Sports Biomechanics

November 2009; 8(4): 261–274

The effect of coaching intervention on elite fast bowling

technique over a two year period

CRAIG RANSON1, MARK KING2, ANGUS BURNETT3,

PETER WORTHINGTON2, & KEVIN SHINE4
1
UK Athletics, 2Sports Biomechanics Research Group, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK,
3
School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Western Australia, and
4
ECB National Cricket Performance Centre, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK

(Received 11 June 2009; revised 29 September 2009; accepted 6 November 2009)

Abstract
Fast bowling in cricket is an activity that is well recognised as having high injury prevalence and there
has been debate regarding the most effective fast bowling technique. The aim of this study was to
determine whether two-year coaching interventions conducted in a group of elite young fast bowlers
resulted in fast bowling technique alteration. Selected kinematics of the bowling action of 14 elite young
fast bowlers were measured using an 18 camera Vicon Motion Analysis system before and after
two-year coaching interventions that addressed specific elements of fast bowling technique.
Mann-Whitney tests were used to determine whether any changes in kinematic variables occurred
pre- and post-intervention between those who had the coaching interventions and those who didn’t.
The coaching interventions, when applied, resulted in a more side-on shoulder alignment at back foot
contact (BFC) (p ¼ 0.002) and decreased shoulder counter-rotation (p ¼ 0.001) however, there was
no difference in the degree of change in back and front knee flexion angles or lower trunk side-flexion.
This study has clearly shown that specific aspects of fast bowling technique are changeable over a
two-year period in elite level fast bowlers and this may be attributed to coaching intervention.

Keywords: Fast bowling technique, cricket, coaching

Introduction
The game of cricket, whilst contested over time periods of between one and five days, is
basically a contest between bowlers who deliver the ball and batsmen who hit the ball with
the aim of scoring runs. Whilst attempting to dismiss the batting side, the fielding team may
have at its disposal; fast bowlers (who deliver the ball between approximately 140 and
155 km/hr (39 to 43 m/s), and two varieties of spin bowlers (off-spin and leg-spin). Fast
bowling at the elite level is a dynamic sporting activity that requires athletes to run up and
repeatedly deliver the ball. In the case of the game’s longest version, Test cricket, this may
occur up to approximately 180 times during a day’s play.
Cricket is generally considered a relatively low-injury sport with overall injury prevalence
rates being low at around five percent of elite players being unavailable to play due to injury

Correspondence: Craig Ranson, Loughborough High Performance Athletics Centre, Loughborough University, Leicestershire,
LE11 3TU, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

ISSN 1476-3141 print/ISSN 1752-6116 online q 2009 Taylor & Francis

DOI: 10.1080/14763140903469908
262 C. Ranson et al.

at any given time (Newman, 2003; Stretch, 2003; Mansingh et al., 2006; Orchard et al.,
2006). However, fast bowlers in cricket have injury rates comparable to contact sports such
as Australian Rules football and the Rugby football codes. The injury that has consistently
accounted for the most lost playing time is lower back stress fracture (Newman, 2003;
Orchard et al., 2006; Ranson et al., 2008a). Side strains (tear of the abdominal oblique
muscles) (Humphries and Jamison, 2004) and repetitive micro-trauma injuries to the knee,
leg and ankle are also relatively prevalent, particularly on the side of the body opposite to the
bowling arm.
Fast bowlers can be classified as having one of four action types; they being the front-on,
midway, side-on and mixed actions (Portus et al., 2004; Ranson et al., 2008b). The use of a
mixed action type, characterised by a large shoulder counter-rotation between back foot
contact (BFC) and front foot contact (FFC) during the delivery stride, has been previously
associated with lower back injury and the appearance of abnormal radiological features
(Foster et al., 1989; Elliott et al., 1992; Elliott et al., 1993; Burnett et al., 1996; Portus et al.,
2004) although a causal relationship between shoulder counter-rotation and lower back
injury has yet to be established.
When examining the pathomechanics of low back injury in fast bowlers researchers have
examined trunk kinematics during the delivery stride. Large amounts of trunk side-flexion
have recently been associated with a history of lower back pain in elite female fast bowlers
(Stuelcken et al., in press). Further, in elite senior male fast bowlers, those who suffered a
lumbar stress injury within a year of motion analysis testing had non-significantly larger
lower trunk extension during the front foot contact phase of the delivery stride (Ranson et al.,
2008a).
The amount of ball speed that can be generated is a key weapon in the fast bowler’s arsenal
as it reduces batters’ reaction time. The amount of flexion of the knee during the FFC phase
of the delivery stride has been linked to velocity of the delivery with most faster bowlers
having a relatively extended (straight) front knee (Foster et al., 1989; Portus et al., 2004).
However, whilst performance benefits may be derived from an extended front leg at FFC this
feature of the bowling action has also been linked to low back injury (Portus et al., 2004).
One of the aims of coaching is to change the athlete’s technique, in order to improve
performance and minimise the risk of injury. However, there are few examples in sport where
quantitative evidence has been produced to objectively assess the efficacy of such
interventions (Grimshaw and Burden, 2000; Dallam et al., 2005; Winchester et al., 2005).
The lack of such studies may be due to factors such as; inability to obtain a sufficiently large,
homogenous group of athletes, a lack of access to motion analysis equipment and the testing
environment for the athlete to perform with sufficient ecological validity. In cricket there
have been only two studies that have investigated the efficacy of fast bowling technique
modification, both investigating groups of young fast bowlers with a mean age of 13 years
(Elliott and Khangure, 2002; Wallis et al., 2002). In the study by Elliot and Khangure
(2002), bowlers participated in an initial half day coaching clinic and six small-
group coaching sessions conducted over a three to four year period. The study found that
coaching interventions were successful in reducing shoulder counter-rotation during the
delivery stride. Wallis et al. (2002) used a bowling harness connecting the lower trunk to the
front arm which facilitated greater alignment of the shoulders and pelvis at back foot contact
but did not alter other aspects of trunk movement such as the degree of shoulder counter-
rotation, trunk extension and side-flexion during the delivery stride. It has yet to be
determined whether older, elite level fast bowlers with highly developed bowling actions
through years of playing and training, are amenable to alterations in specific aspects of
bowling technique.
 Coaching and fast bowling technique 263

When attempting to change an athlete’s technique, coaches will use tailored interventions
for the athletes they coach as there is no logical reason to address elements of technique that
don’t require change. Furthermore, coaches need to make changes to key elements of
technique without changing their natural flair and aspects of technique which may have
made them successful in the first place. Knowledge of the changeability of this highly
complex motor skill in elite level bowlers may give some insight into the ability of coaching to
alter technique characteristics.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine whether two-year coaching interventions
resulted in the alteration of specific elements of fast bowling technique. This study was
conducted in a group of elite fast bowlers and aimed to improve the kinematics of the
bowling action relating to; risk factors related to low back injury and increases in ball speed.

Methods
Participants and protocol
Participants in this study were 14 members of the England and Wales Cricket Board Elite
Fast Bowling Group. The mean age, height and mass of participants at the time of initial
testing was 18.5 (^ 2.3) years, 190 (^ 6) cm and 82 (^ 5) kg respectively. The mean age,
height and mass of participants at the time of follow-up testing was 20.5 (^ 2.3) years, 192
(^ 7) cm and 86 (^ 6) kg respectively. To be included in the study participants needed to
have been identified by the National Lead Fast Bowling Coach as having strong potential to
play for England, or be a current member of the England U19 or senior men’s team.
Participants underwent baseline testing late in the summer season (August/September) of
either 2005 or 2006, having follow-up testing in either 2007 or 2008 respectively. Both
baseline and follow-up testing involved biomechanical analysis (Vicon Motion Analysis
system, OMG Plc, Oxford, UK) of bowlers delivering the ball off a full run-up in a purpose
built indoor cricket facility. After baseline testing, coaching interventions for participants
(described below in the ‘Coaching Interventions’ section of the Methods) addressing
elements of technique that were deemed to require change were applied over a two year
period. Approval for the study was gained from the local area ethics committee.

Kinematic data collection

An 18 camera Vicon Motion Analysis System (OMG Plc, Oxford, UK) operating at 300 Hz
was used to capture a static trial and six fast bowling trials for each bowler. These trials were
maximum velocity deliveries that pitched in an area designated as a good line and length by a
qualified fast bowling coach. All baseline and follow-up testing were conducted in an indoor
practice facility which allowed the subjects to bowl with their normal length run-up on a
standard size artificial cricket pitch. Cameras were positioned around the bowling crease to
cover a 9 £ 3 £ 3 m volume which was wand calibrated prior to data collection. Prior to
testing subjects were given adequate time for their routine pre-bowling warm-up activities
which included several warm-up deliveries.
Thirty-one spherical reflective markers, 14 mm in diameter, were attached to the
participants in order to define shoulder, lower trunk, pelvic, thigh and shank motion.
Markers were positioned by trained researchers, following a set of guidelines, and located
near bony landmarks or on the mid-line of segments. A square of reflective tape
(15 mm £ 15 mm) was also fixed to one side of the cricket ball to allow the instant of ball
release and the ball velocity to be determined.
264 C. Ranson et al.

Kinematic data processing

Three-dimensional marker locations were reconstructed and processed using the Vicon
Workstation and BodyBuilder (OMG Plc, Oxford, UK) software and all six bowling trials
were manually labelled before selecting the best three (maximum velocity trials with minimal
marker loss) of each bowler for further analysis along with the static trial.
The knee and ankle joint centres were calculated from a pair of markers placed across each
joint such that the midpoint of each pair of markers coincided with the corresponding joint
centre. The hip joint centres were calculated using the “hip joint centring algorithm” from
markers placed over the left and right anterior superior iliac spine and the left and right
posterior superior iliac spine (Davis et al., 1991). Lower trunk and pelvis motion was
calculated from the four markers used to define the hip joint centres plus markers placed over
the xiphoid process at the distal end of the sternum and the spinous processes of T10 and L1
(Ranson et al., 2008b).
Local reference frames in the thigh, shank, upper arm, lower trunk and pelvis segments
were defined from the markers placed on each segment. The origin of each reference frame
was placed at the lower joint centre of the segment when the bowler stood in the anatomical
position with the z-axis pointing upwards along the longitudinal axis of the segment, the x-
axis pointing to the subject’s right (flexion-extension axis of the joint) and the y-axis pointing
forwards. Cardan angles (with X as the lateral axis, Y as the frontal axis, and Z axis as the
longitudinal axis) were then used to quantify knee extension (08 ¼ straight with positive
angles indicating knee flexion) and lower trunk flexion-extension / side-flexion / axial
rotation (08, 08, 08 for a neutral upright position). In addition, shoulder alignment was
determined by projecting the 3D alignment of the left and right shoulder joint centres onto a
horizontal plane (1808 ¼ side-on, 2708 ¼ shoulders aligned with the bowling crease); the
pelvic alignment was determined by projecting the x-axis of the pelvic reference frame onto a
horizontal plane (1808 ¼ side-on, 2708 ¼ pelvis aligned with the bowling crease) and the
pelvic to shoulder separation angle was defined as the shoulder alignment angle minus the
pelvic alignment angle (Ranson et al., 2008b). In order to smooth the time histories of each
kinematic descriptor quintic splines were fitted (Wood and Jennings, 1979, Yeadon and
King, 2002).

Kinematic data reduction

Shoulder counter-rotation was determined by subtracting the minimum (most side-on)
shoulder alignment angle from the shoulder alignment angle at back foot impact (the first
frame at which the back foot came into contact with ground during the delivery stride).
Bowlers with greater than 308 shoulder-counter rotation were classified as having a mixed
action and bowlers with less than 308 shoulder counter-rotation were classified as having a
non-mixed action (Portus et al., 2004; Ranson et al., 2008b). The maximum lower trunk
extension, contralateral side-flexion and ipsilateral rotation utilised during the delivery stride
of fast bowling were also calculated. The knee angle at initial contact, along with the amount
of knee flexion followed by the amount of knee extension were calculated for both the back
foot (Figure 1) and front foot contact (Figure 2) phases of the delivery stride.

Coaching interventions
Following initial testing, technique reports were produced using Vicon Polygon (OMG Plc,
Oxford, UK) software. These electronic reports contained data and annotations regarding
 Coaching and fast bowling technique 265

Figure 1. The back knee angle; a. at back foot contact b. at maximum flexion and c. at maximum extension prior to
back foot lift off.

each bowler’s shoulder alignment, lower trunk angles, and, back and front knee angles and
during the delivery stride. Reports were supplemented by animation and high-speed video
footage and included recommendations for technique improvement, including examples of
drills and practice sessions that were developed by the ECB National Lead Fast Bowling
coach. Any suggested technique modifications and methods for achieving them were
explained to, and agreed upon, by both the cricketer and the fast bowling coach from their
County team. Remediation, utilising coaching techniques such as verbal feedback, video
feedback and part drills (exercises focused on specific part components of the delivery stride)
were instituted during both Club and ECB Elite Fast Bowling Group coaching sessions over
the ensuing two years. No control was provided over the amount of intervention provided by
coaches, however, participants undertook an average of at least two technical bowling
sessions per week during the two-year study period.
Due to variable amounts of coach contact time and as coaches from different programmes
(ECB and various county clubs) were involved, specific and detailed prescription of coaching
methods was not considered appropriate. However, key coaching principles were agreed
upon for each of the following areas for technique modification; improved shoulder and
pelvic alignment at BFC (which in eight cases involved those bowlers with a very front-on
shoulder alignment and high shoulder counter-rotation achieving a more Midway shoulder

Figure 2. The front knee angle; a. at front foot contact b. at maximum flexion and c. at maximum extension.
266 C. Ranson et al.

alignment at BFC), less back and front knee collapse (flexion) and more upright FFC trunk
alignment (less side-flexion).
Of the 14 bowlers who participated in the study, not all were provided with specific areas of
technique modification (Table I). For the eight bowlers with whom it was agreed that they
might benefit from a less open (front-on) shoulder alignment at BFC, the coaching language
encouraged them to maintain an “upright, compact, position at BFC” with the shoulders
and pelvis more closely aligned.
Nine of the bowlers were considered to have excessive collapse (flexion) of the back knee,
possibly reducing momentum carried through the delivery stride. An example of a coaching
intervention used to address both BFC shoulder alignment and back knee collapse was a
plyometic type drill involving repetitions of hops over five low hurdles placed approximately
500 mm apart. Whilst maintaining the desired BFC trunk and pelvic alignment participants
were encouraged to land with the back knee in a relatively straight (extended) posture and
maintain a feeling of staying “tall” and “driving” forward off their back leg following a
relatively short contact time.
The main coaching points for those who were deemed to potentially benefit from having
either a more extended FFC knee posture or less front knee flexion (nine bowlers), were
encouraged to feel that they were “going up and over the front leg”, again “staying tall”.
An example of one of the nine bowlers considered to have potentially injurious and
performance limiting amounts of trunk side-flexion is shown in Figure 3. Figure 4 illustrates
a correction drill using a row of intervention poles placed just to the left of the bowler during
the delivery stride which were designed to give visual and kinaesthetic cues re-enforcing
verbal coaching cues to maintain a “tall” (less side-flexed) posture during FFC and avoiding
“falling away” of the body. The emphasis during all coaching was on always being
“dynamic and powerful” throughout the delivery stride.

Statistical analysis
Firstly, the inter-trial reliability of the kinematic data was assessed using Intra-Class
Correlation Coefficient (ICC) and the Standard Error of Measurement (SEM) (Norton
et al., 2000). There was very good between-delivery reliability for all kinematic variables

Table I. Matrix of area/s of coaching intervention for each subject.

Subject More Side-on Less Back Knee Flexion Less Front Knee Flexion Less Lower Trunk Side-flexion

1 – – – Coached
2 – Coached Coached Coached
3 Coached – Coached Coached
4 Coached Coached Coached –
5 Coached – Coached –
6 Coached Coached – Coached
7 – – – Coached
8 Coached Coached Coached Coached
9 – Coached Coached Coached
10 – Coached – –
11 Coached Coached Coached Coached
12 Coached Coached – –
13 – Coached Coached Coached
14 Coached – Coached –
Total 8 9 9 9
 Coaching and fast bowling technique 267

Figure 3. An example of a bowler considered to have potentially injurious and performance limiting amounts of
trunk side-flexion during the front foot contact phase of the delivery stride.

with the mean ICC for initial testing being 0.91 (range 0.74 – 0.98) and a mean SEM of 28
(range 18– 48). For the follow up testing the mean between delivery ICC was 0.89 (range
0.74 – 0.98) whilst the mean SEM was 28 (range 1 – 58). Therefore, the three trials selected
for each bowler were averaged to provide representative data.
Due to the relatively small size of the data set in this study non-parametric statistical
methods were utilised as they do not require any assumptions regarding normality or large
sample sizes. Therefore, Wilcoxon signed ranks test were used to determine whether
differences existed between initial and follow-up testing across all subjects for all variables.
Mann-Whitney tests on the difference from pre and post-testing between the sub-groups
who did and didn’t receive coaching interventions were then used to determine whether
the interventions had an effect on selected kinematic variables. Statistical testing and
graphing were carried out using Microsoft Excel and the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences V15 (SPSS Corporation, USA). Significant differences were considered to exist
at p , 0.05.

Results
On initial testing, 13 out of the 14 subjects (93%) were classified as having a mixed action as
they displayed more than 308 of shoulder counter-rotation. At the two-year follow-up testing,
the number of subjects classified as having a mixed action reduced to nine (64%) with four
subjects reducing their shoulder counter-rotation to less than 308 allowing them to be
classified as midway. The bowler who made the most dramatic change to their shoulder
268 C. Ranson et al.

Figure 4. An example correction drill, using a row of intervention poles placed just to the left of the bowler during the
delivery stride, designed to reduce the amount of trunk side-flexion during the front foot contact phase of the
delivery stride.

alignment at back foot contact (2858 at initial testing to 2148 at follow-up) is shown in
Figure 5. The associated reduction in shoulder counter-rotation was 698 to 108.
Across the entire sample there was a mean decrease in both shoulder alignment at BFC
( p ¼ 0.007) and shoulder counter-rotation ( p ¼ 0.004) between the initial and two-year
follow-up testing. There was also a decrease of 48 in knee flexion angle at BFC ( p ¼ 0.018)
and a 48 increase in knee flexion angle at FFC ( p ¼ 0.018) (Table II) and a 5 km/hr (1.4 m/s)
increase in ball velocity ( p ¼ 0.030).

Intervention (coaching) and no intervention group comparisons

The mean and individual change in shoulder alignment angle at Back Foot Contact and
Shoulder Counter-Rotation for both the coaching intervention and no intervention groups is
shown in Figure 6. There was a between-group difference in the magnitude of change in
shoulder alignment at Back Foot Contact (218 in the coaching intervention group versus 08
in the no intervention group, p ¼ 0.002), and Shoulder Counter-Rotation (208 in the
coaching intervention group versus 08 in the no intervention group, p ¼ 0.001).
There was no between-group difference in both the magnitude of change in Back and
Front Knee Angle at BFC and the amount of Back and Front Knee Flexion during the
delivery stride (Tables III and IV). There was also no difference in the magnitude of
change in Lower Trunk Side-Flexion between the coaching and no intervention groups
(Table V).

Discussion
Whilst there has been previous evidence that younger fast bowlers can alter kinematic
variables such as shoulder counter-rotation via occasional intervention (Elliott and
Khangure, 2002) there has yet to be evidence that older, elite level fast bowlers with highly
developed bowling actions can change specific aspects of bowling technique. Therefore, the
 Coaching and fast bowling technique 269

Figure 5. Example of a bowler who changed his shoulder alignment at back foot contact from front-on at initial
testing (upper images a and b), to midway two years later (lower images a and b).

aim of this study was to determine whether two-year coaching interventions resulted in the
alteration of certain key elements of fast bowling technique thought to be related to low back
injury risk and generation of ball speed.
The use of a mixed type action characterised by a large degree of shoulder counter-rotation
has previously been associated with low back injury in fast bowlers (Foster et al., 1989;
Elliott et al., 1992; Burnett et al., 1996; Portus et al., 2004) and therefore, the identification
and remediation of excessive shoulder counter-rotation has been a focus of fast bowling
coaching (Elliott and Khangure, 2002). Previous studies have shown a relationship between

Table II. Mean (s) shoulder alignment, back knee, front knee, lower trunk angles and ball velocity for all participants
(n ¼ 14) at initial and two year follow-up testing.

Initial Follow-up
testing mean mean
Variable (s) (s) p-value

Shoulder alignment (8) Shoulder alignment @ BFC 243 (19) 231 (12) 0.007
Shoulder counter rotation 45 (15) 34 (12) 0.004
Back knee (8) Angle at BFC 38 (8) 34 (9) 0.018
Flexion 26 (10) 28 (10) 0.144
Front knee (8) Angle at FFC 11 (9) 15 (4) 0.018
Flexion 15 (13) 19 (13) 0.105
Maximum lower trunk motion (8) Extension 0 (7) 4 (10) 0.049
Contralateral side-flexion 34 (7) 33 (6) 0.246
Ipsilateral Rotation 29 (9) 27 (8) 0.307
Ball velocity (km/hr) 119 (6) 126 (6) 0.03

Significant values shown in bold

270 C. Ranson et al.

Figure 6. Mean group and individual a) Shoulder alignment at Back Foot Contact and b) Shoulder counter-rotation
at initial testing and at two year follow-up in subjects who had i) coaching intervention to reduce the shoulder
alignment angle at BFC (n ¼ 8) and ii) no coaching intervention (n ¼ 6).

the shoulder angle at BFC and the degree of shoulder counter-rotation (Portus et al., 2000;
Portus et al., 2004; Ranson et al., 2008b) such that bowlers with more front-on shoulder
alignment at BFC generally having greater shoulder counter-rotation. In this study it was
demonstrated that coaching interventions aimed at producing a more side-on alignment
could significantly reduce shoulder alignment angle at back foot contact with a
corresponding reduction in shoulder counter-rotation. These findings support those of
previous investigators who have used coaching (Elliott and Khangure, 2002) and a back
harness (Wallis et al., 2002) to successfully reduce shoulder counter-rotation in fast bowlers.
The specific pathomechanics of lower back injury and abnormal radiographic findings in
fast bowlers, particularly the highly prevalent non-bowling arm side lumbar stress injuries
(Gregory et al., 2004; Engstrom and Walker, 2007) are thought to be related to repeated
end-range lower trunk side-flexion, rotation and extension typically adopted during the front
foot contact phase of the delivery stride (Burnett et al., 1998; Elliott, 2000; Ranson et al.,
2008b). Although the degree of shoulder counter-rotation and the number of mixed action
bowlers was reduced over the two year period of this study there was no change in the
maximum levels of lower trunk side-flexion, rotation and extension adopted by the

Table III. Back knee angle at back foot contact and amount of back knee flexion for coaching intervention and
no-intervention groups.

Back knee angle at back foot

contact Back knee flexion

Mean Mean
Group Year Mean s difference p -value Mean s difference p -value

Intervention Initial 41 8 22 10
(n ¼ 9) Follow-up 36 10 5 25 12 23
No intervention Initial 33 5 0.226 32 7 0.332
(n ¼ 5) Follow-up 31 7 2 33 5 21
 Coaching and fast bowling technique 271

Table IV. Front knee angle at front foot contact and amount of front knee flexion for coaching intervention and
no-intervention groups.

Front knee angle at front foot

contact Front knee flexion

Mean Mean
Group Year Mean s difference p -value Mean s difference p -value

Intervention Initial 14 8 24 20 13 3
(n ¼ 9) Follow-up 18 3 0.358 17 15 0.072
No intervention Initial 5 7 26 5 3 21
(n ¼ 5) Follow-up 11 2 6 6

participants. This may be due to the fact that between the shoulder girdle and the lower
trunk are a number of anatomical structures that effectively dissipate the movement caused
by shoulder counter-rotation. These are interesting findings which may have application to
intervention programs that attempt to decrease the high rates of stress fractures which result
in a large amount of lost playing time (Ranson et al., 2008a), and should be the subject of
future investigations.
Even though it was not a specific coaching point, across the cohort as a whole there was a
small but significant increase in the maximum lower trunk extension.This greater trunk
extension may have been one of the factors which may have contributed towards increased
ball speed, possibly via enhanced trunk flexion torque production due to greater trunk flexor
muscle activation and stretch shortening. However, coaches need to be careful about
encouraging greater trunk extension during FFC as it is likely to place greater stress on the
vulnerable posterior bony elements of the lower spine (Chosa et al., 2004).
Having an extended (relatively straight) front knee during FFC has been previously
associated with an ability to produce faster ball speeds (Portus et al., 2004; Loram et al.,
2005). This may be due to a more efficient kinetic energy transfer to the ball, as the body
rotates over a “braced” front leg. Contrary to the aim of the intervention, the bowlers in this
study displayed a less extended (straight) front knee position at FFC on follow up testing.
However, there was no difference in either the degree of change in front knee angle or total
front knee flexion between the participants who were and were not coached to achieve a
straighter front knee. The ball velocity increased an average of five km/hr (1.4 m/s) over the
period of the study and it seems possible this had more to do with the physical maturation of
this group of elite young fast bowlers who grew significantly taller and heavier, than the
coaching interventions (Pyne et al., 2006). This increased size may also have been a factor in
the slightly more flexed front foot contact knee posture.
Whilst this study was a unique, real-world study there a few limitations that need to be
acknowledged when considering the findings. Firstly, due to the long duration of the project

Table V. Lower trunk side-flexion for coaching intervention and no-intervention groups.

Group Year Mean s Mean difference p -value

Intervention (n ¼ 9) Initial 39 5
2
Follow-up 37 6 0.247
No intervention (n ¼ 5) Initial 29 6
0
Follow-up 29 4
272 C. Ranson et al.

and widespread location of the participants it was not possible to accurately monitor strength
and conditioning inputs which may also have effected aspects of technique such as the degree
of knee flexion and trunk side-flexion during the delivery stride. However, it could be
assumed that along with height and mass, participant lower limb strength and trunk control
is likely to have progressed over the two year duration of the study as both the National and
County Squads they were members of conducted year round strength and conditioning
programmes, supervised by full time professional strength and conditioning staff. A recom-
mendation for future coaching programmes and research projects is that strength and
conditioning work is aligned to and integrated with technique goals and coaching
programmes. Secondly, although every effort was made to ensure markers were positioned in
the same locations in both testing sessions, some variation in positioning was inevitable. This
may have had a small influence on the magnitude of the joint angles recorded. However, due
to the random nature of this error, its effect on the data as a whole was likely to be minimal.
Finally, the relatively uncontrolled volume and specificity of coaching drills is a possible
limitation of the study. However, the individualised coaching programme employed closely
matches the ‘real world’ coaching environment for this level and age of athlete, adding to the
ecological validity of the project.
Small sample sizes are a perennial problem when investigating elite sporting sub groups
such as elite young fast bowlers in cricket. However, the participants in this study
represented a large proportion of the UK’s best young fast bowlers with those who didn’t
receive coaching for a specific aspect of technique effectively acting as control participants.
The results of this study are only applicable to young elite fast bowlers who may be more
amenable to technique change than older professional fast bowlers, who are also commonly
coached with the aim of altering technique.
Apart from coaches and participants agreeing to follow general principles it was not possible
to standardise the amount and quality of coaching intervention delivered, and as previously
mentioned, aside from coaching, extraneous variables such as physical development and
injury might have had a substantial impact on participants’ technique and ball velocity. Future
studies should examine the effect of coaching intervention against variables such as lower back
injury incidence and the progression of lumbar radiological changes.

Conclusion
This study has clearly shown that specific aspects of fast bowling technique can change in
elite players over a two year period and this may be attributed to coaching intervention.
However, although factors related to shoulder alignment at the beginning of the fast bowling
delivery stride were changed, desired improvements in trunk posture and knee mechanics
later in bowling action i.e. during FFC, were not able to be achieved in this group. It may be
that good technique in these areas needs to be developed from a younger age with more
focused coaching of the trunk and knee mechanics occurring during the FFC phase of the
delivery stride. Future studies examining a variety of age groups should examine the effect of
coaching intervention on lower back injury incidence and the progression of lumbar
radiological changes.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the Sports Biomechanics Research Group of
Loughborough University, UK, for providing the motion analysis equipment used in this
 Coaching and fast bowling technique 273

study. We would also like to thank the England and County Coaches and Players who
participated and the ECB National Cricket Centre for allowing the use of their facilities.

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