Chapter Two: Understanding Foreign Policy and Diplomacy

The making of foreign policy begins by identifying the state’s key national interests and its to
defend national interests.
 2.1. Defining National Interest
It refers to set of values, orientation, goals and objectives a given country would like to achieve
in its international relations.
It involves core values of a society in the form of security, welfare, protection of national way
of life, maintaining territorial integrity, and self- preservation. It is the totality of goals and
objectives of a state.
The sum of the goals and objectives of a state’s foreign policy.
Determines the contents of foreign policy.
 For Plato, the good of the polis (that is the public good) could best be arrived at by
philosopher king aided by a few highly learned, detached and fair-minded advisors.
 Plato’s ideas have been used as the inspiration for dictatorial forms of government.
 Implemented effectively by loyal, well trained, and obedient bureaucracies.
 Colmbis has provided a multiplicity of criteria used in defining/determining national
interest
1) Operational Philosophy: two major style of operation  Synoptic orientation:
 Act in a bold and sweeping fashion.
 Introduce major new practices, policies, and institutions and discontinue others.
 Some confidence that its consequence can be predicted or controlled.
 Incremental orientation:
 Act in caution, probing, and experimental fashion, following the trial
and error approach.
 Assumes that political and economic problems are too complex
  Seeks to perfect existing legislations, policies, institutions and
practices.
2) Ideological Criteria:
 Identify their friends or enemies countries using the litmus test of ideology. i.e. Cold war
 National interest may be shaped by underlying ideological orientations of the regime in
power.
3) Moral and Legal Criteria:
 Acting morally: keeping your promise –treaties, avoiding exploitation and uneven
development between the developing countries and the developed ones.
 Acting legally: abiding by the rules of international law. If there are lacunas, than you act
in a general sprit of equity and justice.
3) Pragmatic Criteria:
 Your orientation is matter of fact, not on emotions and professions  By observing
issues around you and the world rationally, prudently.
 Scientific analysis of cost and benefit or merit and demerit
 Decisions are made without considering normative issues
 Practical utility than morality and personal sentiments 4) Professional Advancement
Criteria:
 Your action may be manipulated and adjusted in consideration of your professional
survival and growth (personal success)
 “Play the game” and “not to rock the boat.”

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  “Go along to get along”
 Conformist behavior
5) Partisan Criteria:
 To equate the survival and the success of your political party, or ethnic or religious
origin with the survival and success of your country.
 To equate the interest of your organization (the army, the foreign office, and so forth)
with the national interest.
6) Foreign Dependency Criteria:
 Less developing countries dependent on foreign countries for technical aid, expertise,
technology, sometimes even for their security and survival.
 Hence, face difficulties to defend and promote their national interest.
 National interest appears to be a product of conflicting wills, ambitions, motivations,
needs, and demands.
 Realist international scholars reject the ideological, legal and moral criteria to define and
shape the contents of national interest.
 They prioritize pragmatic criteria when defining national interest and employing
foreign policy.
 NI is ensuring survival and security of a state.
 Power is a means for achieving and promoting the interest of state.
 Fail to recognize and prescribe solutions for addressing global problems because
of the exclusive emphasis given to state and national interest.  State-centric
particularism.
 Idealists have strong belief in the relevance of legal, ideological and moral elements
 Specific actions and objective of foreign policy have often been derived from
general moral and legal guidelines and principles.
 Idealists believe on the prevalence of common problems of human beings
 Cognizant of such cross-cutting issues, idealists call for global solutions than local
(national) solutions.
 New institutions with global orientation
2.2. Understanding Foreign Policy and Foreign Policy Behaviors
 2. 2.1. Defining Foreign Policy
 FP refers to the sets of objectives and instruments that a state adopts to guide its relation
with the outside world.
 It involves the general purposes and specific strategies a state employs to achieve or
promote its national interest.
 FP is “the set of priorities and percepts established by national leaders to serve as
guidelines for choosing among various courses of action in specific situations in
international affairs”
 These objectives, visions and goals state aspire to achieve is commonly referred as NI.
 Morgenthau suggests that the minimum goal a state would like to achieve is survival.
 Every state should protect their physical, political, and cultural identities
 Foreign policy also involves specific instruments and tactics that must be employed to
realize those objectives and goals.
 i.e. diplomatic bargaining, economic instruments, propaganda, terrorism (sabotage), and
use of force (war).
  Each instrument is used to affect the behaviors of other states, and has an element of
power.
 Diplomacy has less element of power.
 2.2.2. Foreign Policy Objectives
Criteria to classify FPOs
1. The value placed on the objective
2. The time element placed on its achievement
3. The kind of demands the objective imposes on other states in international system.
A. Core Interests and Values (Short-Range Objectives)
 To which states commit their very existence and that must be preserved or extended at
all time
 Kinds of goals for which most people are willing to make ultimate sacrifices.
 States are ready to go to war when all these objectives are threatened because these are
not negotiable or compromising.
 Usually stated in the form of basic principles of foreign policy
 Become article of faith that society accepts without questioning it.
 Sacrosanct by entire peoples residing in the state.
 Related to the self-preservation of political and economic systems, the people and its
culture, and the territorial integrity of a state.
 Short-range objectives because other goals cannot be realized if the existence of the state
and its political units are not ensured.
 The exact definition of core value or interest in any given country depends on the
attitudes of those who make foreign policy.
 Extraterritoriality is there when the national interest and claims of a country is
projected beyond the limit of its geographic boundary.
 States may think that their national interest is at risk when the interests and security of
citizens, or kin ethnic or religious groups living in the neighboring states and other
states are threatened.
 Nevertheless, the most essential objective of any foreign policy, core interests and values,
is to ensure the sovereignty and independence of the home territory and to perpetuate a
particular political, social, and economic systems based on that territory
2. Middle-Range Objectives
 These are less important and less immediate relatively compared to core objectives.
 Unlike, the short range objective, the middle range objectives drastically varies across
states.
 Due to the difference in the level of economic and technological progress, as well as the
military capability
 To take a course of actions that have the highest impact on the domestic economic and
welfare needs and expectation of its people.
 To provide the people jobs, income, recreation, medical services, and general security
 To meet economic-betterment demands and needs
 No self-reliant state
 Trade, foreign aid, access to communication facilities, sources of supply, and foreign
market are for most states necessary for increasing social welfare Are policies designed
to enhance the state’s international prestige.
This is often done through:
  diplomatic activity,
 participation in international cultural or technological exchange programmers, or
 displays of one’s military capabilities
Mid-term interests in short include fulfilling material needs, economic needs, prestige of the
nation, scientific and technological advancement and so forth.
3. Long- Range Objectives
These are the least immediate ones to policy makers.
Universal long range goals-which seldom have definite time limits.
Those plans, dreams, and visions concerning the ultimate political or ideological organization of
the international system
Their purpose is no less than to reconstruct an entire international system according to a
universally applicable plan or vision
Leaders rarely place the highest value on long range goals.
It’s very much dependent on the capability and ideology of the state.
They may have international repercussions as far as they are complemented by the capabilities
and powers
Otherwise, they will not have any international significance beyond paper consumption and
rhetoric level.
This, however, doesn’t necessarily imply that weak states do not formulate long range objective.
Every country has its own visions and ambition proportional to its relative strength and
capabilities to be realized in the long run.
 Examples:
Hitler’s Thousand Years Reich
Japan’s Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
The Soviet vision of world-wide communist
revolution
U.S. efforts to make the world safe for democracy
 2.2.3. Foreign Policy Behavior: Patterns and Trends
 Foreign policy behavior refers to the actions states take towards each other.
 Double standards and inconsistencies in the records of all countries
 Arnold Wolfers: three possible patterns of FPB
 (1) self-preservation (maintaining the status quo)
 (2) self-extension (revising the status quo in one’s own favor)
 (3) self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else’s favor)
 Self-preservation: US
 Following WWII emerged as one of the strongest actors.
 IMF, World Bank, GATT/WTO ……..shaped by US  United
Nations……………Veto Power
 After the collapse of USSR……….sole world power
 Self-extension: China, India, Brazil, Germany, BRICS
 Competing to restructure the international institutions and different
regime so as to create enabling environment to promote their national
interest
 Self-abnegation: weak states/ LDC
 States which fail to defend and promote their national interests in their
external relations.
  States that are weak and very much dependent on foreign aid are
profoundly caught with many problems in order to pursue an
autonomous policy.
 They compromise their long lasting national interest for temporary and
immediate benefits.
 2.2.4. Foreign Policy Dimensions: Alignment, Scope and Modus operandi
The analysis of foreign policy behavior can also be done along a number of specific dimensions.
 Alignment
 A country’s alignment behavior can vary from time to time.
 Alliances: are formal agreements to provide mutual military assistance. Most
common during the Cold War era.
 Pool their military resources
 Access to foreign bases
 But, interference by allies
 Neutrality: is a stance of formal non partisanshipin world affairs.
 Do not usually form military alliance and do not help states in times of war.
 They may not also offer their territory for the passage of especially military
goods of another state.
 May avoid potential enemies and counter alliances.
 But, may lack protective military umbrella
 Nonalignment has been the foreign policy pattern of most developing state
during cold war.
 They called for a new foreign policy path/choice/ to be followed disregarding
both the West and East bloc politics and alliances.
 NAM had noble agenda that called for the South-South cooperation.
 They do not form military alliance with other states.
 Do not commit themselves militarily to support other state/states.
 A state with non-alignment policy may give different diplomatic support for
blocs/alliances or for states in a fight
 Scope
 Based on the scope of a country’s activities and interests abroad: at least three
patterns of foreign policy behaviors.
 Global actors:
 Major Powers in international relations have historically been those that have
defined their interest in globalterms
 Interacting regularly with countries in nearly every region of the world.
 Regional actors:
 Most countries in the world are essentially regional actors
 Interacting primarily with neighboring states in the same geographical area.
 Isolationists:
 Key weakness or geographic remoteness
 In an age of interdependence, isolationism becomes an increasingly less viable
foreign policy orientation.
 This was the case with Burma in 1960 and 70s.
  Some of the known global actors such as United States of America, China, and
the ex-USSR all have passed period of relative isolationism and of mainly
regional interests, finally branching out in to global concerns
 Mode of Operation/ “Modus Opernadi’ 
Multilateralist:
 Rely on multilateral institutions to address different issues.
 Through diplomatic forums in which several states participate i.e. UN
 Most developing countries…b/c it enhances collective barraging power of these
countries vis-a-vis other developed countries.
 In addition, bilateral relations-country to country approaches-(establishing
Embassies and assigning diplomatic staffs) are often found to be costly.
 Regardless of the power and capability question, countries may opt to use
multilateral frameworks as the best strategy to address issues with the spirit of
cooperation and peace.
 i.e. Germany, Scandinavian countries  Unilateralist:
 Still others very much rely on unilateral means
 They play the carrot and stick diplomacy
 Intervention, threat of use of force and some time, use of force
2.2.5. Instruments of Foreign Policy
1) Diplomacy
A system of structured communication between two or more parties.
To pursue their objectives in a peaceful manner The essence of
diplomacy remains bargaining.
Bargaining can be defined as a means of settling differences over priorities between contestants
through an exchange of proposals for mutually acceptable solutions.
Commonalities of modern diplomacy such as embassies, international law and professional
diplomatic services.
Promote exchanges that enhance trade, culture, wealth and knowledge.
Diplomacy is an essential tool required to operate successfully in today’s international system.
Types of deplomacy:
Multilateral diplomacy
Public diplomacy
Leader-to-leader (summitry diplomacy) Conducted
for the most part between states.
The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961) – only references states as diplomatic
actors.
Yet, the modern international system also involves powerful actors that are not states.
Like IGOs and INGOs
 Rules of Effective Diplomacy
A. Be realistic: goals that much your ability
B. Be careful about what you say
C. Seek common ground: concession/flexibility
D. Understand the other side:
E. Be patient
F. Leave avenues of retreat open
 In general, states use “carrot and stick” approaches relying on diplomatic tactics such as
threats, punishment, promise, and rewards.
2. Economic Instruments of Foreign Policy
 There hardly exists a state that is self sufficient
 There is a considerable degree of dependence up on trade among states.
 But the degree of dependence and interdependence varies across states.
 Some states are strong and capable as compared to other states.
 These states often uses their economic muscle to influence the behavior (action,
perception and role) of others.
A. Tariff: taxing products coming into a country
B. Quota: sell only a certain amount in a given time period
C. Boycott: eliminating import
D. Embargo: eliminating export
E. Loans, Credits and Currency Manipulations:
F. Foreign Aid: military, technical, grants and commodity
3. Propaganda
Propaganda is systematic attempt to affect the minds, emotions, and actions of a given group
for public purposes.
It is an organized effort by governments to convince foreign states to accept policies favorable
to them.
The great bulk of the propaganda messages put out by a state aims at creating a favorable view
of a state by other states.
Is an attempt primarily to influence another state/s through emotional techniques rather than
logical discussion or presentation of empirical evidence.
It is therefore a process of appealing to emotions rather than minds by creating fear, doubt,
sympathy, anger, or a variety of other feelings.
Using the media, magazines, newspaper, television, the internet and other means.
4. The Use of Force/War
The vast majority of international affairs are conducted through diplomacy.
But still force remains the most important instrument.
The use of military force to resolve differences between two or more states is the last resort
states use as an instrument.
This implies that the goals of the warring states are irreconcilable.
While diplomacy is ongoing, military strength may be useful to support diplomacy.
2.3. Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia
 2.3.1. Foreign Policy during Tewodros II (1855-1868)
Before him there was only a sporadic and spasmodic foreign relations.
Brought bold and original ideas about the foreign relations of his country
The first leader who tried to develop a dynamicforeignpolicy that reached out beyond the Horn
Region.
The forerunner of the policies of his successors.
 His major foreign policy objectives were:
1) To re-unify the old state:
 He defeated all minor kings fighting for the control of the throne. 
He wanted to create a united and strong Ethiopia
 But only partially succeeded.
2) To consolidate his power:
 To defeat internal contenders/regional powers and re-unify the state.
 He was predominantly concerned with establishing control over the peripheral parts of
his fragile empire.
3) To protect the territorial integrity of the state
 To defend the country against the threat of foreign expansionists
 To check the Turko-Egyptian imperialism that threatened his country’s independence.
 He was a realist and nationalist leader with a long-term foreign policy strategy to protect
the country from external threat.
 Accordingly, he tried to procure the much needed firearms and ammunitions to equip
his army.
 Moreover, he required Europeans to send him artisans to produce military weapon for
him at home
4) To make his country to be recognized as equal with European powers
 His FP and diplomatic dealings were based on the principles of sovereignty and
reciprocity
 He sought the Western Christian world to recognize and respect his country.
 Took desperate measures by taking hostage of several British missionaries including the
consul.
5) Modernization
 Had passionate demand for modern technology and skilled man power.
 He demanded to improve internal system for modernization and renewal
 The development of the country
 He sought the Western Christian world to help him to modernize his country
 To procure the much inspired technical aid to modernize his country
 Directed his FP towards utilizing systematically the knowledge of Europeans so as to
modernize the country.
 Hence, he introduced the idea of modernity and modern army at the time.  Foreign
policy strategies:
A. Friendship and alliance with foreign Christian powers:
 Attempted to establish his diplomatic relations to fight his immediate enemies claiming
Christianity as instrument of foreign policy.
 As Keller has put it “he appealed specifically to Britain, France and Russia as Christian
nations to assist him in whatever ways possible in his fight against the Turks, Egyptians
and Islam”.

2.3.2. Foreign Policy during Yohannes IV (1872-1888)

FP Objectives:
1) Consolidating his power at home
He had to firmly establish himself against the strong regional rivals (like King Menelik of
Shoa)
Friends were sought to help consolidate his power to overcome domestic challenges.
2) To have free access to the sea:
Friends were sought to help have free access to the sea.
Massawa was under the control of Italy with the support of Britain, which had a control over
part of Eritrea.
3) To defend the country’s sovereignty/territorial integrity

 Egypt tried to put a serious security threat ….to control the source of Blue Nile:
Gundet (1875) and Gura (1876)
 Sudanese Mahdists were challenging Ethiopia from the west Battle of Matama in
1889.
 In addition, the emperor saw European expansionism as greater threat to the survival of
the country.
 Britain also continued assisting Egypt to make an all-out war against Ethiopia.  Italy got
a foot hold at the port of Massawa in 1885.
 The emperor died fighting with the “Mahadists
 Foreign policy strategy: Cultivating the foreign relationship with Europe 
Yohannes considered Islam as a threat to the territorial integrity of the polity.
 He followed patient diplomacy
 Used prudence in his dealings with foreign powers.
 He was willing to negotiate even with his enemies (Egypt, Britain) that had imperial
aspirations over the HoA, Ethiopia.
 He adopted an “open-door policy” for desirable influences of European Christian
powers.
 He turned to France.
 He asked France for recognition of his country’s independence, himself as a sovereign
power, and to be his patron/ally.
  2.3.3. Foreign Policy during Menelik II (1889-93)
 Menelik was the King of Shoa region before his coronation as the King of Kings of
Ethiopia.
FP Objectives:
1) Access to the sea
 Expanded his sphere of influence towards the far South and East incorporating
new areas and communities peacefully or otherwise.
 The southward expansionism policy of the King was mainly targeted to have
access to Sea Port, Zeila
 B/c the country’s access to the sea in the North had fallen under Italy’s
influence since the mid 1880s
 And the issue of outlet to the sea remained the burning question determining
its policy and role in the region.
 Agreement with France in 1897 recognizing Djibouti as official outlet to
Ethiopia.
2) Maintain the territorial integrity of his country:
 Italy continued to be the main challenge in the North.
 The King saw the other colonial powers surrounding all four corners of the country as
the scramble of Africa was heightened.
 The emperor followed double track diplomacy to contain or reverse Italy’s expansion
and maintain the territorial integrity of his country.
 He entered many treaties and agreements to solve the challenge amicably.
 The emperor was preparing himself by accumulating military ammunitions to defend
the aggression from any side of colonial powers
 The emperor’s diplomatic endeavor with Italy failed to result in peace due to Italy’s
misinterpretation of the controversial article 17 of the ‘Wuchalle’ treaty.
 In 1896, the emperor declared nation-wide war against Italy in defense of the territorial
integrity and sovereignty of the century.
Adwa victory
 Ethiopia’s foreign policy of the forth coming rulers has significantly been informed by
the notion of territorial integrity of the country.
 FP strategies: diplomacy
 He had diplomatic relations with external powers.
 This helped him import military equipment’s from France, Britain and Russia for Adwa
incident
 This diplomatic relation had radically increased following the victory of Adwa
 This enhanced Ethiopia's international image.
 Britain, France, Russia and the vanquished Italy came to Menelik’s Palace to arrange
formal exchange of Ambassadors.
 These powers signed formal boundary treaties with the emperor.

2.3.4. Foreign Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I (1916-1974)

 FP Objectives:
1) The political independence/ territorial integrity of his country:
 Italian invasion
2) Political /power consolidations:
 To build his power
 To ensure his survival at home
 There were internal forces challenging the regime
3) The creation of a stronger, centralized and bureaucratic empire:
 He was dedicated to the creation of a stronger, centralized and bureaucratic empire
 With unquestioned respect by the international community
FP Strategies: Diplomacy
 Peaceful-coexistence and strong defense system
 In spite of repeated provocations from neighboring countries, especially from Somalia,
the emperor succeeded in preventing his military force from adopting aggressive stance
to them
 Preferred to live peacefully with neighbors though the latter supported internal rebels
(i.e. ELF)
 Also believed in maintaining strong military establishment for defense
 Had a military regarded as the best in black Africa.
 The emperor reiterated that the country’s preparedness was to preserve peace not for
aggression.
 Collective security: LN, UN
 Ethiopia’s membership in the League of Nations was clearly instigated by the ever
present danger of invasion by Italians.
 The Emperor fled to London and established a government in exile.
 Journeyed to Geneva to make a plea before the League of Nations for aid in defense
to the country.
 The collective security system, the League ultimately failed to take any substantive
measure against Italy and the plea of the King was ignored.
 The King continued to believe in the ultimate value of effective diplomacy.
 Recognized Ethiopia’s need for a powerful external patron until he could restore the
independence of his country. ….Britain.
 Ethiopia was extremely dependent on British military, economic and technical aid.
The Emperor feared that Britain might either declare Ethiopia a protectorate or as an
occupied enemy territory.
 This fear moved him to seek alternative relationships ….USA
 Through diplomacy, Haile Selassie was able to regain complete administrative control
over the territory he claimed and more by 1954.
 In 1952 a U.N. resolution had made possible a federation between Ethiopia and the
former Italian colony of Eritrea.
 In 1962 the emperor made it a province.
 United States had coveted a base in Eritrea where it could set up a radio tracking
station.
  Haile Selasie viewed the use of such an installation by the United States as having more
benefits than costs
 Military aid, Military Assistance Advisory Group (training),
 Consolidated his military capacity and political power
 Decisive to ensure his survivalat home and maintain the territorial integrity of the
country.
 He effectively used military action against those riots and rebellions
 Contributed to the expansion of Ethiopian military as a hedge against the Somalia
threats.
 Ethiopia also played significant role in Africa in fighting for African independence and
to end colonialism and apartheid.
 In the United Nations, Ethiopia played its part in raising agendas and pressing for
resolutions against colonialism
 Ethiopia also played a significant role in maintaining international peace and security
(Sudan, Korea, Congo)
 Generally, the emperor secured the territorial integrity of the country and also secured
port through Eritrea
 Non-alignment:
Ethiopia kept her options open in her relations with others
Maintained cordial relations with the two mutually hostile blocs.
Successful in diversifying his dependence on foreign nations and securing assistances:
technology, money, expertise.
He got as cordial and warm receptions in Moscow or Peking as he had in Washington or London.
2.3.5. Foreign Policy during the Military Government (1974—1991)
The primary objectives of the foreign policy were:
1) The survival of the regime
The defense and legitimacy of the regime, so that it can continue in power and be accepted at
home and abroad.
To firmly establish its authority and create internal political stability 1)
Maintaining the territorial integrity of the country.
A threat from Somalia
National security
In order to guarantee territorial integrity and national unity
1) Are structured Ethiopian society
Creating a framework for socialist
development
2) Foreign policy strategies:
The major strategy to achieve the stated objectives heavily focused on building the
military capability of the country (force).
 The country was very much dependent on economic and military aid on the others
(socialists)
 Adopted a foreign policy largely oriented to socialist ideology.
 Thus, had a strong relation with Soviet Union, South Yemen, North Korea, Cuba 
Massive inflow of armaments
  Somalia (Ogaden war 1977-78), WSLF, Eritrea (EPLF), TPLF and other internal
forces
 But, economically the regime was dependent on the West.
 Loans from EC, IMF, WB.....
 Like the Imperial regime, Derg attempted to play off a multiplicity of donors against
one another to maximize its benefit.
 Apart from socialism, Ethiopia’s strategic locations and other questions, such as;
Eritrea, Somalia, and the issue of the Nile, had also shaped the foreign policy orientation
and behavior of military government.
 With regard to Africa’s broader issues of decolonization and anti-Apartheid struggle,
Ethiopia played significant role.
 The regime had extended its military and technical support to Freedom fighters in Angola
and Rhodesia.
 The regime had also showed its solidarity to Palestine’s cause by condemning Israel and
sought political allegiance with the Arab world, however the negative perception that
most Arab countries have towards Ethiopia remained unchanged.
2.3.6. The Foreign Policy of Ethiopia in the Post 1991 FP Objectives:
With EPRDF’s ascent to power the country adopted a new foreign policy orientation and
objectives.
1) To ensure the survival of the multi-national state. The
territorial integrity and independence of the country
Eliminating or at least reducing external security threats.
To create a regional and global atmosphere conducive for the country’s peace and security.
2) To create favorable external environment to achieve rapid economic development and build
up democratic system.
Failure to realize development and democracy has resulted in the threat to the country’s security.
To get considerable technical and financial support to build and strengthen institutions of
democratic governance, so crucial for the growth of democracy.
So democracy and development are theforeign policy visions of the country.
Strategies:
The primary strategy in realization of these goals is to put the focus on domestic issues first.
Addressing domestic political and economic problems.
This strategy is called an “inside-out” approach.
The inside out approach would then help to reduce the countries vulnerability to threat.
Economic diplomacy is adopted to strengthen the domestic efforts in fighting poverty and
backwardness and address the issues of development.
Economic diplomacy involves attracting foreign investments, seeking markets for Ethiopian
exportable commodities, seeking aid and confessional loans too.
The Security and Foreign Policy of the country also indicated that Ethiopia would adopt a kind
of East-look policy.
To learn from Singapore, Malaysian and Indonesia
The other foreign policy strategy is building up the military capability of the country.
Building up military capability would have a deterrence effect.
Though strategies may sometimes differ the primary foreign policy objective of all the three
regimes remained the maintenance of the territorial integrity and independence of the
country.