ECE 421 In a p-type material, the hole is the

majority carrier, and the electron is

the minority carrier.
CHAPTER 1
10. The region near the junction of
1. The characteristics of an ideal a diode that has very few carriers is
diode are a close match with those called the depletion region.
of a simple switch except for the
11. In the absence of any
important fact that an ideal diode
externally applied bias, the diode
can be conducted in only one
current is zero.
direction.
12. In the forward-bias region the
2. The ideal diode is a short in the
diode current increases
region of conduction and an open
exponentially with an increase in
circuit in the region of
voltage across the diode.
nonconduction.
13. In the reverse-bias region the
3. A semiconductor is a material
diode current is a very small
that has a conductivity level
reverse saturation current until
somewhere between that of a good
Zener breakdown is reached, and
conductor and that of an insulator.
the current will flow in the opposite
4. A bonding of atoms, direction through the diode.
strengthened by the sharing of
14. The reverse saturation current
electrons between neighboring
will just about double in magnitude
atoms, is called covalent bonding.
for every 10-fold increase in
5. Increasing temperatures can temperature.
cause a significant increase in the
15. The DC resistance of a diode is
number of free electrons in a
determined by the ratio of the
semiconductor material.
diode voltage and current at the
6. Most semiconductor materials point of interest and is not sensitive
used in the electronics industry to the shape of the curve. The DC
have negative temperature resistance decreases with an
coefficients; that is, the resistance increase in diode current or
drops with an increase in voltage.
temperature.
16. The ac resistance of a diode is
7. Intrinsic materials are those sensitive to the shape of the curve
semiconductors that have a very in the region of interest and
low level of impurities, whereas decreases for higher levels of diode
extrinsic materials are current or voltage.
semiconductors that have been
17. The threshold voltage is about
exposed to a doping process.
0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V
8. An n-type material is formed by for germanium diodes.
adding donor atoms that have five
18. The maximum power
valence electrons to establish a
dissipation level of a diode is equal
high level of relatively free
to the product of the diode voltage
electrons. In an n-type material,
and current.
the electron is the majority carrier,
and the hole is the minority carrier. 19. The capacitance of a diode
increases exponentially with an
9. A p-type material is formed by
increase in the forward bias
adding acceptor atoms with three
voltage. Its lowest levels are in the
valence electrons to establish a
reverse bias region.
high level of holes in the material.
20. The direction of conduction for zero average value is changed to
a Zener diode is opposite to that of one that has a dc level. For applied
the arrow in the symbol, and the signals of more than a few volts,
Zener voltage has a polarity the ideal diode approximations can
opposite to that of a forward-biased normally be applied.
diode.
7. It is very important that the PIV
21. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) rating of a diode be checked when
emit light under forward-bias choosing a diode for a particular
conditions but require 2V to 4 V for application. Simply determine the
good emission. maximum voltage across the diode
under reverse-bias conditions , and
compare it to the nameplate rating.
CHAPTER II For the typical half-wave and full-
wave bridge rectifiers, it is the
1. The characteristics of a diode are
peak value of the applied signal.
unaltered by the network in which
For the CT transformer full-wave
it is employed. The network simply
rectifier, it is twice the peak value
determines the point of operation
(which can get quite high).
of the device.
8. Clippers are networks that “clip”
2. The operating point of a network
away part of the applied signal
is determined by the intersection of
either to create a specific type of
the network equation and an
signal or to limit the voltage that
equation defining the
can be applied to a network.
characteristics of the device.
9. Clampers are networks that
3. For most applications, the
“clamp” the input signal to a
characteristics of a diode can be
different DC level. In any event, the
defined simply by the threshold
peak-to-peak swing of the applied
voltage in the forward-bias region
signal will remain the same.
and an open circuit for applied
voltages less than the threshold 10. Zener diodes are diodes that
value. make effective use of the Zener
breakdown potential of an ordinary
4. To determine the state of a
p – n junction characteristic to
diode, simply think of it initially as
provide a device of wide
a resistor, and find the polarity of
importance and application. For
the voltage across it and the
Zener conduction, the direction of
direction of conventional current
conventional flow is opposite to the
through it. If the voltage across it
arrow in the symbol. The polarity
has a forward-bias polarity and the
under conduction is also opposite
current has a direction that
to that of the conventional diode.
matches the arrow in the symbol,
the diode is conducting. 11. To determine the state of a
Zener diode in a DC network,
5. To determine the state of diodes
simply remove the Zener from the
used in a logic gate, first make an
network, and determine the open-
educated guess about the state of
circuit voltage between the two
the diodes, and then test your
points where the Zener diode was
assumptions. If your estimate is
originally connected. If it is more
incorrect, refine your guess and try
than the Zener potential and has
again until the analysis verifies the
the correct polarity, the Zener
conclusions.
diode is in the “on” state.
6. Rectification is a process
whereby an applied waveform of
12. A half-wave or full-wave voltage 8. In the active region of a
doubler employs two capacitors; a transistor, the base–emitter
tripler, three capacitors; and a junction is forward-biased, whereas
quadruple, four capacitors. In fact, the collector–base junction is
for each, the number of diodes reverse-biased.
equals the number of capacitors.
9. In the cutoff region the base–
emitter and collector–base
junctions of a transistor are both
CHAPTER III
reverse-biased.
1. Semiconductor devices have the
10. In the saturation region the
following advantages over vacuum
base-emitter and collector–base
tubes: They are (1) of smaller size,
junctions are forward-biased.
(2) more lightweight, (3) more
rugged, and (4) more efficient. In 11. On an average basis, as a first
addition, they have (1) no warm-up approximation, the base-to-emitter
period, (2) no heater requirement, voltage of an operating transistor
and (3) lower operating voltages. can be assumed to be 0.7 V.

2. Transistors are three-terminal 12. The quantity alpha (a) relates

devices of three semiconductor the collector and emitter currents
layers having a base or center and is always close to one.
layer a great deal thinner than the
13. The impedance between
other two layers. The outer two
terminals of a forward-biased
layers are both of either n - or p-
junction is always relatively small,
type materials, with the
whereas the impedance between
sandwiched layer the opposite
terminals of a reverse-biased
type.
junction is usually quite large.
3. One p – n junction of a transistor
14. The arrow in the symbol of an
is forward-biased, whereas the
npn transistor points out of the
other is reverse-biased.
device ( not pointing i n ), whereas
4. The DC emitter current is always the arrow points in to the center of
the largest current of a transistor, the symbol for a pnp transistor( p
whereas the base current is always ointing i n ).
the smallest. The emitter current is
15. For linear amplification
always the sum of the other two.
purposes, the cutoff for the
5. The collector current is made up common-emitter configuration will
of two components: the majority be defined by IC = ICEO.
component and the minority
16. The quantity beta (b) provides
current (also called the leakage
an important relationship between
current).
the base and collector currents and
6. The arrow in the transistor is usually between 50 and 400.
symbol defines the direction of
17. The DC beta is defined by a
conventional current flow for the
simple ratio of DC currents at an
emitter current and thereby defines
operating point, whereas AC beta is
the direction for the other currents
sensitive to the characteristics in
of the device.
the region of interest. For most
7. A three-terminal device needs applications, however, the two are
two sets of characteristics to considered equivalent as a first
completely define its approximation.
characteristics.
18. To ensure that a transistor is by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law
operating within its maximum to the output or collector network.
power level rating, simply find the The Q -point is then determined by
product of the collector-to-emitter finding the intersection between
voltage and the collector current the base current and the load line
and compare it to the rated value. drawn on the device
characteristics.

8. The emitter-stabilized biasing

CHAPTER IV
arrangement is less sensitive to
1. No matter what type of changes in beta providing more
configuration a transistor is used stability for the network. Keep in
in, the basic relationships between mind, however, that any resistance
the currents are always the same , in the emitter leg is “seen” at the
and the base-to-emitter voltage is base of the transistor as a much
the threshold value if the transistor larger resistor, a fact that will
is in the “on” state. reduce the base current of the
configuration.
2. The operating point defines
where the transistor will operate on 9. The voltage-divider bias
its characteristic configuration is probably the most
common of all the configurations.
curves under dc conditions. For
Its popularity is due primarily to its
linear (minimum distortion)
low sensitivity to changes in beta
amplification, the DC operating
from one transistor to another of
point should not be too close to the
the same lot (with the same
maximum power, voltage, or
transistor label). The exact analysis
current rating and should avoid the
can be applied to any
regions of saturation and cutoff.
configuration, but the approximate
3. For most configurations the dc one can be applied only if the
analysis begins with a reflected emitter resistance as
determination of the base current. seen at the base is much larger
than the lower resistor of the
4. For the DC analysis of a
voltage-divider bias arrangement
transistor network, all capacitors
connected to the base of the
are replaced by an open-circuit
transistor.
equivalent.
10. When analyzing the DC bias
5. The fixed-bias configuration is
with a voltage feedback
the simplest of transistor biasing
configuration, be sure to remember
arrangements, but it is also quite
that both the emitter resistor and
unstable due to its sensitivity to
the collector resistor are reflected
beta at the operating point.
to the base circuit by beta. The
6. Determining the saturation least sensitivity to beta is obtained
(maximum) collector current for when the reflected resistance is
any configuration can usually be much larger than the feedback
done quite easily if an imaginary resistor between the base and the
short circuit is superimposed collector.
between the collector and emitter
11. For the common-base
terminals of the transistor. The
configuration the emitter current is
resulting current through the short
normally determined first due to
is then the saturation current.
the presence of the base-to-emitter
7. The equation for the load line of junction in the same loop. Then the
a transistor network can be found fact that the emitter and the
collector currents are essentially of 1. Amplification in the AC domain
the same magnitude is employed. cannot be obtained without the
application of the dc biasing level.
12. A clear understanding of the
procedure employed to analyze a 2. For most applications the BJT
DC transistor network will usually amplifier can be considered linear,
permit a design of the same permitting the use of the
configuration with a minimum of superposition theorem to separate
difficulty and confusion. Simply the DC and ac analyses and
start with those relationships that designs.
minimize the number of unknowns
3. When introducing the ac model
and then proceed to make some
for a BJT:
decisions about the unknown
elements of the network. a. All DC sources are set to zero
and replaced by a short-circuit
13. In a switching configuration, a
connection to the ground.
transistor quickly moves between
saturation and cut-off, or vice b. All capacitors are replaced by a
versa. Essentially, the impedance short-circuit equivalent.
between the collector and emitter
c. All elements in parallel with an
can be approximated as a short
introduced short-circuit equivalent
circuit for saturation and an open
should be removed from the
circuit for cutoff.
network.
14. When checking the operation of
d. The network should be redrawn
a DC transistor network, first check
as often as possible.
that the base-to-emitter voltage is
very close to 0.7 V and the 4. The input impedance of an ac
collector-to-emitter voltage is network cannot be measured with
between 25% and 75% of the an ohmmeter.
applied voltage V CC.
5. The output impedance of an
15. The analysis of pnp amplifier is measured with the
configurations is the same as that applied signal set to zero. It cannot
applied to npn transistors with the be measured with an ohmmeter.
exception that current directions
6. The output impedance for the r e
will reverse, and voltages will have
model can be included only if
opposite polarities.
obtained from a data sheet or a
16. Beta is very sensitive to graphical measurement from the
temperature, and V BE decreases characteristic curves.
by about 2.5 mV (0.0025 V) for
7. Elements that were isolated by
each 1 increase in temperature on
capacitors for the DC analysis will
a Celsius scale. The reverse
appear in the AC analysis due to
saturation current typically doubles
the short-circuit equivalent for the
for every 10° increase in Celsius
capacitive elements.
temperature.
8. The amplification factor (beta, b,
17. Keep in mind that networks
or h fe ) is the least sensitive to
that are the most stable and least
changes in collector current,
sensitive to temperature changes
whereas the output impedance
have the smallest stability factors.
parameter is the most sensitive.
The output impedance is also quite
sensitive to changes in VCE,
CHAPTER V
whereas the amplification factor is
the least sensitive. However, the
output impedance is the least output voltage slightly less than
sensitive to changes in the input signal. However, the
temperature, whereas the input impedance can be very large,
amplification factor is somewhat making it very useful for situations
sensitive. where a high-input first stage is
needed to “pick up” as much of the
9. The r e model for a BJT in the AC
applied signal as possible. Its
domain is sensitive to the actual
output impedance is extremely low,
DC operating conditions of the
making it an excellent signal
network. This parameter is
source for the second stage of a
normally not provided on a
multistage amplifier.
specification sheet, although hie of
the normally provided hybrid 15. The common-base
parameters is equal to bre but only configuration has a very low input
under specific operating conditions. impedance, but it can have a
significant voltage gain. The
10. Most specification sheets for
current gain is just less than 1, and
BJTs include a list of hybrid
the output impedance is simply R
parameters to establish an AC
C.
model for the transistor. One must
be aware, however, that they are 16. The collector feedback
provided for a particular set of DC configuration has an input
operating conditions. impedance that is sensitive to beta
and that can be quite low
11. The CE fixed-bias configuration
depending on the parameters of
can have a significant voltage gain
the configuration. However, the
characteristic, although its input
voltage gain can be significant, and
impedance can be relatively low.
the current gain of some
The approximate current gain is
magnitude if the parameters are
given by simply beta, and the
chosen properly. The output
output impedance is normally
impedance is most often simply the
assumed to be RC.
collector resistance R C.
12. The voltage-divider bias
17. The collector DC feedback
configuration has a higher stability
configuration uses the DC feedback
than the fixed-bias configuration,
to increase its stability and the
but it has about the same voltage
changing state of a capacitor from
gain, current gain, and output
DC to AC to establish a higher
impedance. Due to the biasing
voltage gain than obtained with a
resistors, its input impedance may
straight feedback connection. The
be lower than that of the fixed-bias
output impedance is usually close
configuration.
to R C and the input impedance is
13. The CE emitter-bias relatively close to that obtained
configuration with an unbypassed with the basic common-emitter
emitter resistor has a larger input configuration.
resistance than the bypassed
18. The approximate hybrid
configuration, but it will have a
equivalent network is very similar
much smaller voltage gain than the
in composition to that used with
bypassed configuration. For the
the r e model. In fact, the same
unbypassed or bypassed situation,
methods of analysis can be applied
the output impedance is normally
to both models. For the hybrid
assumed to be simply R C.
model, the results will be in terms
14. The emitter-follower of the network parameters and the
configuration will always have an hybrid parameters, whereas for the
r e model, they will be in terms of
the network parameters and b, r e,
and r o.

19. The hybrid model for common-

emitter, common-base, and
common-collector configurations is
the same. The only difference will
be the magnitude of the
parameters of the equivalent
network.

20. The total gain of a cascaded

system is determined by the
product of the gains of each stage.
The gain of each stage, however,
must be determined under loaded
conditions.

21. Because the total gain is the

product of the individual gains of a
cascaded system, the weakest link
can have a major effect on the total
gain.