Class Notes

Date: 04/10/24
History
Unit 3 : Cotton textiles
Before the industrial revolution, all manufactured goods were made by hand.
Most goods purchased today are produced by machines.

(Cotton Textiles)
The first product to be mass produced by machines was cotton.
Creating cotton textiles involves 2 processes :
The raw cotton fibres are twisted and wound to create thread, a process known as
spinning. The thinner and stronger the thread, the more valuable it became. Since
the 13th century, cotton had been spun in England using a spinning wheel,which
twists and winds thread onto a wooden rod called a spindle.

The next process is weaving. Textiles are produced by stretching threads

lengthways, known as the warp, and interleaving them with a widthways thread, known
as the weft. Handlooms had been used to weave textiles in Britain since the Roman
period.

During the 18th century, women and children in poor farming communities would earn
extra money by spinning cotton. Cotton thread would be taken to a single adult,
usually a man, operating a handloom in his own house. For this reason, the
production of textiles became known as a cottage industry / homecraft.

While developing spinning, weaving became slow, then again while developing
weaving, spinning became slow. While trying to balance out spinning and weaving,
the industrial revolution began.

(Spinning machinery)
There were 3 contributors to the spinning process of cotton textiles :

James Hargreaves was an illiterate handloom weaver from Lancashire, who wanted to
find a more efficient process for spinning cotton. In 1764, Hargreaves invented a
spinning wheel that could feed eight spindles at once, greatly increasing the
amount of cotton thread one person could produce. Hargreaves nicknamed his machine
“jenny” (short for engine), so the machine became known as the spinning jenny.

Then, a Bolton wig maker named Richard Arkwright, in 1769, invented a water-powered
machine that could spin multiple strands of cotton threads, and he named it the
spinning frame.

The spinning jenny spun thread that was fine in texture (advantage) , but weak and
snapped under pressure (disadvantage).
Arkwright’s water frame spun thread that was strong (advantage), but coarse
(disadvantage).

In 1779, a cotton spinner from Bolton called Samuel Cropton, built a machine
combining the best aspects of both inventions. Because combining a donkey and a
horse produces a mule, Crompton named his invention the Crompton mule.
In 1785, one of Boulton and Watt’s newly invented steam engines was used to power a
Crompton mule for the first time, and the amount of cotton thread produced in
Britain exploded. One factory worker overseeing a spinning mule could produce
exponentially more cotton than one cotton spinner sitting at a spinning wheel, and
the cost of fine cotton thread dropped by 90% in the 10 years from 1785 to 1795.

(Powerloom)
Around this time, the powerloom, was invented by attaching Boulton and Watt’s steam
engine to a loom. It took longer for the powerloom to be perfected, but their
number increased from 2400 in 1813, to 115600 in 1835, to 250000 in 1857.
At the same time, the number of individual handloom operators dropped from a peak
of 240000 in 1820 to just 3000 by 1862.
As the amount of powerlooms in use rised, the amount of handlooms used dropped.
Powerlooms are made from a Crompton wheel and a Boulton & Watt steam engine
combined.

(Arkwright)
Richard Arkwright was not just a brilliant inventor, but also a shrewd businessman.
In 1775, Arkwright opened a 5 storey water mill beside the Derwent river in
Cromford, Derbyshire, to house his water frames. The Cromford mill went on to
employ 800 people, and many claim it was the world’s first modern factory.
Arkwright built more factories across Staffordshire, Manchester and Scotland,
creating an industrial empire.
He died in 1792, one of the most wealthiest men in Britain, having amasses a
personal fortune of 500 000 pounds.

Arkwright’s factory system took employment out of cottages, and into large purpose-
built structures, designed to house heavy machinery operated by hundreds, sometimes
thousands of workers.
This would transform the way that humans worked throughout the Western World during
the 19th century.
By 1800, there were 900 cotton mills in Britain. Most were in Lancashire, which
provided an ideal location for the production of cotton textiles. Lancashire’s
abundant coalfields powered the steam engines, Liverpool’s port supplied raw cotton
from the Americas, and the damp climate prevented cotton thread from snapping under
pressure.
At the centre of this trade was Manchester, nicknamed “Cottonopolis”, Manchester
grew from a small market town of 10 000 people in 1720, to a world city of 380 000
people in 1860.

(Mechanisation)
Due to the mechanisation of cotton production, Britain could sell cheaper, better
cotton textiles than anywhere else in the world.
British cotton exports grew from 248 000 pounds during the 1770s to 29 million
pounds during the 1820s - comprising an astonishing 62% of all British exports.
India had previously dominated the world trade in cotton textiles during the
previous century, but by the 1820s, its renowned handmade textiles could no longer
compete with Britain’s factory-made alternative.

Unit 3 : Iron and coal

Charcoal is made from wood, and coal is found from mining; from the soil / stones.
Factories and steam engines burnt through vast quantities of coal. Fortunately for
Britain, some of the world’s richest coal reserves lay beneath its soil.

(Coal mining)
Britain was already mining 80% of the total volume of coal used in Europe by 1700,
well before the Industrial Revolution.
That year, 1700, 2.7 million tons of coal were mined and used for tasks as varied
as : heating houses, baking bricks & tiles, evaporating water and brewing beer.

Mining coal was notoriously dangerous. Men, women and children dug coal with
pickaxes in mines up to 100m below ground, travelling down narrow shafts to reach
them.
In these mines, miners were in constant danger of :
Being suffocated by the lack of air
Drowned by sudden influxes of water
Buried by collapsing mineshafts
Blown up when their candle flames came into contact with pockets of methane which
came out of the mines.

(Transporting and producing coal)

Transporting coal was expensive.
People in London used coal from Durham and Newcastle, in north-east England. This
coal was transported via the North Sea, but was 5x more expensive once it arrived
in London. (effect of transport)

This is why most of Britain’s major industries developed beside natural coal
reserves.
In 1800, a total of 15 million tons of coal were mined in Britain, and the highest
regional producers were :
The northeast with 4.5 million tons
The West Midlands with 2.5 million tons
Central scotland with 2 million tons
South Wales with 1. 7 million tons
Lancashire with 1.4 million tons.

These regions became the heartlands of the British industry. For the next 150
years, coal was used to :
Fire their furnaces
Power their steam engines
Heat their forges
Pump their water
Drive their trains

In 1850, a total of 50 million tons of coal were mined in Britain, rising to 250
million by 1900.
Britain mined the most coal.

(Cast Iron)
Since the 16th century, cast iron was produced in Britain using blast furnaces,
which heated iron ore with charcoal, which was made from carbonising wood.
Air was blasted through the furnace base using water-powered bellows, causing the
mixture to reach 1300 degree celsius. At this temperature, molten iron was released
through a tap at the base of the furnace.
Cast iron ⇒ heating iron with charcoal
Blast furnaces supplied Britain’s pre industrial metalworks with iron to make items
such as :
Cooking pots
Nails
Buttons
Pins
Cannons
Guns
locks

By 1700, Britain was running out of suitable trees to produce charcoal, and had to
import iron from Sweden and Russia. (over usage of charcoal)

(Abraham Darby)
Abraham Darby was born in 1678 on a farm in Dudley, where his father ran a small
iron forge. He realised that if he could use coal rather than charcoal to fuel a
blast furnace, he could produce abundant supplies of cheap iron.
But impurities in coal such as water, tar, sulphur and gas created iron that was
weak and useless.

In 1708, Darby leased (borrowed) a blast furnace in Coalbrookdale, Shropshire.

Here, Darby baked his coal in sealed ovens to drive off impurities, creating a
carbon-rich fuel called coke.
In 1710, Darby successfully used coke to produce strong, workable cast iron for the
first time, consequently transforming the iron production in Britain.

By 1720, a coke-powered blast furnace produced 400 tons of cast iron, increasing to
76 000 tons by 1788. When the industrial revolution began at the end of the 18th
century, a supply of iron was required to construct steam engines, factory machines
and railway tracks; and Darby’s invention from 1710 made this possible.

(Interactions between inventions of the industrial revolution)

The invention of cast iron demonstrates the way in which the major inventions of
the industrial revolution helped each other to keep on improving.
For example, the famous ironmaster John Wilkinson built the precision cast iron
cylinders for James Watt’s steam engine.
In return, Watt’s second ever working steam engine was installed at Wilkinson’s
Shropshire ironworks in 1776 to power the bellows, allowing Wilkinson to produce
cheaper, better quality iron, which in turn allowed Watt to build more steam
engines.

(John Wilkinson)
Wilkinson was a successful ironmaster, who made a fortune supplying cast iron
cannons to the Royal Navy during the Seven Years’ War. Wilkinsons had an extreme
dedication to building products from iron, earning him the nickname “Iron Mad”.

(Abraham Darby’s legacy)

By 1779, Abraham Darby’s ironworks were owned by his grandson Darby III. That year,
1779, he built a 100 metre bridge over the river Severn. It was the world’s first
iron bridge, situated just 1 mile from his grandfather’s original ironworks in
Coalbrookdale.

Mathematics

Units to be covered = Unit 1-6 and 8-10

NOTE: These are general stuff to remember. To study maths, consider using the
workbook or the worksheets the teacher gave us, or just do these equations:

Unit 6
General Stuff
Continuous data refers to numerical data that:
Represents a range of values that can be measured with precision1.
Has an infinite number of possible measurements between two realistic points2.
Can take on an infinite number of values within a given range, including fractions
and decimals3.
Contrasts with discrete data, which works only in whole numbers4.

Discrete data is data that is not continuous and only occurs in certain intervals
12345.Examples of discrete data include4:
Occurrences
Proportions
Characteristics (for example, pass or fail)
The number or proportion of people waiting in a queue
The number of defective items in a sample
Discrete data is counted in non-negative integers (1, 2, 3, etc.)4.

Categorical data refers to information that can be grouped into categories or

labels, rather than being measured numerically

Date: 05/10/2024
Science
Physics
Unit 3.1 Forces and Motion
Unbalanced forces = one side is bigger than the other in force
Balanced forces = both sides are equal in force

Slowing down:
Unbalanced forces and/or unequal forces can also make moving objects slow down.
Changing Direction:
Unit 3.2 Speed

Unit for speed in science : metres per second or m/s

per meaning = in each

metres per second meaning = number of metres travelled in each second

Calculating Speed
Formulas:

Speed = distance/time
Time = distance/speed
Distance = speed x time

3.3 Describing Movement

Distance/time graphs

3.4 Turning Forces

The object that turns is called a lever.

Calculating moments

Moment = force x distance

Unit for force = newton,N
Unit of distance = metres , m
Unit of moment = newton metres, Nm

Note: For an object to be equilibrium (stable, not moving), the total clockwise
movement must be equal to the total anticlockwise moment at about the same pivot
point

3.5 Pressure between solids

Pressure = force/area
Unit of pressure = newtons per metre squared, or N/m2

3.6 Pressure in liquids and gases

The pressure in a liquid increases with depth.
Why? Because when you go deeper, there is more liquid above you.
The weight of this liquid, caused by gravity, pushes on the particles of the
liquid.
When the particles of the liquid are pushed, the force on the particles increases.

As the particles in a liquid are moving randomly in all directions, then the
pressure in the liquid is equal in all directions.

Pressure in gases

Particles in a gas move randomly and collide with the walls of the container.

Pressure and depth in gases

As with liquids, the pressure in a gas increases with depth.

Most people on earth live at low altitude. Altitude is height above sea level.

English

;repetition – use of repeated words and phrases

hyperbole – deliberate exaggeration
triples – three words used together
rhetorical question – a question used to make
a point, which does not expect an answer
emotive language – words and phrases that
appeal to the reader’s emotions
exclamations – sentences ending in an
exclamation mark
statistics – the use of facts and figures
figurative language – techniques such as
metaphor, simile and personification
direct address – speaking to the reader
alliteration – when the same letter is used at
the start of words
imperatives – direct orders