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EE2101 Circuit Analysis Review

Welcome to Circuit Analysis Review Workshop!

This platform is designed to guide you through the content we will cover today. It includes interactive
elements to enhance your learning experience. Stay engaged and actively participate to get the most out
of this session!

Pre-Workshop Activity
Before we dive in, let’s reflect on what we already know and what we’re curious to learn about Circuit
Analysis (CA). This is your opportunity to identify your strengths and areas where you might need more
clarification.

Can you list all the topics for CA? E.g., Mesh analysis

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 MESH ANALYSIS NODAL ANALYSIS

SOURCE CONVERSION 1ST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL

S DOMAIN ANALYSIS TRANSFER FUNCTION

PHASOR DOMAIN 2 PORT NETWORKS

AC POWER ANALYSIS THREE PHASE CIRCUITS

Reflective Questions:
What are the topics you feel confident about?
What are the topics you have doubts about?
Engage with each topic listed and share your thoughts! Your input is valuable in shaping this
workshop to better suit your learning needs.

Basic Components
How do we determine current/voltage through a resistor?
Voltage = Current x Resistance

V =I ×R

I = V /R

What about capacitors?

A capacitor is an electronic component used to store electric charge. It consists of two conductive plates
separated by an insulating material called a dielectric. The plates are typically made of metal, such as
aluminum or tantalum, and the dielectric can be made of materials like ceramic, paper, or plastic.

Internal Makeup:

Conductive Plates: These are the two metal plates within the capacitor. They are usually thin and parallel
to each other, allowing for maximum surface area and hence greater capacitance. Dielectric: Positioned
between the plates, the dielectric is a non-conductive material that prevents direct electrical contact
between the plates while allowing an electric field to form.
How it Works:

Storing Charges: When a voltage is applied across the capacitor, electrons accumulate on one plate,
creating a negative charge, while an equal number of electrons are drawn away from the other plate,
leaving it positively charged. This creates an electric field between the plates.

Dielectric Role: The dielectric material enhances the capacitor’s ability to store charge by increasing the
capacitance. It does this by reducing the electric field strength between the plates, allowing more charge
to be stored for a given voltage. Energy Storage: The capacitor stores energy in the electric field between
its plates. The amount of energy stored is proportional to the square of the voltage applied and the
capacitance of the capacitor.
What about inductors?
An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field when
current flows through it. It consists of a coil of wire wound around a core material, often made of
ferromagnetic materials like iron or ferrite.

Internal Makeup:

Coil of Wire: The primary component of an inductor is a coil of wire. This wire is usually made of a
conductive material such as copper or aluminum. Core Material: The coil is often wound around a core
material, which can be air, iron, ferrite, or other ferromagnetic materials. The core material enhances the
inductor’s ability to store energy in the form of a magnetic field.
How it Works:

Storing Energy: When current flows through the coil of wire, a magnetic field is created around the coil
according to Ampere’s law. This magnetic field stores energy.

Inductance: The property that determines the ability of an inductor to store energy in a magnetic field is
called inductance. It is measured in henries (H) and depends on factors such as the number of turns in
the coil, the coil’s geometry, and the core material.

Opposition to Change: One key characteristic of inductors is that they oppose changes in current flow.
When the current through an inductor changes, the magnetic field also changes, inducing a voltage in
the inductor that opposes the change in current, following Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

Energy Release: When the current through the inductor decreases, the magnetic field collapses,
releasing the stored energy back into the circuit in the form of an electromotive force (emf).
Kirchhoff’s Voltage & Current Law
Think about how we calculate voltages and currents.

What is Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law?

KVL

What is Kirchhoff’s Current Law?

KCL

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that:

HINT

The sum of all currents entering a node is equal to the sum of all currents leaving the node.
 The sum of all voltages around a closed loop must equal zero.

The total resistance in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.

Voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.

Correct!
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the sum of all the voltages around any closed loop in a circuit must
equal zero. This is because a charge completes a circuit back to its starting point, having no net gain or loss
in energy. It implies that the energy given to the charge by the sources is equal to the energy taken from the
charge by the resistors or other components in the loop.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage & Current Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the potential differences in any loop
must be equal to zero as:

∑
V =0
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that for a parallel path the total current entering a circuit’s
junction is exactly equal to the total current leaving the same junction

∑
I=0

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Mesh Analysis is based on:

HINT

Kirchhoff‘s Current Law

Kirchhoff‘s Voltage Law

Ohm‘s Law

Faraday‘s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Correct!
Mesh Analysis is a method for solving electrical circuits by applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) to loops
(meshes) in the circuit, and using Ohm’s Law to relate voltages and currents through resistances within each
loop.
Mesh Analysis

Mesh analysis is a simple way to figure out what’s happening in an electrical circuit with lots of loops.
Imagine each loop as its own path where electricity can flow. Mesh analysis uses a rule called Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law , which says that if you add up all the voltages around a loop, the total should be zero . By
applying this rule to each loop, we can set up a bunch of math equations. Solving these equations tells us
how much current is flowing through each loop. This method is great because it makes it easier to
understand complex circuits by breaking them down into simpler parts. It works best for circuits that can
be drawn flat, without any wires crossing over each other.

For each loop, we can label them as i1 and i2 . For example, the current from the voltage source Va is i1 ,
​ ​ ​ ​

the current from the voltage source Vb is i2 , and the current through resistor b from top to bottom is
​ ​

(i1 − i2 ).
​ ​
Mesh Analysis
To apply Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) for a loop i1 in a circuit, we create an equation summing up all the
​

voltages around the loop, including voltage sources and voltage drops across resistors, ensuring the total
equals zero. This helps us understand how current flows in that part of the circuit.

i1 (a + b + c) − i2 (b) = − V a
​ ​ ​

Mesh Analysis
We will do the same for the loop i2 ​

i1 (b) − i2 (b + d + e) = V b
​ ​ ​
Mesh Analysis

i1 (a + b + c) − i2 (b) = − V a
​ ​ ​

i1 (b) − i2 (b + d + e) = V b
​ ​ ​

From the two equations, since we have two unknowns (provided we know the values of the resistor and
voltage sources), we can solve for the currents for each loop (i1 and i2 ) through simultaneous equations.
​ ​

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Nodal Analysis uses which Kirchhoff’s Law as its foundation?

HINT

Kirchhoff‘s Voltage Law

 Kirchhoff‘s Current Law

Ohm‘s Law

None of the above

Correct!
Nodal Analysis is a technique for analyzing electrical circuits based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL). It
determines voltage differences at different nodes relative to a common reference point, ensuring
conservation of electric charge at junctions.

Nodal Analysis

Nodal analysis is a straightforward method to analyze the flow of electricity at different points, or nodes,
in an electrical circuit. Instead of focusing on loops, nodal analysis looks at the junctions where
components like resistors and voltage sources come together. The main rule used here is Kirchhoff’s
Current Law (KCL), which says that all the current entering a node must equal the current leaving it .
By applying KCL to each node, we create a set of math equations based on the currents and the voltages
at the nodes. When we solve these equations, we learn the voltage at each node in the circuit. This is
helpful because it simplifies the analysis of complicated circuits into more manageable pieces. Nodal
analysis is especially good for circuits that have lots of branches that come together, rather than just
loops.
For each node (or junction), we can label them as Va and Vb . ​ ​

Nodal Analysis
To apply Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) for a junction Va in a circuit, we create an equation summing
​
up all
the currents entering and exiting the junction.

Va + V1 + Va + Va − Vb = 0
​ ​

​
​

​
​ ​

a+c b d
Nodal Analysis
We will do the same for the node Vb ​

Vb = V2
​ ​

Nodal Analysis
Va + V1 + Va + Va − Vb = 0
​ ​

​
​

​
​ ​

a+c b d
Vb = V2
​ ​

From the two equations, since we have two unknowns (Provided we know the values of the resistor and
voltage sources), we can solve for the voltages at the nodes (Va and Vb ) through simultaneous equation.
​ ​

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 Let’s think...
What to do if the circuit has a current source in-between loops or voltage source in-between
nodes?

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When encountering a current source in between two loops in Mesh Analysis, one should form a:

HINT

Supernode

Supermesh

Simple loop

Complex mesh

Correct!
Mesh Analysis involves writing equations for each loop in a circuit using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL),
summing the voltages to zero. It’s a systematic way to solve for current in each loop, using Ohm’s Law to
relate voltages and resistances.
 What is true about the application of a supernode in circuit analysis?

HINT

It is applied when two nodes are connected by a voltage source and another element in parallel.

It simplifies circuits by ignoring voltage sources.

It is only used when a circuit cannot be solved with basic Ohm‘s law.

It always reduces the number of equations needed to solve for all unknowns.

Correct!
Forming a supernode in circuit analysis combines two nodes connected by a voltage source into one entity,
facilitating the application of Kirchhoff’s Current Law. It keeps the equation count consistent with the
number of unknowns, including an equation for the voltage difference across the source.

Supermesh & Supernode

We can label the currents for the loops and for each node.

Supermesh & Supernode

For Supermesh:

Create a bigger loop, and relate the two currents

Isource = i1 + i2
​ ​ ​

For Supernode:

Create a bigger node, and relate the two nodes

VBA = Vb − Va
​ ​ ​

These expressions contribute to one equation. And with your larger loop / node, you can obtain another
equation. You would then have two equations again, which you can use to solve for two unknowns.

Source Conversion
Source conversion is a technique used in circuit analysis, allowing us to simplify circuit solving by
converting between different types of sources. In electrical circuits, sources can generally be of two types:
voltage sources and current sources. Here’s an overview of how source conversion works and when it can
be used:

When converting from a voltage source VS in series with a resistance R to an equivalent

​
current source,
the current IS of the current source is given by: IS = VS /R. The converted current source is then placed
​ ​ ​

in parallel with the same resistance R.

To convert from a current source IS in parallel with a resistance R to an equivalent voltage source, the
​

voltage VS of the voltage source is given by: VS = IS × R. The converted voltage source is then placed in
​ ​ ​

series with the same resistance R.

Why Convert Sources?

Simplification: Source conversion can simplify the process of circuit analysis, especially when applying
techniques such as mesh analysis or nodal analysis.

Theoretical Analysis: It allows us to theoretically investigate the behavior of circuits when different types
of sources are used.
Practical Applications: Sometimes, in practical circuits, it is more convenient or feasible to use a current
source instead of a voltage source, or vice versa, depending on the load characteristics.

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Thevenin’s Theorem simplifies a circuit to an equivalent circuit with:

HINT

A single voltage source and parallel resistance

A single current source and series resistance

A single voltage source and series resistance

 A single current source and parallel resistance

Correct!
ThØvenin’s Theorem reduces complex circuits to a simple equivalent with a single voltage source and a
series resistance, facilitating analysis.

Thevenin’s and Norton Theorem

Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent are circuit simplification techniques that focus on terminal behaviour.

This Theorem says that any circuit with a voltage/current source and a network of resistors can be
transformed into one voltage/current source and one resistor.

Method

ThØvenin’s Theorem

Find VT H and RT H
​ ​

Norton’s Theorem

Find IN and RN
​ ​

We can think of Thevenin’s Theorem as measuring the voltage and resistance of a complicated circuit.
The measured values will be its Thevenin’s voltage and resistance.
Try an example for yourself!

Calculate the Thevenin’s voltage and resistance of the output.

ANSWER

ThØvenin’s and Norton Theorem

For ThØvenin’s Equivalent
By using source conversion, we can obtain the Norton’s equivalent circuit.

For Norton’s Equivalent

By using source conversion, we can obtain the ThØvenin’s equivalent circuit.

Ask yourself
What to do when there is a dependent source?

ThØvenin’s and Norton Theorem

What to do when there is a dependent source?

Find VTH / IN as per usual.

​ ​
To find RTH / RN , you will need to do a source injection. You will need to find Vinject /Iinject (It is the voltage
​ ​ ​ ​

and the current supplied by the injected source. You will need to determine either the voltage or current
of the injected source.), which will be RTH / RN .
​ ​

ThØvenin’s and Norton Theorem

An ohmmeter works by injecting a source, and measuring its voltage and current output.

Let’s try a circuit. The resistor values are c = 1, d = 6. Hint: the RTH does not depend on resistors a and b.
​
ThØvenin’s and Norton Theorem
We observe that the circuit has a dependent current source. Hence, we will need to short any
independent sources, and inject a source to determine RTH . This is how you would measure the
​

resistance of a circuit practically. The same concept is done for calculating RTH . By measuring
​
the
outputs of the circuit using an ohm-meter, we are injecting a small amount of current into the circuit,
and determine Vinject /Iinject .
​ ​

We can express the circuit as:

We can do KCL / Nodal analysis for node Va ​

−
2Va − Va + Vi Va = 0
​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

c d
( 1 1)
= − Vi
​

Va 2 − −
​ ​ ​ ​

c d d
Sub in c = 1, d = 6

( 1 1) Vi ​

Va 2 − 1 − 6 = − 6
​ ​ ​ ​

Vi ​

Va = − 5 ​ ​

Determine the current (Ii ) supplied by injected source

​

Vi − Va ​ ​

Ii =
​ ​

d
Sub in d = 6

Vi − Va ​ ​

Ii =
​

6
​

Sub in Va = − V5i
​

​ ​

Vi
Vi − 5
​

​ ​

Ii = ​

6
​

1
Ii = 5 ​ ​

Vi
=5Ω
​

Ii
​

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The Superposition Theorem is applicable for circuits with:

HINT

Only one source of energy

More than one source of energy

Only resistive elements

No reactive elements

Correct!
The Superposition Theorem is applicable for circuits with more than one source of energy.
Superposition
Now, if we have multiple sources in the same circuit, how can we compute the voltage / current of an
element?

We use superposition theorem to calculate!

Short voltage sources, open current sources.

Method: We will first calculate the voltage contributions by voltage source. We will open the current
source.
Then we calculate the contribution from the current source. We short the voltage source.

With the contributions from the sources calculated, we can add them together to determine the total
contributions.
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 The relationship between voltage and current in a capacitor is described by:

HINT

V =I ×R

di
V = L dt ​

dV
I = C dt ​

I =V ×C

Correct!
In a capacitor, the current is the result of the voltage change rate across its terminals, moderated by its
capacitance. This describes how quickly a capacitor can charge or discharge in response to voltage changes.

Voltage and Current Equations

Resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors (C) are fundamental components in electrical circuits, and they
each obey different voltage-current relationships. Here’s an overview of their behavior:

Resistors (R)
Resistors oppose the flow of electric current. Ohm’s Law governs the voltage-current relationship for a
resistor:

V =I ×R
Where:

V is the voltage across the resistor (in volts, V )

I is the current through the resistor (in amperes, A)

R is the resistance (in ohms, Ω)

Inductors (L)
Inductors store energy in a magnetic field when electric current passes through them. The voltage across
an inductor is proportional to the rate of change of current through it:

di
VL = L
​ ​

dt
Where:
VL is the voltage across the inductor (in volts, V )
​

i is the current through the inductor (in amperes, A)

L is the inductance (in henrys, H )

di ​
is the derivative of the current with respect to time, representing how quickly the current is changing.
dt

Capacitors (C)
Capacitors store energy in an electric field between their plates when a voltage is applied across them.
The current through a capacitor is proportional to the rate of change of voltage across it:

dV
IC = C ​ ​

dt
Where:

IC is the current through the capacitor (in amperes, A)

​

V is the voltage across the capacitor (in volts, V )

C is the capacitance (in farads, F )

dV ​
is the derivative of the voltage with respect to time. For a series RLC circuit, the combined voltage
dt
across all three components can be described by the second-order differential equation:

di ∫
Vtotal = VR + VL + VC = IR + L + C idt
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

dt

In a parallel RLC circuit, the total current is the sum of the currents through each component:

V + 1∫ dV
Itotal = IR + IL + IC =
​ ​ ​

V dt + C ​ ​ ​ ​

R L dt

Summary

VR = IR ​

V
IR = ​ ​

1 ∫
v C (t) =
​ ​

i dt
C
dv
iC (t) = C
​ ​

dt

di
v L (t) = L
​ ​

dt
 1∫
iL (t) =
​

v dt
​

First order differential equations

the voltage of the capacitor once the switch is closed (at t >= 0).
We have this RC circuit. Let’s determine
Assume that the switch has been open for a long time, and that the capacitor is fully discharged.

First order differential equations

By using KVL, we can construct the following equations:

dvC + vC − VS = 0
​ ​ ​

C ​ ​

dt R
dvC = − dt ​

​ ​

vC − VS
​

RC ​

Integrating from t >= 0

 t t
∫ ​
dvC = ∫ − dt ​

​ ​ ​

0 vC − VS 0 RC​ ​

ln(vC (t) − VS ) − ln(vC (0) − VS ) = − t

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

RC
( ( ) − VS )
ln vC t =− t
​ ​

​ ​

vC (0) − VS RC ​ ​

− t
vC (t) = VS + [vC (0) − VS ]e RC
​

​ ​ ​ ​

Substituting τ = RC
− t
vC (t) = VS + [vC (0) − VS ]e τ
​

​ ​ ​ ​

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S-Domain Analysis
The step function, often denoted as u(t), is a mathematical function that switches from one value to
another at a particular point in time. It is formally known as the Heaviside step function, named after the
English mathematician Oliver Heaviside. The visual representation of the function is (The horizontal axis
is t, while the vertical axis is u(t)):

We can see that the step function "activates" when t >= 0. This step function basically mimics a switch
turning on.

S-Domain Analysis
S-domain analysis, which involves using the Laplace transform, is a powerful technique in the realm of
electrical engineering, particularly when it comes to analyzing circuits. In essence, it provides a way to
convert complex, time-based problems into a more manageable algebraic form.

Time-Domain Challenges:

In the time domain, electrical circuits that include components like capacitors and inductors are
described by differential equations. Solving these equations directly can be quite challenging because
they require calculus and can become quite complex, especially when dealing with multiple
interconnected components.

S-Domain Simplification:

When we switch to the s-domain through the process known as Laplace transformation, something
remarkable happens: those tricky differential equations that describe how voltages and currents change
over time are transformed into simple algebraic equations. In the s-domain, the operations of
differentiation and integration turn into simple multiplication and division by ’s’ (which represents a
complex frequency).

1
L(u(t)) = ​

Solving Circuit Problems:

This means that, rather than dealing with the calculus of differential equations, you can solve circuit
problems using algebraic equations that are often just polynomials. This is usually easier and faster,
especially with the help of computer software.
From Polynomials Back to Time:

Once you have the solution in the s-domain, you can convert it back into the time domain using the
inverse Laplace transform. This lets you see how the circuit behaves over time without ever having to
solve a differential equation directly.

S-Domain Analysis

Conversion of time domain to S-domain with zero initial conditions

Conversion of time domain to S-domain with initial conditions
S-Domain Analysis
Method to solving circuits in S-domain

1. Convert time domain to s-domain (Laplace transform).

2. Use circuit theorems (mesh/nodal/thevenin’s/nodal/source conversions) to derive the
voltage/current equations.
3. Convert s-domain equations back to time domain (Inverse laplace transform).

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Transfer Function
Method to solving circuits in S-domain to obtain the transfer function

1. Convert time domain to s-domain (Laplace transform).

2. Use circuit theorems (mesh/nodal/thevenin’s/nodal/source conversions) to derive the
voltage/current equations.
3. Convert s-domain equations back to time domain (Inverse laplace transform).
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Phasor Domain
Solving sinusoidal steady-state circuits

Convert sinusoidal source to phasor domain

A cos(ωt + θ ) ⇒ A∠θ
∘
A sin(ωt + θ ) ⇒ A∠(θ − 90 )

Conversion of time domain to phasor-domain

Method to solving circuits in phasor domain to obtain the transfer function

1. Convert time domain to phasor domain (Laplace transform).

2. Use circuit theorems (mesh/nodal/thevenin’s/nodal/source conversions) to derive the
voltage/current equations.
3. Convert phasor domain equations back to time domain (Inverse laplace transform).
 The parameters of a two-port network that are most useful when the network is viewed as an input-
output system are:

HINT

Z-parameters

Y-parameters

H-parameters

ABCD-parameters

Correct!
When viewing a two-port network as an input-output system, the ABCD-parameters (or transmission
parameters) are most useful. These parameters directly relate the input and output voltages and currents of
the network, making them ideal for analyzing signal flow through the system.

Two Port Networks

Two-port networks describe the behavior of electrical circuits and components that have two pairs of
terminals or ports. Essentially, a two-port network is an electrical network (circuit) with an input and an
output port, each having a pair of terminals to connect to the external circuits.

Basics of Two-Port Networks:

Ports: One port is usually considered the input, and the other is the output, although the network may be
reversible.

Terminal Variables: At each port, there are two variables: voltage (V ) and current (I ). These are usually
defined with reference directions: V1 , I1 for the input port and V2 , I2 for the output port.
​ ​ ​ ​

Impedance Parameters

V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​
 V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Admittance Parameters

I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Hybrid Parameters

V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

ABCD Parameters

V1 = AV2 − BI2 ​ ​ ​

I1 = CV2 − DI2 ​ ​ ​

Two Port Networks

1.Impedance Parameters (Z-parameters)

The impedance parameters describe the network in terms of voltages and currents at its ports, with the
focus on how voltages are related to currents. The equations are:

V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

How to derive them:

1. To find z11 , set I2 = 0 (open circuit the second port) and apply a current I1 at port 1. Z11 = V1 is
​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

I1 ​

the impedance seen at port 1.

2. To find z12 , with I2 = 0, measure V2 . z12 = V2 represents how current at port 1 influences voltage
​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

I1 ​

at port 2.
3. z21 and z22 are found
​ ​
similarly by applying I2 and setting
​

I1 = 0, measuring
​

V1 and V2
​ ​

respectively.

2. Admittance Parameters (Y-parameters)

Admittance parameters are the inverse of impedance parameters, focusing on currents as a function of
voltages.

I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

How to derive them:

1. To find y11 , set V2 = 0 (short circuit the second port) and apply a voltage V1 at port 1. y11 = I1 is
​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

V1 ​

the admittance seen at port 1.

2. To find y12 , with V2 = 0, measure I2 . y12 = I2 shows how voltage at port 1affects current at port 2,
​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

V1 ​

and so forth for y21 and y22 .

​ ​

3. Hybrid Parameters (H-parameters)

Hybrid parameters, or H-parameters, are predominantly used in the analysis and design of transistor
circuits, especially in small signal amplification.

V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

How to derive them:

1. h11 is derived by setting V2 = 0 and calculating the input impedance as h11 = V1 .

​

​ ​ ​ ​

I1 ​

2. h12 is found by applying a voltage to port 2 with I1 = 0 and measuring how it affects V1 .
​ ​ ​

3. h21 shows the forward current gain with V2 = 0, and h22 is the output admittance with I1 = 0.
​ ​ ​ ​

4. ABCD Parameters
ABCD parameters are used for cascading two-port networks without conversion, relating the input
directly to the output.

V1 = AV2 − BI2 ​ ​ ​

I1 = CV2 − DI2
​ ​ ​

How to derive them:

1. A represents the voltage ratio V1 when I2 = 0 (open-circuit condition).

​

​ ​

V2 ​

2. B is the inverse of the load impedance seen looking into the network from port 2 when port 1 is
open-circuited.
3. C represents the short-circuit current transfer ratio I1 from port 2 to port 1.
​

I2 ​

4. D is the inverse of the source admittance seen by looking into the network from port 1when port
2 is short-circuited.
For each parameter set, the process involves isolating one port and measuring its open or short circuit
ratios.
Two Port Networks
Symmetrical when

V1 ∣ ​

V2 ∣ ​

I2 =0 = ​

I1 =0
​
​ ​

​
​

I1 ​

I2 ​

Conditions of symmetry

z11 = z22 ​ ​

y11 = y22 ​ ​

h11 h22 − h12 h21 = 1

​ ​ ​ ​

A=D
Conditions of reciprocity

z12 = z21 ​ ​

y12 = y21 ​ ​

h12 = −h21
​ ​

AD − BC = 1

Two Port Networks

Interconnections

Series (Add in Z parameters)

Parallel (Add in Y parameters)

Cascade (Multiply ABCD parameters)

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AC Power Analysis
Understanding AC power involves three key components: real power (P), reactive power (Q), and
apparent power (S). Here’s an explanation of each, along with a discussion on power factor (pf), which
relates to the concept of "lagging" or "leading" power factors.

Real Power (P):

Real power, measured in watts (W), is the actual power consumed by the load to perform work. In a
purely resistive circuit, where voltage and current are in phase, all the power is real. It is the product of
voltage and current at the phase angle where they are in sync:

P = Vrms Irms cosϕ

​ ​

Here, ϕ = θv − θi represents the phase angle between the current and voltage. If the current and voltage
​ ​

are perfectly in phase (ϕ = 0), then all the power supplied by the source is consumed by the load.

Reactive Power (Q):

Reactive power, measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR), is the power that oscillates between the source
and the reactive components (inductors and capacitors) in the circuit. It does not do any real work but is
essential for creating the magnetic and electric fields necessary for the operation of AC machinery. The
reactive power is given by:

Q = Vrms Irms sinϕ

​ ​

Reactive power can be positive (+Q), where the circuit is inductive, or negative (-Q), where the circuit is
capacitive.

Apparent Power (S):

Apparent power, measured in volt-amperes (VA), is the product of the root-mean-square (RMS) voltage
and RMS current without considering the phase angle. It represents the total power "apparently" used in
the circuit.

S = Vrms Irms ​ ​

Apparent power combines both real and reactive power and is represented as a vector sum of the two.

Power Factor (pf):

The power factor is the ratio of real power to apparent power and indicates the efficiency with which the
current is being converted into useful work. It ranges between -1 and 1.A power factor of 1 means that all
the power is real power (no reactive power), which is the most efficient scenario.

Lagging and Leading Power Factor:

The power factor is "lagging" in inductive circuits, where the current lags the voltage. In such cases, the
reactive power is positive (+Q), and the phasor representing Q points upwards on the complex power
plane. Conversely, the power factor is "leading" in capacitive circuits, where the current leads the voltage.
Here, the reactive power is negative (-Q), and the Q phasor points downwards.

Graphically, you can represent these relationships on a power triangle, where:

The horizontal axis represents real power P. The vertical axis represents reactive power Q, with inductive
power extending upwards and capacitive power extending downwards. The hypotenuse represents
apparent power S. The angle between the apparent
power S and real power P is the phase angle ϕ,
which determines the power factor cosϕ. This triangle visually demonstrates how real, reactive, and
apparent powers relate to each other and the concept of leading or lagging power factors.
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In a balanced three-phase system, the phase voltage is:

HINT

Equal to the line voltage

1 ​
times the line voltage
3 ​

3 times the line voltage

​

Twice the line voltage

RETRY

Incorrect. Try again!

1
In a balanced three-phase system, the phase voltage is ​
times the line voltage, due to the phase
3 ​

difference of 120 between each phase in a three-phase system, forming an equilateral triangle in vector
representation.
Three Phase Circuits
Positive / abc sequence

The sequence is produced when the rotor rotates counterclockwise.

∘
Van = Vp ∠0
​ ​

∘
Vbn = Vp ∠ − 120
​ ​

∘ ∘
Vcn = Vp ∠ − 240 = Vp ∠120
​ ​ ​

Van + Vbn + Vcn = 0

​ ​ ​

Negative / acb sequence

The sequence is produced when the rotor rotates clockwise.

 ∘
Van = Vp ∠0
​ ​

∘
Vcn = Vp ∠ − 120
​ ​

∘ ∘
Vbn = Vp ∠ − 240 = Vp ∠120
​ ​ ​

Van + Vbn + Vcn = 0

​ ​ ​

Three Phase Circuits

Calculating line voltage from phase voltage in a wye configuration.
 Note
Phase and line voltages differ by 30 degrees!

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Time for a break!
We will be going through a past year paper after this break!

Academic Year 22/23 Semester 1 Exam Paper

Question 1a)
Question 1a)Nodal analysis

V1 Equation
​

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 V1 ANS

V2 Equation
​

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 V2 ANS

Question 1a)Power absorbed by 5 Ω resistor

Find P

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 ANSWER

Question 1b)
Question 1b) Finding VT H ​

V1 Equation
​

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ANSWER

V2 Equation
​
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ANSWER

Question 1b) Finding RT H ​

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ANSWER
Question 1b) Finding Pmax ​

2
= Vth
​

Pmax ​

4Rth ​
​

Pmax = 0.75 W
​

Question 2a)

Question 2a) Initial condition

 − 1
i(0 ) = − 2 A ​

Recall

di
vL = L
​ ​

dt

Question 2a) Writing KVL equation

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 ANSWER

Question 2a) Solving for the constant A

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 ANSWER

Question 2a) Finding v (t) for t > 0

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 ANSWER

Question 2b)
Question 2b)

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ANSWER
 Question 3a)

Teacher’s View

Question 3a)

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 ANSWER

Question 3b)
Question 3bi)

Recall

P = S cos θ

Q = S sin θ

Resistive Load

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 ANSWER

Inductive Load

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 ANSWER

Capacitive Load

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 ANSWER

Total complex power

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 ANSWER

Question 3bii)

Finding target reactive power (Q)

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 ANSWER

Finding for compensating reactive power (ΔQ)

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 ANSWER

Finding value of compensating capacitor

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 ANSWER

Question 4a)
Question 4a)

V o (s)
​

Is (s)
​

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ANSWER

Prove that the step response id overdamped

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 ANSWER

Question 4b)
Question 4b)

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 ANSWER

Finding total complex power absorbed by the transmission lines

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 ANSWER

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