT designs can start generating electricity at
lower wind speeds compared to traditional turbines, allowing for more
consistent energy production.

CHAPTER 2
2.1 METHODOLOGY

Methodology for the Vertical axis turbine are below:

a. Identification of problems: in vertical axis turbine project preparing we

faces several problems which will identify and find solution for the problem.

b. Literature survey: the survey of literature is mandatory in which we will

find that the literature is correct not fake.

c. Materials selection for vertical axis turbine: one of the main and
important part of project is to select correct materials for the project to perform the
best of best. So we select base material iron, shaft materials steel, and wings
materials selected thin sheet for easy rotating.

d. Selection of bearings: for easy rotation and to remove and less the fraction
we will use bearings for the vertical axis wind turbine to easily and rotate on very
slow wind to perform best.

e. Selection of motors: we select motors for the production of current to be

use for the uses of electricity. The best and good motor are to be selected for more
and more power production.
f. Selection of base: Vertical axis wind turbine base are used to balance the
whole body of the turbine and to save turbine from wear and tear and to run
smoothly.

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g. Angles of blades: in vertical wind turbine angles of blades are very

important for maximum performance obtained. The best angles selection will take
more wind and will rotate easily and smoothly and will give best performance.

h. Select the length and diameter of the shaft: shaft length selection are very
important to get best and easy rotation with out friction and any disturbance and for
the easy supports.

i. Assembly of units: after the selection of all products for vertical axis wind
turbine we will assemble all the unit together first we will make base for support,
then will put bearings for easy rotation and pass shaft in it then will attached wings
to rotate turbine with air and finally install motors and battery for electricity
production.

2.2 CALCULATIONS:
different layouts were investigated. Results show that VAWTs increase each
other’s performance by up to 15%, and this optimal layout was for a turbine
spacing of three turbine diameters, an array angle, b,of60 , and when the rotors
were corotating. Yet, this layout was at the limit of the scope, and the other results
indicated an optimal angle around 75 , hence the augmentations are likely to be
higher for layouts in this region. Key f indings of the study were:
• As jbj approached 90 , the performance of R1 increased.
• R2 peaked in power augmentation at at jbj75.
• The total efficiency increased as the turbine spacing increased.
• d. Increasing the number of turbines further increased the overall efficiency.
• e. Two-dimensional CFD simulations produced accurate results when
compared to wind tunnel tests, since the values were within 6.5% of
experimental data for the augmented layouts.
• f. Greater performance of pairs was predominately due to a distorted flow
field that was established in the vicinity of the VAWTs, and in these regions,
fluid travelled with a greater speed than the freestream velocity.

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Key HDWT parameters & performance measure:

The H-rotor Darrieus wind turbine (HDWT) is significantly influenced by its
design parameters, and it is important to note some of the key parameters of the
HDWT in this study. The main parameter associated with HDWT is the rotor
solidity, aspect ratio, tip speed ratio, chord-based Reynolds number, coefficient of
moment, and coefficient of power. The solidity of HDWT is the ratio of the total
rotor planform area to the total swept area expressed as a function of the number
of blades N, chord length of the blades c, (m), and diameter of turbine D, (m) as
shown by Equation (1) below:
σ=Nc D (1)
The diameter-based aspect ratio and chord-based aspect ratio are given concerning
the height of the blade, H (m) as expressed in Equation (2) and Equation (3)
respectively below:
AR=H D (2)
ARc=H c (3)
The tip speed ratio is the most important parameter for HDWT design
performance measure (TSR) and it is defined as the ratio between the transitional
speed at the tip of the HDWT blades and freestream wind velocity V∞, (m/s)
where ω is the angular velocity, (rad/s) and R is the radius of the HDWT, (m)
respectively.
TSR=ωR V∞ (4)
Chord-based Reynolds number, Rec has an important effect on HDWT
performance, especially on smaller rotors as increasing this will cause the lift
coefficient to rise and reduce the drag coefficient of the airfoil [37,50]. Equation
(5) shows the Rec is directly proportional to the relative air speed of the airfoil w,
(m/s) and blade chord length. The relative air speed is the sum of peripheral speed
and freestream wind velocity reduced by induction factor a as expressed in
Equation (6).
Rec=wc V′ (5)
w=ωR+V′ (1 a) (6)
Coefficient of moment, Cm and coefficient of power, Cp are calculated for
performance measures of HDWT. The moment coefficient and power coefficient
are given as a function of average mechanical torque, T (Nm), density, ρ [kg/m3],
HDWT swept area, A [m2], HDWT radius, R (m), and the augmented velocity,
which is the accelerated inlet velocity due to the cooling tower shape, V′ [m/s].
Equation (7) shows the turbine’s swept area whereas Equation (8) and Equation
(9) show the moment coefficient and power coefficient respectively.
Sweptarea(A)=H×D (7)
Cm= T 0.5ρARV′2 (8)
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Cp=P turbine/P available = Tω/0.5ρAV′3 = T/0.5ρARV′2 ×Rω/V′ =Cm×TSR (9)

Numerical Example 1:
Determine the power in the wind if the wind speed is 20 m/s and blade length is
50 m.

Solution:

Given:

Wind speed v = 20 m/s,

Blade length l = 50 m,

Air density ρ = 1.23 kg/m.

The area is given by, Area formula

A = π × 2500

= 7850 m

The wind power formula is given as,

Wind energy formula

wind power calculation

P = 38622 W

Numerical Example 2:
A wind turbine travels with the speed is 10 m/s and has a blade length of 20 m.
Determine wind power.

Solution:

Given:

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Wind speed v =10 m/s,

Blade length l = 20 m,

air density ρ = 1.23 kg/m3,

area ,Area formula

= π × 400

= 1256 This is the rendered form of the equation. You can not edit this directly.
Right click will give you the option to save the image, and in most browsers you can
drag the image onto your desktop or another program.

The wind power formula is given as,

Wind energy formula

= 0.5 × 1.23 × 1256 × 1000

P = 772440 W.

2.3 Working Principle

Working Principle of the vertical axis wind turbine are below:

Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) operate by converting wind energy into
mechanical energy, which is then transformed into electricity. Here’s a breakdown
of the working principle:
1. Wind Capture
• Blade Design: VAWTs typically have blades mounted on a vertical axis. The
two common types are:
• Darrieus Turbines: These use curved blades that generate lift, similar to an
airplane wing.
• Savonius Turbines: These have scooped blades that create drag, effectively
capturing wind.
2. Rotation
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• Wind Interaction: As wind flows over the blades, it creates a pressure

difference:
• Darrieus: The wind causes the blades to rotate around the vertical axis due to
lift generated on one side.
• Savonius: The wind pushes against the scooped blades, causing rotation
through drag.
3. Energy Conversion
• Mechanical to Electrical: The rotation of the blades drives a shaft connected
to a generator. As the shaft turns, the generator converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
4. Output Generation
• The electricity produced can be used to power local systems or fed into the
electrical grid.
5. Omnidirectional Operation
• Wind Independence: Unlike horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs),
VAWTs do not need to be oriented towards the wind, allowing them to
function effectively in turbulent or variable wind conditions.

Working Principle of Vertical axis H type wind turbine

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2.4 FLOW CHART/ BLOCK DIAGRAM

Wings frame

Blade Mechanical
s box

DC Staffer PCB 12 V
Moter Circuit Batter
y

Pipe Pool Battery

Charging
Circuit

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2.5 PROCESS GIAGRAM:

CHAPTER 3

3.0 PARTS OF PROJECT WITH DETAIL :

3.1 TURBINE SHAFT:

3.1.1 Definition:
A wind turbine shaft plays a critical role in transferring mechanical
energy generated by the blades into electrical energy through the generator. It is a
key component in the drivetrain of a wind turbine. Here’s a detailed breakdown:

Types of Shafts in Wind Turbines:

Wind turbines generally have two main types of
shafts:
• Low-Speed Shaft (Main Shaft): Connected directly to the wind turbine rotor
(the blades and hub).
• High-Speed Shaft: Connected to the generator through a gearbox to increase
the rotational speed.
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Low-Speed Shaft (Main Shaft):

• Material: Typically made of steel or a high-strength alloy to withstand
bending and torque forces from the blades.
• Rotation Speed: Generally rotates between 10 to 60 RPM (Revolutions Per
Minute), depending on the turbine design and wind conditions.
• Function: Transmits rotational energy from the rotor hub to the gearbox.
• Size and Strength: Since the blades capture wind energy over a large area,
the low-speed shaft must be very strong to handle the large forces and
moments generated. This shaft is usually thick, with robust bearings
supporting it on either end.
• Bearings: Large main bearings are used to reduce friction and wear on the
shaft. They handle axial and radial loads.
High-Speed Shaft:
• Material: Typically made of steel or other high-strength materials but is
usually thinner than the low-speed shaft because it transmits much lower
torque at higher rotational speeds.
• Rotation Speed: After passing through the gearbox, the speed increases to
around 1,000 to 1,800 RPM, which is suitable for generating electricity
through the generator.
• Function: Transfers mechanical power from the gearbox to the generator.
• Bearings and Couplings: This shaft is also supported by bearings and often
connected to the generator through flexible couplings to accommodate any
misalignment or vibration.

Figer 3.1

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3.2 DC MOTORS:
3.2.1 Definition:
A DC motor (Direct Current motor) is an electromechanical
device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy through the interaction
of a magnetic field and electric current. This is achieved by applying a direct current
to the motor, which causes it to produce rotational motion. DC motors are widely
used in various applications due to their ability to provide precise speed control and
high starting torque. Some wind turbines utilize permanent magnet DC motors as
opposed to generators for their operation. These motors utilize magnetic fields
generated through the spiral movement of a magnet within these devices in order to
produce electricity.

Basic Principles of Operation:

The operation of a DC motor is based on Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic
Induction and Lorentz Force Law:

• Electromagnetic Induction: When current flows through a conductor (like a

wire), it generates a magnetic field around it.
• Lorentz Force: A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field
experiences a force perpendicular to both the current and the field. This force
produces rotational movement in the case of a DC motor.
Main Components of a DC Motor:
• Stator: The stationary part of the motor that houses the magnets (or
electromagnets). It provides the magnetic field necessary for the motor’s
operation.
• Rotor (Armature): The rotating part of the motor where the current flows,
generating a magnetic field that interacts with the stator’s magnetic field. The
interaction between these fields produces torque, causing the rotor to spin.
• Commutator: A mechanical switch that reverses the direction of current in
the armature windings, allowing the rotor to keep turning in the same
direction. It ensures that the torque generated by the motor remains
unidirectional.
• Brushes: These are typically made of carbon or graphite. They maintain
electrical contact with the rotating commutator, allowing current to flow into
the armature windings.
• Windings: Coils of wire through which current flows, generating a magnetic
field in the armature. The windings are usually made of copper wire for
efficient conductivity.

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• Shaft: A metal rod connected to the rotor, responsible for transferring

mechanical power (rotational motion) to the external load.
• Bearings: These support the rotating shaft, allowing it to spin freely with
minimal friction.
Advantages of DC Motors:
• High Starting Torque: DC motors are capable of producing high torque at
low speeds, making them ideal for applications requiring heavy lifting or
startup under load.
• Simple Control: Speed control of DC motors is simpler compared to AC
motors, often requiring just a variation in applied voltage.
• Wide Speed Range: They can operate efficiently over a wide range of speeds.

Figer 3.2

3.3 DC BATTERY

3.3.1 Definition: A DC battery, also known as a direct current battery, is a device

that stores chemical energy and converts it into electrical energy. It consists of one
or more electrochemical cells, each comprising positive and negative electrodes
immersed in an electrolyte. The battery produces direct current (DC) electricity,
where electrons flow in one direction only.

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Figer 3.3

Function: The primary function of a DC battery is to provide electrical power for

various devices and systems. When connected to a circuit, the battery supplies a
steady stream of direct current to power electronic devices, such as flashlights,
radios, mobile phones, and even vehicles.

Working Principle: The working principle of a DC battery involves chemical

reactions within its cells. During discharge, chemical reactions occur at the
electrodes, causing electrons to flow through the external circuit, providing electrical
energy. In rechargeable batteries, such as lead-acid or lithium-ion batteries, the
process can be reversed during charging, allowing the battery to store energy again.

Purpose: The purpose of a DC battery is to provide portable and reliable power for
a wide range of applications. These include:

Consumer Electronics: DC batteries power devices such as smartphones, laptops,

cameras, and portable gaming consoles.
Transportation: Electric vehicles rely on DC batteries for propulsion, offering an
environmentally friendly alternative to internal combustion engines.
Backup Power: DC batteries serve as backup power sources for critical systems
like emergency lighting, telecommunications equipment, and medical devices.
Renewable Energy Storage: DC batteries store energy generated from renewable
sources like solar panels and wind turbines, allowing for more efficient use and grid
stability.

Use: DC batteries are utilized in numerous everyday applications and industries:

Household Devices: Powering remote controls, clocks, toys, and other small
electronics.
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Automotive: Starting, lighting, and ignition systems in vehicles, as well as powering

accessories and hybrid or electric drivetrains.
Marine and Aviation: Providing power for navigation equipment, communication
systems, and lighting on boats and aircraft.
Telecommunications: Offering backup power for cell towers, telephone exchanges,
and networking equipment to maintain connectivity during outages. Industrial
Applications: Powering machinery, control systems, and emergency lighting in
factories and warehouses.

3.4 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD:

3.4.1 Definition: A Printed Circuit Board (PCB) is a fundamental component used

in almost all electronic devices to mechanically support and electrically connect
electronic components. It consists of a thin board made of insulating material
(usually fiberglass or other non-conductive substrates), with conductive pathways
etched or printed on it to form electrical connections between components.

Basic Structure of a PCB:

A PCB has several key layers and components that work together to form a complete
circuit. Here’s a detailed breakdown:
A. Substrate (Base Material):
• The substrate is the base material that gives the PCB its structure and rigidity. It is often
made from a non-conductive material, usually FR-4, a flame-retardant fiberglass laminate.
For flexible PCBs, materials like polyimide or other flexible polymers are used.
• It provides a stable platform for the rest of the PCB and ensures the board remains intact
under varying environmental conditions (heat, humidity, etc.).
B. Conductive Layers (Copper Traces):
• PCBs typically have one or more layers of copper which serve as the electrical pathways
for current flow. These copper layers are etched or printed in the desired pattern to create
electrical connections between the components on the board.
• Single-layer PCBs have copper on one side of the board, while double-layer PCBs have
copper traces on both sides. Multilayer PCBs contain multiple layers of copper, with
insulating layers in between, allowing for more complex circuitry.
• The copper traces are the equivalent of wires in traditional circuits, but they are flat and
allow for efficient use of space in compact devices.
C. Solder Mask:
• The solder mask is a protective coating applied over the copper traces. It insulates the
copper, preventing unintended contact with other conductive materials, and protects it from
environmental damage, such as moisture or corrosion.

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• The solder mask is often green but can come in other colors like red, blue, or black. The
areas left uncovered by the solder mask expose the copper pads where components will be
soldered.
D. Silkscreen Layer:
• The silkscreen layer is a printed layer of text or symbols on the PCB, used to label
component locations, reference designators (like R1 for resistors or C1 for capacitors), test
points, and other information to help engineers and technicians assemble or troubleshoot
the board.
• The silkscreen is typically white, though other colors can be used depending on the design
or manufacturer.
E. Pads and Vias:
• Pads are exposed areas of copper where electronic components are soldered onto the PCB.
They serve as the connection points for the legs or terminals of components like resistors,
capacitors, or integrated circuits.
• Vias are small, drilled holes in the PCB that are plated with copper. They allow electrical
connections between layers in multilayer PCBs, enabling more complex routing of signals.

PCB Types:

PCBs come in various configurations depending on the complexity of the circuit and
the application. The main types include:

A. Single-Layer PCBs:

• These PCBs have a single layer of copper on one side of the substrate. They are
the simplest and most cost-effective, used in simple electronic devices like
calculators, radios, or toys.

B. Double-Layer PCBs:

• Double-layer PCBs have copper traces on both sides of the substrate, allowing
more complex circuits and increased component density. These are used in more
advanced devices like power supplies, amplifiers, or home appliances.

C. Multilayer PCBs:

• Multilayer PCBs contain three or more layers of copper with insulating layers in
between. These layers allow complex circuits to be routed in smaller areas.
Multilayer PCBs are common in computers, smartphones, medical devices, and
high-performance electronics.

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D. Rigid, Flex, and Rigid-Flex PCBs:

• Rigid PCBs: These are the most common type, where the substrate is made
from rigid material like fiberglass.
• Flexible PCBs (Flex PCBs): These use flexible materials like polyimide and
are used in devices where the circuit board must bend or flex (e.g., in wearable
devices or foldable displays).
• Rigid-Flex PCBs: These are a combination of both rigid and flexible PCBs.
They are used in complex applications where both flexibility and rigidity are
needed, such as in aerospace, military equipment, or medical implants.

Applications of PCBs:

PCBs are used in virtually every modern electronic device, including:

• Consumer Electronics: Smartphones, laptops, TVs, and gaming consoles.

• Industrial Equipment: Power supplies, control panels, and machinery
automation.
• Medical Devices: Heart monitors, MRI machines, and pacemakers.
• Automotive Systems: ECUs, sensors, and lighting systems.
• Aerospace and Military: Avionics, radar systems, and communications
equipment.

Figer 3.4
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3.5 Dc to Ac converter Device:

3.5.1 Definition:
A DC to AC converter, also known as an inverter, is an electrical
device that converts direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC). These devices
are crucial in applications where DC power, typically generated from batteries, solar
panels, or other DC sources, needs to be converted to AC power for use in electrical
appliances, grid systems, or industrial equipment, which typically operate on AC
power.

Figer 3.5
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Basic Principle of Operation:

The main function of a DC to AC converter is to take
the constant direct current (DC) input and convert it into a varying alternating
current (AC) output. This process involves switching circuits, filters, and sometimes
transformers to shape the AC waveform to a suitable voltage and frequency.

▪ DC Input: The DC power comes from sources like batteries, solar panels, or
DC power supplies. The voltage level can vary depending on the application
(e.g., 12V, 24V, or 48V for smaller systems, or hundreds of volts in larger
setups).
▪ AC Output: The AC output is typically at a standard voltage (like 120V or
230V) and frequency (50Hz or 60Hz), depending on the region and
application.
▪
Key Specifications and Parameters:
When selecting a DC to AC converter,
several specifications are important:
A. Input Voltage:
• The inverter’s input voltage should match the DC power source, such as a
12V, 24V, or 48V battery. For solar power systems, input voltage might
range higher.
B. Output Voltage:
• The output voltage is typically 120V AC (in regions like North America)
or 230V AC (in most other parts of the world).

C. Output Frequency:
▪ The standard AC frequency is either 50Hz (common in Europe, Asia)
or 60Hz (common in North America), depending on the regional
power grid standards.
D. Power Rating (Wattage):
▪ Continuous Power Rating: The maximum amount of power the
inverter can supply continuously. It is crucial to match this with the
load the inverter will be powering.

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▪Surge Power Rating: The maximum power the inverter can supply for
short durations (typically a few seconds) to handle startup loads from
appliances with motors, like refrigerators or power tools.
E. Efficiency:
▪ This defines how much of the input DC power is converted into
usable AC power. Higher efficiency means less power loss as heat.
F. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD):
▪ THD measures the distortion of the AC waveform. Lower THD values
(closer to 0%) indicate a cleaner, more sinusoidal output, which is
crucial for sensitive electronics.

Applications of DC to AC Converters:
Inverters are widely used in many
industries and everyday devices. Here are some common applications:
A. Solar Power Systems:
▪ Solar panels generate DC power, which is converted to AC by an
inverter so it can be used in homes or fed into the grid. Solar inverters
often incorporate maximum power point tracking (MPPT) to optimize
power generation.
B. Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS):
▪ A UPS system uses a DC to AC inverter to provide emergency AC
power when the primary power source fails. It draws DC power from a
battery backup system.
C. Electric Vehicles (EVs):
▪ Inverters are used in electric vehicles to convert the DC power from the
battery into AC to drive the AC motors. Modern EVs also use
sophisticated inverters for regenerative braking.

D. Household and Consumer Electronics:

• Many small inverters are used in portable power stations or car
adapters to power household devices (like laptops or phone
chargers) from a DC source (such as a car battery).
E. Industrial Applications:

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▪ Inverters are used in industries to control AC motors, drives, and

pumps, where variable frequency drives (VFDs) allow precise
control of motor speed and torque.

Advantages of DC to AC Converters:
• Versatility: Inverters allow DC power sources, such as batteries
and solar panels, to power standard AC equipment.
• Energy Efficiency: High-quality inverters operate with high
efficiency, minimizing energy loss during conversion.
• Portability: Many inverters are designed for mobile or portable
applications, allowing users to access AC power in remote
locations.

3.6 TURBINE BLADES:

3.6.1 Definition:
Wind turbine blades are the key components of a wind turbine that
capture wind energy and convert it into rotational mechanical energy. This energy is
then transformed into electrical power by a generator. The design, material, and
structure of the blades are crucial for the efficiency and performance of the wind
turbine. These blades are designed with aerodynamic principles in mind to maximize
energy capture from the wind while minimizing resistance.

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Basic Function of Wind Turbine Blades:

The primary role of wind turbine blades
is to harness the kinetic energy of the wind. As the wind flows over the blades, it
creates a difference in pressure between the two sides of each blade, generating lift
(like an airplane wing). This lift force causes the blades to rotate around the rotor
hub, which in turn spins a shaft connected to a generator, producing electricity.

Key Components and Design Features:

Airfoil Shape:
• Design: The cross-section of wind turbine blades resembles the shape of
an airfoil (like an airplane wing), which allows for smooth airflow over
the surface. This shape helps generate lift on one side of the blade while
reducing pressure on the other side, resulting in rotation.

Length and Size:

• Blade Length: Longer blades capture more wind energy because they
sweep a larger area. The energy captured is proportional to the square of
the blade length, meaning longer blades result in significantly more
power generation.
• Size Considerations: However, longer blades also experience more
stress and require stronger materials and engineering solutions to prevent
damage or failure during high winds.
• Typical Sizes: Modern onshore wind turbine blades are typically
between 40 to 70 meters in length, while offshore turbines can have
blades as long as 100 meters or more.

• Function: The shape enables the blades to efficiently convert wind

energy into mechanical energy by reducing drag and maximizing lift. The
blade’s shape ensures the turbine operates efficiently at various wind
speeds.

wist and Taper:

▪ Twist: Wind turbine blades often have a twist along their length to account
for the difference in wind speed experienced by the blade’s tip versus its
base. The tip moves faster through the air than the root, so the angle of attack
(the angle at which wind hits the blade) must vary along the blade’s length
to ensure optimal energy capture.

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▪ Taper: The blades are typically wider at the base and narrower toward the
tip. This tapering reduces weight and stress on the blade’s structure while
maintaining sufficient surface area to capture wind energy near the root.

Materials Used in Wind Turbine Blades:

Wind turbine blades must be lightweight
yet strong enough to withstand high wind loads, fatigue, and environmental
conditions. The materials commonly used include:
Fiberglass-Reinforced Polyester or Epoxy:
▪ Description: Fiberglass is the most commonly used material for wind
turbine blades because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, flexibility, and
durability.
▪ Advantages: Fiberglass is relatively affordable, corrosion-resistant, and can
be molded into complex shapes, making it ideal for the large blades needed
in modern wind turbines.

Carbon Fiber Composites:

▪ Description: Carbon fiber is lighter and stronger than fiberglass, offering
superior performance, especially for longer blades.
▪ Advantages: Carbon fiber allows for longer blades with reduced weight,
which can enhance efficiency and durability. However, it is more expensive
than fiberglass.
▪ Usage: Carbon fiber is often used in combination with fiberglass in critical
parts of the blade, particularly near the root where the load is highest.
Wood Epoxy or Hybrid Materials:
▪ Description: Some wind turbine blades are made from laminated wood
(such as balsa wood) combined with epoxy resins, creating a lightweight,
strong structure.
▪ Usage: These materials are more common in smaller turbines or special
designs and are prized for their sustainability and strength.

Aerodynamic Considerations:
The efficiency of wind turbine blades depends
heavily on their aerodynamic design. Key factors include:
Lift and Drag:
▪ Lift: The primary force driving blade rotation is lift, which is generated by
the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the blade.
▪ Drag: Wind turbine blades are designed to minimize drag (resistance) to
allow for smooth airflow and reduce energy losses.
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▪ Optimization: A balance between lift and drag is essential to maximize

power production. High lift and low drag are achieved through precise airfoil
design and blade shape.
Angle of Attack:
▪ Description: The angle at which wind hits the blade’s airfoil shape is called
the angle of attack. Adjusting this angle affects how much lift is generated
and how efficiently the wind turbine operates.
▪ Variable Pitch Blades: Modern wind turbines often have blades with
adjustable pitch (the angle of the blades relative to the wind). This allows
the turbine to adjust its blades for optimal performance in different wind
conditions, increasing efficiency and protecting the turbine from damage in
high winds.

Structural and Mechanical Properties:

Wind turbine blades must withstand
various forces and stresses, including:
Fatigue:
▪ Description: Wind turbine blades are subject to cyclic loading as they rotate,
with each section of the blade experiencing fluctuating stresses from wind
forces. Over time, this can lead to material fatigue and failure.
▪ Solutions: Engineers design blades with materials and shapes that resist
fatigue, and they are tested under simulated conditions to ensure longevity.
Aerodynamic Loading:
▪ Description: Wind pressure exerts considerable force on the blades,
especially at high wind speeds. This aerodynamic loading can lead to
bending and deflection, particularly near the tip of the blade.
▪ Flexibility: Wind turbine blades are designed to be slightly flexible so they
can bend rather than break under stress, particularly during gusts or storms.
Vibration and Resonance:
▪ Description: Wind turbines can experience vibrations caused by turbulent
winds or imbalances in the blade. If these vibrations match the natural
resonant frequency of the turbine, they can cause damage or failure.
▪ Control: Blades are designed to avoid resonance and often include damping
features to reduce the effects of vibration.
Blade Manufacturing and Assembly:
The construction of wind turbine blades is a
highly specialized process:
Molding Process:

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▪ Description: Most blades are manufactured using a process called vacuum-

assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM), where layers of fiberglass or
carbon fiber are placed in a mold and infused with resin. This creates a
strong, lightweight composite structure.
▪ Precision: The molds are designed to create the complex airfoil shape of the
blades, and the materials are laid down with precision to ensure structural
integrity.
Blade Transportation and Installation:
▪ Logistics: Transporting large wind turbine blades (which can exceed 70
meters in length) is a complex task. Special trailers and transport methods
are used to move the blades from the factory to the installation site.
▪ Assembly: At the wind farm, the blades are attached to the hub of the turbine
using precision engineering techniques to ensure proper alignment and
balance.

Operational Considerations:
Wind turbine blades are designed to operate in a wide
range of environmental conditions. Key factors include:
A. Wind Speed:
▪ Cut-in Speed: The minimum wind speed at which the turbine starts
generating power (typically around 3-4 meters per second).
▪ Rated Speed: The wind speed at which the turbine generates its maximum
rated power.
▪ Cut-out Speed: The wind speed at which the turbine is shut down to avoid
damage (typically around 25 meters per second). Modern turbines can adjust
the pitch of their blades to reduce stress in high winds.
B. Maintenance:
• Durability: Wind turbine blades are designed to last for 20-30 years, but
they require periodic maintenance to inspect for wear, cracks, or damage.
• Inspection: Technicians use drones, sensors, and manual inspections
to check blades for any signs of damage or fatigue, ensuring long-term
operation and safety.

Challenges and Future Developments:

Wind turbine blade design is continuously
evolving to improve efficiency, durability, and environmental impact. Key
challenges and future trends include:
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A. Larger Blades for Increased Efficiency:

• Trend: The industry is moving toward larger blades to capture more wind
energy, particularly for offshore wind turbines. Blades exceeding 100 meters
in length are now being developed for next-generation turbines.
B. Recyclability and Sustainability:
• Challenge: Wind turbine blades are difficult to recycle due to the composite
materials used in their construction. Research is ongoing to develop more
recyclable or biodegradable materials for blades.
• Future: Innovations in thermoplastic composites and biocomposites could
allow for easier recycling of blades at the end of their life cycle.

3.7 TURBINE BEARINGS:

3.7.1 Definition:
Turbine bearings are critical components used in various types of
turbines, such as wind, steam, gas, and hydraulic turbines. Their primary function is
to support the rotating shaft or rotor within the turbine, allowing it to spin smoothly
with minimal friction, while also managing the various forces and loads that the
turbine experiences during operation. Turbine bearings are essential for the reliable
and efficient operation of turbines, as they help maintain rotor stability, reduce wear,
and ensure efficient energy transfer.

Figer 3.7
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Basic Function of Turbine Bearings:

The primary role of turbine bearings is to:
• Support the turbine shaft or rotor and allow it to rotate with minimal friction.
• Handle axial and radial loads exerted on the rotor during turbine operation.
• Maintain alignment between the rotating and stationary components,
preventing excessive wear or misalignment.
• Reduce vibration and other mechanical stresses on the turbine’s components.
In turbine applications, the bearings must perform reliably under high speeds,
temperatures, and loads, often in challenging environments.
Types of Turbine Bearings:
There are several types of bearings used in turbines, each designed to manage
different forces and operational requirements. The main types are:
A. Journal Bearings (Sleeve Bearings):
• Description: Journal bearings are sliding contact bearings in which the
rotating shaft (journal) is supported by a thin film of lubricant, separating
the bearing surfaces from the shaft. These are commonly used in high-speed
turbine applications like steam and gas turbines.
• Design: The bearing consists of a cylindrical bushing or sleeve that wraps
around the turbine shaft. A thin film of oil or another lubricant creates a
fluid barrier between the shaft and the bearing surface, reducing friction and
wear.
• Applications: Widely used in large turbines, especially in power plants and
industrial machinery where high speeds and heavy loads are common.
• Advantages: Capable of handling high loads, offers low friction at high
speeds, and provides effective damping to reduce vibrations.
• Lubrication: Requires continuous lubrication through oil films to function
properly and prevent direct contact between the bearing and shaft surfaces.
B. Thrust Bearings:
• Description: Thrust bearings are designed to support axial loads, which are
forces acting along the axis of the shaft. These bearings prevent the rotor
from moving axially (back and forth) within the turbine housing.
• Design: Thrust bearings can be either sliding contact bearings (like the
tilting pad thrust bearing) or rolling element bearings (like thrust ball
bearings). Sliding types are more common in large turbines.
• Applications: Thrust bearings are used in various turbines (wind, gas,
steam) to prevent axial displacement of the rotor.
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• Advantages: Provide reliable support for axial forces, ensuring the rotor
remains in the correct position, which is critical for maintaining the
performance and efficiency of the turbine.
C. Rolling Element Bearings (Ball and Roller Bearings):
• Description: Rolling element bearings contain rolling elements (balls or
rollers) placed between the inner and outer races of the bearing, which helps
reduce friction. They are widely used in smaller turbines, such as wind
turbines.
• Types:
• Ball Bearings: Use spherical balls as rolling elements, typically for lighter
loads and higher speeds.
• Roller Bearings: Use cylindrical or tapered rollers, capable of supporting
heavier loads than ball bearings.
• Applications: Used in turbines that require lower maintenance and operate
at relatively lower speeds and loads compared to journal bearings.
• Advantages: Low friction, simple design, and ease of maintenance. They
can support both radial and axial loads depending on the specific bearing
type.
D. Magnetic Bearings:
• Description: Magnetic bearings use magnetic fields to levitate the turbine
shaft and allow it to rotate without physical contact between the shaft and
the bearing. These bearings eliminate friction entirely, as the shaft is
supported by magnetic forces rather than mechanical surfaces.
• Design: The rotor is held in place by electromagnets that adjust their force
to keep the rotor centered. Sensors detect the rotor’s position and provide
feedback to control systems that regulate the magnetic field.
• Applications: Typically used in high-speed turbines, especially in
applications requiring extreme precision, such as in aerospace, energy, and
advanced industrial systems.
• Advantages: No mechanical wear, low maintenance, and suitable for ultra-
high-speed applications. They also reduce vibration and friction
significantly.
E. Hydrostatic Bearings:
• Description: Hydrostatic bearings use a pressurized fluid (typically oil or
air) to support the shaft. The fluid creates a thin, high-pressure film that
separates the bearing surfaces and the shaft, allowing smooth rotation.

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• Applications: Used in turbines where high loads and slow speeds are
encountered, such as in some hydroelectric turbines or specialized
industrial applications.
• Advantages: Extremely low friction and wear, capable of supporting heavy
loads, and useful in applications where the bearing may experience frequent
starts and stops.
Bearing Loads and Forces:
Turbine bearings are subjected to two main types of
forces:
A. Radial Loads:
• Definition: Radial loads act perpendicular to the turbine shaft’s axis. These
forces are caused by the weight of the rotor and the pressure exerted by the
moving fluid (wind, steam, gas, or water) that drives the turbine.
• Role of Bearings: Bearings like journal bearings and roller bearings are
designed to handle radial loads, keeping the turbine rotor stable while
allowing it to rotate smoothly.

B. Axial Loads:
• Definition: Axial loads act along the axis of the shaft. In turbines, these forces
are generated by imbalances in the rotor’s alignment or by the pressure of the
fluid moving through the turbine.
• Role of Bearings: Thrust bearings are specifically designed to support axial
loads and prevent the rotor from moving back and forth along the shaft axis.
Materials Used in Turbine Bearings:
Bearings must be made from materials that
can withstand high temperatures, heavy loads, and long-term operation. Common
materials include:
A. Steel Alloys:
• Description: High-grade steel is used in most rolling element bearings for its
strength, hardness, and wear resistance.
• Application: Used in ball and roller bearings, where precision and durability
are critical.
B. Babbitt (White Metal):
• Description: Babbitt is a soft, anti-friction metal alloy (often made from tin,
copper, and antimony) used to line journal and thrust bearings.
• Application: The soft metal surface allows for smooth operation and prevents
damage to the turbine shaft if direct contact occurs.
C. Ceramic Materials:
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• Description: Advanced ceramics are sometimes used in rolling element

bearings to reduce friction and wear, particularly in high-speed or high-
temperature applications.
• Application: Found in specialized bearings, such as in aerospace turbines or
high-speed industrial systems.
Lubrication in Turbine Bearings:
Proper lubrication is essential for reducing
friction, preventing wear, and extending the life of turbine bearings. Lubricants
create a thin film between the bearing surfaces and the rotating shaft, minimizing
direct contact.
A. Oil Lubrication:
• Description: Oil is the most commonly used lubricant in turbine bearings,
especially in journal and thrust bearings.
• Function: The oil film prevents metal-to-metal contact and carries away
heat generated by friction.
• Systems: Turbines typically have centralized lubrication systems that
continuously pump oil to the bearings.
B. Grease Lubrication:
• Description: Grease is a semi-solid lubricant used in some rolling element
bearings.
• Application: Common in smaller turbines or applications where oil
lubrication systems would be impractical.
C. Air or Gas Lubrication:
• Description: In magnetic and hydrostatic bearings, pressurized air or gas
can be used to create a low-friction environment.
• Application: Used in high-speed or ultra-precision turbine applications where
conventional lubrication may be insufficient.
Bearing Failure and Maintenance:
Turbine bearings are subject to wear and failure
over time due to friction, temperature, and load stresses. Common causes of failure
include:
A. Insufficient Lubrication:
• Cause: Inadequate lubrication leads to increased friction and heat, which
can cause bearing surfaces to degrade or seize up.
• Solution: Regular monitoring of lubrication levels and quality is essential.
B. Overloading:

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• Cause: Excessive loads, caused by imbalanced rotors or unexpected forces,

can lead to premature bearing wear or failure.
• Solution: Proper alignment and load monitoring can help reduce the risk of
overloading.
C. Contamination:
• Cause: Dirt, debris, or other contaminants in the lubricant can cause wear
or damage to the bearing surfaces.
• Solution: Ensuring clean lubrication systems and regular maintenance can
prevent contamination.
D. Fatigue:
• Cause: Over time, repetitive stresses on the bearing materials can lead to
cracks, spalling, or other forms of fatigue failure.
• Solution: Regular inspection and proactive replacement of worn bearings can
help prevent catastrophic failure.

3.8 Battery charging circuit:

3.8.1 Definition:
A battery charging circuit is an electrical circuit designed to charge
rechargeable batteries efficiently, safely, and reliably. The circuit controls the flow
of electrical current and voltage to the battery, ensuring that it is charged to its full
capacity without overcharging, which could damage the battery or reduce its
lifespan. Battery charging circuits are used in a wide range of devices, from small
electronics to large industrial systems, including mobile phones, laptops, electric
vehicles, and energy storage systems.

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Figer 3.8
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Basic Function of a Battery Charging Circuit:

The primary purpose of a battery
charging circuit is to:
• Supply the correct voltage and current to charge the battery.
• Monitor the battery's state of charge to avoid overcharging or
undercharging.
• Protect the battery from damage caused by excessive heat, current, or
voltage.
• Optimize the charging process to extend battery life and maximize
efficiency.
Depending on the type of battery (e.g., lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, lead-acid),
the charging circuit may vary in complexity and design to ensure compatibility and
safety.
Key Components of a Battery Charging Circuit:
Battery charging circuits
generally consist of the following essential components:
A. Power Source:
• Description: The power source provides the necessary electrical energy to
charge the battery. It could be a direct AC adapter (for wall charging) or DC
from solar panels or other power supplies.
• Function: The power source needs to deliver a stable and consistent output
for efficient charging, and it is often converted and regulated by the charging
circuit.
B. Voltage Regulator:
• Description: The voltage regulator ensures that the voltage supplied to the
battery is within safe and appropriate levels for the specific type of battery
being charged.
• Types:
• Linear Regulators: Simpler and cheaper, but less efficient as excess energy
is dissipated as heat.
• Switching Regulators (DC-DC Converters): More efficient, as they regulate
voltage using a switching mechanism that reduces energy loss.
C. Current Limiter:
• Description: The current limiter ensures that the charging current stays
within safe limits, preventing the battery from overheating or being
damaged due to excessive current flow.

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• Function: It regulates the amount of current delivered to the battery,

particularly in the initial stages of charging when the battery is most likely to
draw high currents.
D. Charging Controller (IC):
• Description: The charging controller is the central component that manages
the entire charging process. It monitors the battery's voltage, current, and
temperature to adjust the charging parameters accordingly.
• Function: The controller implements various charging stages (such as
constant current, constant voltage, and trickle charging) to ensure optimal
charging for the battery type.
• Integrated Circuits (ICs): These are specialized chips designed to perform
multiple functions, such as voltage regulation, temperature sensing, and
charge termination.
E. Temperature Sensor:
• Description: The temperature sensor monitors the battery's temperature
during the charging process. Batteries can heat up during charging, and
excessive heat can cause damage or even lead to a thermal runaway.
• Function: If the temperature exceeds a certain threshold, the charging circuit
may reduce the current or shut down charging to protect the battery.
F. Protection Circuitry:
• Description: Protection circuits are used to safeguard the battery and the
charging system from faults such as overvoltage, overcurrent, short circuits,
and over-temperature.
• Types:
• Overcharge Protection: Prevents charging the battery beyond its
maximum voltage limit.
• Overcurrent Protection: Prevents excessive current from flowing into the
battery.
• Thermal Cut-off: Shuts down the circuit if the temperature rises too high.
G. Indicator System:
• Description: Many charging circuits include LEDs or other indicators to
show the charging status, such as when the battery is fully charged or still
charging.
• Function: Provides user feedback, indicating when charging is complete, in
progress, or when there is an issue with the battery or charger.

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Charging Methods:
Different types of batteries require different charging methods
to ensure safety and efficiency. Some common charging methods include:
A. Constant Current (CC) Charging:
• Description: In this method, the charging circuit supplies a constant current
to the battery until it reaches a specific voltage. This is the first phase of
charging for many types of batteries, particularly lithium-ion.
• Application: Common in lithium-ion and lead-acid battery charging circuits.
B. Constant Voltage (CV) Charging:
• Description: After the battery reaches a certain voltage (usually the
battery's nominal voltage), the charging circuit switches to a constant
voltage mode. In this phase, the voltage is maintained constant while the
current gradually decreases.
• Application: Used in the final stages of lithium-ion battery charging.
C. Trickle Charging:
• Description: Trickle charging is used to keep a battery fully charged by
supplying a small amount of current continuously. It is mainly used for lead-
acid and NiMH batteries to compensate for self-discharge.
• Function: It maintains the battery at full capacity without overcharging.
• Application: Used in backup power systems, emergency lighting, and
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
D. Pulse Charging:
• Description: Pulse charging delivers intermittent pulses of high current to
the battery, allowing for higher efficiency and less heat generation
compared to constant current methods.
• Advantages: This method is often faster and helps in extending battery life,
especially in lead-acid batteries.
E. Taper Charging:
• Description: In taper charging, the current gradually decreases as the battery
voltage increases. This method is slower but reduces the risk of overcharging
and overheating.
• Application: Common in lead-acid battery chargers, where overcharging
must be avoided.

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Battery Types and Charging Requirements:

Different types of rechargeable
batteries have specific charging requirements. The charging circuit must be designed
to meet these requirements.
A. Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Batteries:
• Charging Method: Typically charged using a constant current (CC)
followed by a constant voltage (CV) method.
• Voltage Range: Li-ion batteries have a narrow voltage range and must not
be overcharged or deeply discharged, as both conditions can lead to battery
failure or dangerous situations.
• Protection: Requires sophisticated monitoring of voltage, current, and
temperature, often including overcharge and undercharge protection circuits.
B. Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) and Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries:
• Charging Method: Can be charged using constant current. These
batteries are more tolerant of overcharging compared to lithium-ion but still
require careful monitoring to prevent damage.
• Trickle Charging: NiMH and NiCd batteries can handle trickle charging,
where a small current is supplied continuously to keep them topped up.
C. Lead-Acid Batteries:
• Charging Method: Lead-acid batteries are typically charged using a taper
charge or constant voltage charging method.
• Trickle Charging: Lead-acid batteries require trickle charging to maintain
their charge when not in use, especially in applications like automotive or
UPS systems.
• Overcharge Protection: Overcharging can cause gassing and electrolyte loss,
so monitoring the charge voltage is crucial.
Protection Features in Battery Charging Circuits:
Battery charging circuits
incorporate several protection features to enhance safety and longevity:
A. Overcharge Protection:
• Description: Prevents the battery from being charged beyond its maximum
capacity, which can cause overheating, degradation, or even a fire hazard in
some cases (especially with lithium-ion batteries).

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B. Overcurrent Protection:
• Description: Protects the battery and the charging circuit from drawing or
supplying too much current, which could lead to excessive heating or damage
to the battery cells.
C. Thermal Protection:
• Description: Many charging circuits include temperature sensors to monitor
the battery’s temperature. If the temperature exceeds a safe threshold, the
charging current is reduced, or charging is stopped to prevent overheating.
D. Short-Circuit Protection:
• Description: Prevents the charger and battery from being damaged by a
short circuit, either within the circuit or the battery.

CHAPTER 4

4.0 Design of a system

Designing the Design and Development of Vertical Axis H Type Wind Turbine
necessitates a holistic approach focusing on functionality, precision, versatility,
usability, safety, and compliance. It involves integrating precise engineering
techniques, such as precision machining for structural integrity and sensor
integration for accurate data collection. A Vertical H-Type Wind Turbine System is
a type of Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) that features a distinct "H" shape,
where the blades are mounted vertically to the rotor, creating a design that is efficient
in capturing wind from all directions. Unlike traditional Horizontal Axis Wind
Turbines (HAWTs), which need to face the wind to operate efficiently, H-type
VAWTs can generate electricity regardless of the wind's direction, making them
more versatile in urban environments or places with turbulent and variable wind
conditions, while user-friendly interfaces and ergonomic design ensure accessibility
and ease of operation. Moreover, safety features and regulatory compliance are
paramount considerations, ensuring reliability and adherence to industry standards.

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4.1 Process Flow Diagram:

4.2 APPLICATIONS & USES

4.2.1 Urban and Residential Power Generation:
A. Rooftop Installations:

• Application: VAWTs are increasingly used on building rooftops to generate

power in urban environments. Their omnidirectional design allows them to
work efficiently in areas where wind direction frequently changes due to
surrounding buildings.
• Use: Powering homes, apartments, and small businesses with renewable
energy, reducing dependence on the grid, and lowering electricity bills.
• Advantages: Compact, quieter operation, and the ability to be installed on
small spaces like rooftops, where horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs) may
be impractical.
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B. Urban and Suburban Settings:

• Application: In urban settings, turbulent winds caused by buildings,

skyscrapers, and infrastructure make HAWTs less effective. VAWTs, with
their ability to capture wind from all directions, are better suited for such
environments.
• Use: Supplementing energy needs in residential and commercial buildings,
integrating with smart city grids, and reducing carbon footprints in densely
populated areas.
• Advantages: Aesthetically more adaptable to urban landscapes and less
prone to mechanical wear due to variable wind conditions.

4.2.2 Off-grid Power Systems:

A. Remote Locations and Rural Areas:

• Application: In off-grid locations, VAWTs can provide renewable energy to

rural homes, remote villages, and farms where the electrical grid is either
unreliable or non-existent.
• Use: Powering homes, water pumps, communication systems, or agricultural
equipment in rural or isolated areas.
• Advantages: Low maintenance, easier installation, and less reliance on
external energy sources. Suitable for remote locations due to their simple
construction and fewer mechanical parts.

B. Microgrids:

• Application: Microgrids, which provide localized electricity generation and

distribution, can integrate VAWTs to increase the renewable energy
component. These systems are commonly used in remote communities,
islands, and military installations.
• Use: Powering off-grid settlements or providing backup energy for critical
infrastructure in case of grid failures.
• Advantages: Operates in low wind speeds, easy to integrate into hybrid
renewable energy systems (alongside solar panels or small-scale
hydropower).

4.2.3 Distributed Power Generation:

A. Community Wind Farms:
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• Application: VAWTs can be installed in community wind farms, especially

in areas with fluctuating wind directions. Community projects aim to provide
local, renewable energy sources that contribute to reducing energy costs for
neighborhoods.
• Use: Shared power generation for local communities, cooperatives, or small
towns, allowing them to meet energy needs sustainably.
• Advantages: More adaptable to land constraints, easier to integrate in areas
with limited space, and less visually obtrusive than large horizontal turbines.

B. Hybrid Systems:

• Application: VAWTs are often part of hybrid renewable energy systems,

combining solar panels, small HAWTs, and VAWTs to generate continuous
energy under different conditions.
• Use: Providing consistent energy output in regions with variable wind speeds
or sunlight, powering homes, small businesses, or isolated systems.
• Advantages: Improves the overall reliability of renewable energy systems
and balances the power supply across seasons and changing weather
conditions.

Industrial and Commercial Applications:

A. Industrial Parks and Commercial Buildings:

• Application: VAWTs can be installed in industrial areas, commercial buildings, and
business parks to reduce operational energy costs and minimize dependence on the grid.
• Use: Powering factories, warehouses, and office buildings with renewable energy. Often
combined with solar panels to create a diversified renewable energy portfolio.
• Advantages: Reduces operational expenses, increases sustainability, and improves the
environmental profile of businesses through renewable energy credits.
B. Telecommunications Towers and Remote Communication Systems:
• Application: VAWTs are ideal for telecommunications towers, military bases,
or emergency communication systems in remote or off-grid locations where
grid access is limited.
• Use: Powering remote communication infrastructure like cell towers, weather
monitoring stations, or research outposts.
• Advantages: Reduces the reliance on fossil fuels and generators, low
maintenance, and can provide consistent power in remote areas with
unpredictable winds.

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4.2.4 Educational and Research Applications:

A. Educational Institutions:
• Application: Schools, universities, and research institutions often use small
VAWTs for educational purposes, demonstrating renewable energy
technology and its impact on sustainability.
• Use: Providing a hands-on learning experience for students, powering small-
scale projects, or supplementing energy use in school buildings.
• Advantages: Provides a practical learning tool and encourages research and
innovation in the field of renewable energy.
C. Research and Development:
• Application: VAWTs are used in experimental research projects and pilot
programs to explore new designs, materials, and energy harvesting
techniques.
• Use: Testing new blade shapes, control systems, or hybrid designs to
improve the efficiency of wind energy generation.
• Advantages: Helps advance the technology, contributing to the development
of more efficient and cost-effective VAWTs for future applications.

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HARDWARE ASSEMBLED/ COMPLETE PROJECT:

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4.3 Cost Analysis

S. Component No. of Cost

No. Name Item(s) [Pkr]
1 Battery 1 1600/-
Printed circuit
2 1 1800/-
board
Dc to Ac
3 converter 1 1500 /-
Device
4 Wire 1 500 /-
5 Dc motor 1 4000/-
6 blades 3 10000/-
Pipes and Frame
7 1 21000/-
Fabrication
8 Bearings 1 1000/-
9 Transport 1 5000/-
Battery
10 1 3000/-
charging circuit
Remodification
11 1 6000/-
of project
12 Paint work 1 1800/-
Turbine stand
13 2 2500/-
and fabrication
Total 16 59700

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CHAPTER 5

5.0 CONCLUSIONS
5.0.1 Project Idea:
The Design and Development of vertical axis wind turbine project aims to
revolutionize the process of testing and optimizing wind turbine in open area. The
idea stems from the recognition of the critical role that wind turbine provide best
performance, efficiency, and emissions control. By developing a sophisticated
testing platform, equipped with advanced sensor technology, data analytics
capabilities, and intuitive user interfaces, the project seeks to address the limitations
of traditional testing methods and unlock new levels of precision and efficiency in
turbine diagnostics and calibration.

5.0.2 Project Progress:

Initial Conceptualization and Research:
During the initial phase of the project, extensive research was conducted to
understand the existing challenges in wind turbine and identify opportunities for
improvement. This phase involved reviewing literature, consulting industry experts,
and analyzing market trends to gain insights into emerging technologies and best
practices.

5.0.3 Design and Development:

With a solid understanding of the project objectives and requirements, the design
and development phase commenced. Engineers and designers collaborated to
conceptualize the system architecture, define key features, and outline technical
specifications. This phase involved prototyping, testing, and iteration to refine the
system design and ensure compatibility with a wide range of turbine types and
testing scenarios.

5.0.4 Integration of Advanced Technology:

Central to the project's success is the integration of advanced technology
components, including high-resolution sensors, precision control systems, and data
analytics algorithms. These technologies enable real-time monitoring of turbine
performance, precise control of parameters, and automated data analysis, enhancing
the accuracy and efficiency of the rotation process.

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5.0.5 User Interface Design and Optimization:

User experience (UX) design played a crucial role in the development of the vertical
Axis wind turbine. Designers focused on creating intuitive interfaces with clear
navigation, informative feedback, and customizable features to accommodate
diverse user preferences and technical proficiency levels. Usability testing and
feedback sessions were conducted iteratively to refine the user interface and ensure
optimal usability.

5.0.6 Testing and Validation:

As the development phase progressed, rigorous testing and validation procedures
were conducted to verify the system's performance, reliability, and accuracy. This
involved simulated testing scenarios, real-world validation tests with actual turbine,
and comparison against benchmark standards. Any discrepancies or issues identified
during testing were addressed promptly through iterative refinement and
optimization.

5.0.7 Deployment and Feedback:

Upon successful completion of testing and validation, the Design and Development
of vertical axis wind turbine was deployed for field testing and evaluation. Engineers
and technicians had the opportunity to use the system in real-world environments,
providing valuable feedback on its performance, usability, and reliability. This
feedback loop facilitated continuous improvement and refinement of the system
based on user insights and practical considerations.

Overall, the Design and Development of vertical axis wind turbine project has made
significant strides in advancing turbine technology, from conceptualization to
deployment. By leveraging advanced technology, precision engineering, and user-
centered design principles, the project has developed a sophisticated testing platform
that promises to enhance turbine performance, efficiency, and reliability. As the
project continues to evolve and mature, it holds the potential to drive innovation and
progress in the energy industry, shaping the future of turbine and optimization.

5.1 Discussion/ Q & A

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REFERENCES

1. "Vertical Axis Wind Turbine - an overview | ScienceDirect

Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
2. Paul Gipe (7 May 2014). "News & Articles on Household-Size (Small) Wind
Turbines". Wind-works.org. Archived from the original on 28 August 2022.
Retrieved 29 September 2016
3. Michael Barnard (7 April 2014). "Vertical Axis Wind Turbines: Great In 1890,
Also-rans In 2014". CleanTechnica.
4. "Urban Wind Turbines" (PDF).
5. "Wind Energy Factsheet". Center for Sustainable Systems. Retrieved 21
May 2023.
6. "Savonius Wind Turbine - an overview | ScienceDirect
Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 23 May 2023.
7. Design optimization of a 5 MW floating offshore Vertical-Axis wind turbine
8. Deepwind-from idea to 5 MW concept 2015
9. Offshore floating vertical axis wind turbines, dynamics modelling state of
the art. part I: aerodynamics 2014
10.Offshore floating vertical axis wind turbines, dynamics modelling state of
the art. Part II: mooring line and structural dynamics 2014
11.Wind tunnel testing of the DeepWind demonstrator in design and tilted
operating conditions 2016
12. DeepWind-from idea to 5 MW concept
13.Experimental and numerical investigation of a three-dimensional vertical-
axis wind turbine with variable-pitch

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