CHAPTER

TEN

COMBUSTION
METHODS

10.1 Introduction

The design of the combustion system for gas turbines presents a number of
interesting and far-ranging problems. Complete combustion of all of the fuel must be
accomplished, the air and fuel must be thoroughly mixed, harmful products of
combustion must be minimized, the flame should be stable, temperature distribution
must be uniform as the flow enters the turbine, there should be minimal pressure loss
and no parasitic losses, combustor components need to withstand extremely high
temperatures, and must possess a long operating life. The design process must take into
consideration complex interacting physical, chemical and combustion processes that
occur as compressed air from the diffuser traverses through the combustion system prior
to admission to the turbine. Aside from thermodynamics, mechanical design
development relies heavily on newer computational fluid dynamics to reduce the level
of trial and error that of necessity must be resorted to for attaining the considerable
objectives.
The physical and chemical aspects that are embraced during combustion are the
subject of physics and chemistry. Physical aspects include mass and heat transfer,
thermodynamics, gas and fluid dynamics, while chemistry influences pollutant emission
among the products of combustion, heat release rate and radiation properties of the
flame at high temperatures. In aviation applications, the chemical process also impacts
lean light-off and flameout limits at high altitudes. Flames may be categorized as pre-
mixed type when the fuel and air are mixed before combustion and as diffusion type
when the two components are diffused within the flame zone. The two flame types may
also be described as laminar or turbulent, depending on flow velocity. When burning
liquid fuels, complete vaporization may not take place before entering the flame zone,
370 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

resulting in a diffusion flame burning of fuel droplets superimposed on a pre-mixed

turbulent flame zone.
The combustion process is characterized by steep temperature gradients and
species concentration as it is executed in one or two milliseconds. Relative to the fresh
air and fuel mixture, the burned gases are far higher in volume and temperature and
lower in density, with the waves traveling at under 1 m/second. The deflagration regime
of combustion of fuel is marked by a luminescent flame front that may be viewed as an
interface between the burned gases and the unburned mixture. Instead of the flame (or
combustion wave) spreading through a static gas mixture, it is usual to stabilize the
flame to a steady condition by supplying it with a continuous flow of combustible
mixture. In the detonation part of the combustion process, a shock wave connected with
and supported by the chemical reaction zone propagates at velocities ranging between 1
and 4 km/second.
Aerodynamic evaluation of a combustion system is required to achieve a stable
flow pattern throughout. Inside the combustion liner considerable flow re-circulation is
essential to stabilize the flame, and maximum benefit must be derived from the cooling
air along the walls. Mixing in the combustion and dilution areas is of significance.
Proper mixing in the primary zone enhances the rate of burning, while also minimizing
soot and nitric oxide formation.
Current emission regulations call for combustion efficiency in excess of 99
percent. Failure to achieve this level is objectionable partly because fuel is wasted, but
more so because it is manifested in the form of excessive pollutants in the environment.
For aircraft engine combustors a design hallmark calls for it to be large enough to
ensure an adequate level of combustion efficiency during engine restart at the highest
altitude at which re-light is required. After a flameout during flight, combustion
efficiency in the 75 to 80 percent range is justified, because with the engine windmilling
the temperature and pressure of ambient air are low enough to affect the stability of the
flame. The engine control system attempts to compensate by supplying more fuel to the
combustor, which in turn prevents the flame from stabilizing due to the overly rich air-
fuel mix. As a consequence, the combustion efficiency deteriorates.
The design of the combustion chamber is one of reaching the best compromise
between many conflicting requirements, which likely will vary considerably with
different applications. Aviation and ground-based gas turbine combustion systems differ
in several respects. Aircraft gas turbines rely solely on liquid petroleum distillates.
Depending on availability and price, industrial and power generation turbines need to be
configured for both gas and liquid fuels. Military naval vessels are often required to
carry their own fuel for their mission, resulting in widespread use of marine diesel as
fuel. Aero-derivate gas turbine engines for warships are also subject to strict emission
limits while in harbor, similar to industrial engines. A commercial aircraft operates at a
cruising altitude of 11,000 m where the ambient pressure and temperature are 0.2275
bar and 217 K, but at sea level the values are 1.012 bar and 288 K. The combustor then
needs to operate with a considerably reduced air density and mass flow, and the
combustor must operate with differing air-fuel ratios during climb and descent. Fighter
aircraft engines, for instance, may climb from a carrier deck to altitude in under 2
minutes without the combustor experiencing flameout or without exceeding temperature
 COMBUSTION METHODS 371

limits.

10.2 Combustor Designs

The can, annular, through-flow annular and reverse-flow annular design for
combustors are commonly used in gas turbines. In the can (or tubular) combustor,
individual burners are mounted in a circle around the engine axis, with each one
receiving air through its own cylindrical shroud. Each chamber has its own fuel injector
fed from a common supply line. The arrangement is widely used in industrial power
generation engines, where the air-fuel mixture’s flow pattern can be readily controlled
and the burners may be individually removed for repairs. The method is also suitable for
aircraft engines with a centrifugal compressor, where the flow is split into separate
streams in the diffuser (figure 10.1). But the can design is not suitable for newer high
bypass turbo-fans since they take excessive space that adds to the engine’s diameter and
its weight. The annular configuration is a single chamber that is made of concentric
cylinders that have comparatively less surface-to-volume ratio, and hence require less
cooling air. A rolled-ring combustor design for General Electric/SNECMA CFM56
engine is shown in figure 10.2. The assembly weighs less, has reduced pressure losses,
burner performance is improved, and fits well with the axial compressor and turbine.
Structural problems, however, sometimes do arise in larger engines due to the lack of
connecting members between the inner and outer liners. Also, the entire combustor must
be removed for inspection and repairs.
Newer can-annular burner designs combine many of the benefits, where a number
of individually replaceable cylindrical inner liners receive air through a common
annular housing. The concept offers greater structural integrity, lowers pressure losses
than in a can type, and offers better control of fuel and airflow patterns. A Pratt and
Whitney JT9D combustor chamber, shown in figure 10.3, is basically of annular design,
but at the forward end is split into individual inner liners to improve the flow pattern.
Engine specifications and efficient use of available space will influence the type
and layout of the combustion chamber. Larger engines generally call for the air to flow

Fig. 10.1. Rolls Royce Turbo-Prop Engine with Centrifugal Compressor and Tubular Combustor
372 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

Fig. 10.2. Annular Combustor Design

Fig. 10.3. Pratt & Whitney JT9D Combustor Chamber

 COMBUSTION METHODS 373

nearly parallel to the axis of the combustor, but in smaller engines the flow reverses
direction in the annular system to provide compactness and closer connection between
the compressor and the turbine. A tubular can form of construction calls for a
cylindrical liner mounted concentrically inside a cylindrical case, with between 6 and 16
cans that are arranged in the engine. The larger length and weight of the resultant
assembly restricts their usage to industrial turbines, where relative simplicity and
accessibility are of prime significance. Annular combustors have the liner inside an
annular casing to give a compact design and a clean aerodynamic flow path with little
loss in pressure. The liner functions to contain the combustion process and to permit
circulation of cooling air in various zones in set amounts. Besides the pressure
differential on either side, the liner must have thermal resistance to withstand
continuous and cyclic operation at elevated temperatures.
In many aircraft engines compressor discharge velocity may exceed 150 m/s, and
it is not possible to burn the fuel in such a high velocity stream. Prior to combustion,
flow velocity is reduced to about a fifth of the compressor discharge velocity by placing
a diffuser between the compressor exit and the inlet to the liner.
Mechanical stresses in the combustor liner are relatively low when compared with
other engine components, however, it is required to withstand high temperatures and
considerable temperature gradients. Commonly used materials for the liner such as
Nimonic 75, Hastelloy X and HS 188 are restricted to maximum temperature levels of
1100 K, beyond which mechanical strength of the nickel and cobalt based alloys rapidly
deteriorates. Thus, innovative means of removing the heat from the liner walls must be
provided. A sizable part of the heat transferred from the hot gases contained within the
liner to the liner walls is by radiation. An effective barrier between the hot gas and the
liner wall is created with cooling air injected in regions that are primarily heated
through internal radiation. Internal convection is difficult to estimate, because the hot
gases are undergoing rapid physical and chemical changes, and the difficulty is
compounded by the presence of considerable pressure and temperature gradients. A
realistic model defining the airflow pattern, boundary layer development and effective
gas temperature thus face substantial uncertainties. Among the many schemes employed
to extract heat from a liner, film-cooling calls for a number of annular slots placed at 40
to 80 mm intervals along the length, through which the coolant is axially injected along
the inner wall of the liner. Other devices in the form of wiggle strips and rings of
various profiles are used in film cooling to suit the conditions of pressure and
temperature and of manufacturing ease.

10.3 Combustion Chamber Operation

Liquid fuel is admitted at the front end of the burner in the form of vaporized
spray from specially designed nozzles or in a pre-vaporized condition from vaporizing
tubes. The chamber’s geometry causes air near the nozzle to stay close to the front wall
for cooling. Air also enters through holes in the liner, which mixes rapidly with the fuel
to form a combustible mixture, with more air admitted through additional holes (figure
10.4). A high temperature is obtainable from the combustion when the mixture of air
and fuel is nearly stoichiometric. Combustion proceeds rapidly in the moving air stream,
374 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

Fig. 10.4. Flow of Air in Combustor

with the process completed in a small space. Turbulent flow conditions throughout the
combustor enhance thorough mixing for improved combustion efficiency, as also for
more uniform temperature distribution. Combustion of gaseous fuels does not entail

Fig. 10.5. Annular Combustor Design Based on Vaporizing Method (courtesy: Rolls-Royce)
 COMBUSTION METHODS 375

vaporization and breaking down of heavy hydrocarbons into lighter fractions, but the
need for intimate mixing of molecules of the hydrocarbons and oxygen and for the
chemical reactions remain the same.
The air is introduced in stages because the overall air-fuel ratio is around 100:1
while the stoichiometric ratio is about 15:1. The stages may be identified as the primary
stage where 15 to 20 percent of the air is admitted around the fuel jet to ensure high
temperatures. Fuel is injected in the same direction as the air stream. Air enters through
curved radial vanes, referred to as swirl vanes, to produce a vortex that induces a region
of low pressure along the axis of the chamber. The vanes, assembled in the form of a
cup, are attached to the flame tube. About 30 percent air enters through holes in the
flame tube in the secondary zone to complete the combustion. This air must enter at the
proper location to avoid local chilling of the flame, which can potentially reduce the
reaction rate. In the tertiary or dilution zone, the remaining air combines to cool the
gases to a temperature that suits requirements at the inlet to the turbine.
Vaporizing methods are well suited for annular combustors for obtaining
satisfactory fuel and air distribution where droplet sprays occur from high-pressure
injectors. Strong T-shaped vaporizer tubes are used for the purpose, as shown in figure
10.5 (ref: Sotheran, 1983). The mixture of fuel vapor and air produced in the tubes
proceeds in the upstream direction to combine with the remaining primary air through
holes in a baffle around the fuel supply lines. Problems may be encountered in the form
of some fuel breaking up in the vaporizer tubes, leading to deposits of low thermal
conductivity and subsequent overheating.
The air stream is moving much faster then the speed of the flame in the burning
mixture. A re-circulating flow pattern pushes some of the burning mixture of the
primary zone into the incoming air and fuel streams. The vortex motion in the air stream
may also be strengthened with secondary air injected through short tangential chutes in
the flame tube. The intent is to force some of the flow towards the low-pressure region,
and some portion sweeps around towards the fuel jet. The action permits rapid mixing
while preventing flame blowout by forming a low-velocity stabilization zone. Air
entering the downward stream portion of the liner provides the correct mixture for
combustion. The action creates turbulence in the flow for sustained mixing of the fuel
and air, and of the burned and unburned gases.
Incomplete combustion can occur when the flame region is locally chilled where
the secondary air is admitted. The reaction rate may then fall to a point when some
decomposed fuel remains in a partially burned state. The temperature at the combustor
exit will fall below expected levels. The problem may be overcome with devices that
increase turbulence and circulate secondary air into the burning gas regime. Combustion
efficiency is enhanced as a consequence, but the increased turbulence will also lead to
greater pressure losses due to friction at the wall.
Only about one-third to one-half of the air is allowed to enter the combustion zone,
with about 25 percent participating in the combustion process. The resultant gases have
temperatures of around 3500° F (1900° C). The gases require cooling to about half this
value prior to entering the turbine section to protect the materials used for the airfoils.
The hot gases are cooled with secondary air coming in through a set of large holes
towards the rear of the liner. Liner walls also require protection from the elevated
376 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

temperatures, and are accomplished with cooling air introduced through several smaller
holes in the liner. The layer of air isolates the hot gas flow from the metal substrate.

10.4 Combustor Peculiarities

Combustion chambers of gas turbines are afflicted by not so well known but
nevertheless significant problems related to startup and ignition, fuel injection nozzle,
use of non-standard fuels and cooling of the flame tube.
Combustion of fuel is self-sustaining and proceeds continuously during normal
operation. But during startup of a gas turbine, the mixture needs to be ignited. Methods
for starting an engine from rest vary with size and type of turbine units. In aircraft
applications the engine may be started using compressed air obtained from the aircraft’s
own auxiliary power unit or a ground based cart. An air starter motor located in the
engine’s accessories module and operating through a speed reduction gear is required to
turn the rotor. Turning only the engine’s core section suffices for the purpose. Directly
passing the air over turbine blades has also been used in the past. Heavier industrial gas
turbine and steam turbine trains require substantial amount of power produced in an
electric motor, diesel engine or steam turbine for the initial start. Newer units are
designed with generator coils wound such that it also acts as a starter motor. Once the
rotor speeds up to a certain point, the airflow from the compressor is capable of burning
the fuel continuously following injection of fuel and turning on the ignition. Suitably
placed igniter plugs near the primary combustion zone readily spread the flame around
after it initially occurs in annular combustors; inter-connecting cross tubes between cans
perform the same task in can type of combustors. The ignition system then cuts off once
the engine operation stabilizes to control erosion of the igniter’s electrodes.
Aviation gas turbine engine starting have the additional requirement when an in-
flight shutdown occurs at altitude and the light in the combustor is lost. The mixture of
air and fuel must be capable of re-igniting as the engine continues to windmill. Ignition

250

200 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Weak limit
Air/Fuel Ratio

150 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Stable operation
100 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

50 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Rich limit

0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Air Mass Flow, kg/s

Fig. 10.6. Combustor Flame Stability Limits

 COMBUSTION METHODS 377

of fuel at start is sensitive to pressure inside the chamber. The difficulty of igniting
increases as the pressure reduces, which also points to problems encountered when re-
igniting following an in-flight shutdown at altitude. Re-lighting of the engine at the
aircraft’s peak altitude may thus be considered a benchmark. As a precaution to avoid
flameout when an aircraft is taking off or coming in for landing during adverse weather
when substantial amounts of water may be ingested into the engine, turning on the
ignition system is usually recommended. Engine operation during ascend is at maximum
speed and mostly at flight idle during landing. Shutting down an engine when operating
at full thrust can lead to severe rubs between mating rotating and stationary parts, and
must be avoided. Deceleration to idle in a planned sequence prior to cutting off the fuel
supply reduces thermal and mechanical fatigue in the engine’s components.
Combustion may not even initiate when the mass flow is too large. The stability
curve for a typical combustor is shown in figure 10.6, where limiting airflow and
air/fuel ratio define the regions of stable operation. In addition, further difficulties are
encountered during startup and shutdown periods. For instance, the mixture of air and
fuel may be too rich as the engine accelerates and the fuel throttle is activated, since the
flow of air takes time to build up to the necessary level, leading to an unacceptably low
ratio of air and fuel. One possibility for rectifying the situation is to measure the
variation in fuel flow rate and control it with the engine’s microprocessor to avoid loss
of flame during the transient periods, and thus also prevent rapid temperature changes in
the turbine. The defined stable flame region in the diagram is also affected by pressure
in the chamber. Chemical reactions slow down as the pressure decreases, which tend to
restrict the flame’s stability region. Aircraft engines also have to contend with reduced
pressure of air exiting the compressor when operating at peak altitudes.
Stable ignition at start may be represented in the form of a loop lying within the
flame stability loop shown earlier in figure 10.6. Thus, for a given air mass flow, the
range of air/fuel ratio in which the mixture can be ignited is smaller than that for which
continuous ignition occurs. High-tension spark plugs similar to those used in piston
engines may suffice for starting at sea level, but a higher energy spark is needed for
ignition at lower chamber pressures. For aviation gas turbines, a commonly used
surface-discharge igniter with a central and outer electrode separated by a ceramic
insulator and a semiconductor layer near the tip provides approximately one spark every
second. The igniter must be placed inside the flame tube and protrude through a layer of
cooling air at the outer edge of the fuel spray, but must avoid being wetted by the
droplets. Periodic replacement of the igniter is essential since the sparks cause the
electrode material to erode. Vaporizing combustors require a larger spark plug with an
auxiliary spray burner placed in a common housing.
In aviation engines liquid fuel is forced under high-pressure through an orifice to
produce a conical spray of fine droplets in the primary zone of the combustor. The
‘atomized’ fuel passes through a conical chamber through tangential ports in the fuel
injector nozzle to impart swirling motion to the spray. Some fuel is also directed axially
through the core of the vortex. The spray sheet breaks up under controlled pressure to
produce droplets varying in size from 50 to 100 microns. Smaller droplets outside the
size range do not penetrate into the stream, while larger ones take longer time to
evaporate.
378 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

The liquid fuel nozzle is required to deliver a nearly stoichiometric mixture of air
and fuel uniformly in the primary zone, with the fuel flow adjusted to accommodate
engine operation from idle to full load conditions. But problems arise in a simple burner
since fuel flow rate varies with the square of supply pressure. To overcome this, two
fuel manifolds are used, one supplying fuel to the orifice at the center for low load
operation and a larger annular orifice concentric with the one at the center at higher
loads. The total flow in the two stages fulfills the engine’s fuel requirements without
calling for excessive pressure and without sacrificing atomization qualities and spray
pattern at low fuel flow.
Industrial gas turbines using natural gas sometimes have to depend on liquid fuel
if the gas supply is interrupted. Dual fuel burner designs have separate concentric annuli
through which the gas and liquid fuels flow, with an additional annular passage for
steam or water injection to control exhaust emissions. Manufacturers also use other fuel
injector designs. The rotary design, for instance, flings the fuel from a spinning cup into
the air stream; a high tip speed ensures proper atomization, but the fuel pressure is low.
Aircraft engines of necessity require expensive liquid fuels. Aviation gas turbine
engines successfully replaced piston engines following World War II mainly because of
the advantages of power, weight and speed, in spite of their lower thermal efficiency.
Natural gas also is expensive, but finds extensive use in stationary gas turbines since it
does not contain sulfur and other contaminants, and unlike liquid fuels does not require
atomization or vaporizing. Although somewhat unreliable in terms of availability,
natural gas fired turbines still have the prospect of conversion to gas obtained from coal.
A cheaper form of fuel, obtained from crude oil after lighter and more expensive
fractions are extracted, is the residual oil. But it suffers from some severe disadvantages
due to the presence of vanadium, alkali metals and ash. The corrosive nature of these
extraneous materials does not permit use of residual oil at operating temperatures above
900 K. At such reduced cycle temperatures, however, the thermal efficiency is
unacceptably low, except under certain operational circumstances. Some other related
issues of excessive viscosity, tendency to polymerize to tar when overheated and high
carbon content may be resolved without much difficulty. Alkali metals can be removed,
and fuel additives made from compounds of magnesium can eliminate the effects of
vanadium. Removal of sulfur entails further processing during refining. But the
additional processes of washing with water, centrifuging the mixture and need for
chemicals dissipate the initial cost benefits of the cheaper residual oil.
Carbon deposits accumulate on fuel nozzles, which get worse with increasing
temperatures and pressures, and after a point they begin to burn off. Increasing the
fuel/air ratio accelerates the deposits, mostly due to reduced oxygen availability to
completely burn the fuel. Fuel characteristics also affect the carbon deposits and burner
performance.
The functional nature of a combustion liner imposes on it high temperature levels
and steep thermal gradients. Mechanical strength of nickel and cobalt based alloys used
for the liner deteriorates considerably when temperatures exceed 1100 K, hence means
must be designed to relieve the heat build up. With gas turbines employing higher
operating pressures and temperatures to improve performance and power, the need for
 COMBUSTION METHODS 379

cooling the combustion liner becomes even more acute. At the same time the liner is
required to possess a minimum number of operating hours (ref: Lefebvre, 1999).
The temperature of the liner increases due to the combination of heating by
radiation and convection from the internal hot gas flow and cooling due to radiation to
the outer case and convection to the air in the annulus. Depending on the volume,
pressure, temperature and chemical composition of the gases flowing through it, as also
the dimensions and shape of the component, a considerable amount of heat is radiated
on the liner. The size and number of hot and glowing soot particles formed during the
combustion also control the intensity of radiation.
Film cooling of the inner surface of the liner is useful in achieving additional
extraction of heat, and is accomplished by injecting air along the wall axially through
slots and holes machined in the liner. The small diameter, closely spaced holes may be
provided by laser drilling or by the EDM method. Since the turbulent hot gases
gradually eliminate this film, the hole and slot pattern is repeated at specific intervals
along the length. Cooling air is supplied through rings rolled or machined in the liner,
through stacked rings with holes sized to deliver adequate amounts of cooling air and
through corrugated spacers attached between overlapping segments of the liner.
Depending on the design and method of attachment, the rings also serve to provide
stiffness to the liner. Cooling efficiency in the liner is enhanced by improving the heat
transfer coefficient on the coolant side (ref: Nealy, 1980) and by increasing surface
roughness of the heat transferring areas.
Impinging the coolant flow against the wall, as shown in figure 10.7, can increase
cooling effectiveness. The double-walled passage is closed at the upstream end, and the
outer wall is provided with holes. The impingement jets may be located at selected high
temperature locations. Provision must be made for the difference in thermal growth,
however, and the consequent increased thermal stresses in the region.
Convective heat transfer on the external surface of the liner can be improved by
providing fins, ribs or other protrusions to add to the surface area for heat exchange by
convection. The ribs may run longitudinally, and have been used on industrial turbine
combustors. Rolls Royce has elected to use pedestals in the dome region of RB211

Main hot gas flow

Fig. 10.7. Film Cooling of Liner with Impingement Jets (Lefebvre, 1999)
380 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

combustor liners.
Another method for obtaining a relatively uniform temperature distribution is a
liner with a large number of small holes perforated in it to assure the impinging jets
spread the flow close to the wall. The flow must be controlled to prevent rapid mixing
with main hot gas flow and to deter the cooling film from gradually rising in
temperature by the surrounding combustion gases. The process, called effusion cooling,
uses a larger amount of cooling air, but is effective in suppressing local hot spots.
Drilling the holes (approximately 0.4 mm in diameter) at a shallow angle of 20˚ offers
the twin benefits of increased surface area and reduced penetration of the exiting jet for
a better film along the wall surface (ref: Dodds et al, 1989). Wall thickness needs to be
increased to compensate for the holes and for protection against buckling. The angled
effusion cooling hole concept is used on General Electric GE90 engine combustor.
Manufacturing cost of drilling so many holes at precise locations is a factor to be taken
into account in the use of this technique.
Many industrial turbine combustors are lined with refractory bricks to decrease
heat flux into the supporting liner. The bricks are large in weight, but lighter metal tiles
cast from turbine blade alloys with good resistance to high temperatures have been used
on aero engines. Since the tiles are exposed to the hot gases, relatively lower
temperatures and thermal stresses are experienced in the supporting shell, which may be
made of a cheaper alloy. The cooler temperatures help to limit thermal growth in the
shell. A thin layer of a thermal barrier coating may be applied on the inner surface of the
liner for extra protection.

10.5 Combustor Performance: Efficiency, Intensity, Pressure Loss, Flame

Stability

Loss of pressure as the products of combustion traverse through the combustor,

the extent to which fuel is burned, distribution of temperature at the exit of the chamber,
stability limits of the flame and intensity of combustion are some prime factors that
establish the performance of a gas turbine’s combustion system.
Chemical analysis of the products of combustion does not provide adequate
information about the efficiency of the combustion process. Problems arise mainly due
to practical difficulties in obtaining a truly representative flow sample when the flow
velocity is high, and when unburned constituent proportions are considerably low owing
to high air/fuel ratios that are typically employed. When the intent is to obtain overall
combustion efficiency, ηb, as defined by the ratio of theoretical fuel/air ratio f for actual
∆T to actual f for actual ∆T, test rig data may be used in conjunction with the data of
figure 4.2. The task then reduces to measuring f and the mean stagnation temperatures at
the inlet and exit of the combustor.
Release of energy relies on the expression mcpTo. But over the cross-section
variation in velocity and temperature prevails, and hence a weighted mean of a number
of temperature readings is required in the calculation of ηb. For this purpose, the cross-
section may be split into elemental areas A1, A2, …, Ai,… An where stagnation
temperatures are T01, T02, … T0i, … T0n, and mass flows are m1, m2, …, mi,… mn. The
weighted mean temperature is then:
 COMBUSTION METHODS 381

∑ m i Toi ∑ mi Toi
Tow = = (10.1)
∑ mi m
where summation limits are 1 and n, and cp is assumed to be the same across the section.
A reliable indicator of energy traversing through the section would then be given by the
expression mcpTo.
Measurements with a usually precise pitot-static tube may be relied upon to
measure flow velocity at the center of each elemental region to derive an easier
expression for Tow. If the dynamic head pd = ρv2/2, then mass flow for the area A is mi =
ρiAi(2pdi /ρi)1/2. Assuming constant pressure over the section, axial flow only and no
swirl, ρi ∝ 1/Ti and mass flow mi ∝ Ai(pdi /Ti)1/2. Also, Ti has a secondary effect on Tow,
so Ti = Toi. Hence,
∑( p di Toi )1 / 2
Tow = (10.2)
∑( p di / Toi )1 / 2
Thus, measurement of velocity and stagnation temperature at the center of each
elemental area provides the weighted mean temperature. Precise temperature
measurements are essential for establishing the combustion efficiency, which is mostly
higher than 98 percent. Reliable measurement of stagnation temperatures in a gas
turbine, however, presents some unusual difficulties in the elevated temperature and
rapidly moving gas stream environment. Thermocouples made from special alloys of
chrome and aluminum are available that can withstand temperatures in tests for a
combustion chamber, and can give satisfactory readings if precautions are taken to
ensure readings at the junction of the thermocouple are not too far off from that of the
high-velocity flow stream.
Temperature readings at the thermocouple sensor may be affected by a number
of factors. Heat conducted along the length of its wires, convection between the sensor
point and gas stream, and radiation from the flame and from or to the end walls and the
sensor point has the potential of affecting the accuracy of the indicated temperatures.

Theoretical

Hot streak
Gas flow

Actual

Maximum allowable temperature

1200 1300 1400 1500 1600

Gas Temperatures, °F

Fig. 10.8. Gas Temperature Distribution

382 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

Gas stream velocity can also have a substantial effect since the probe is stationary,
mostly because of the associated kinetic energy and friction that manifests in the form of
higher dynamic temperature. One method of avoiding the dynamic effect is to turn the
thermocouple sensor face away from the flowing gas stream, with the sensing element
and the wires placed inside a metallic tube in which the gas flow is essentially brought
to rest. To eliminate the effects of variation in stream temperature along the radial and
circumferential directions of the chamber, multiple sensors may be attached at each
probe along its length, with other probes mounted at fixed intervals around the
circumference. The weighted temperature is then determined using equation (10.2).
Effects of radiated heat can also be substantial, particular near the discharge end of the
combustor. One possibility for removing the effects of radiation is to attach a short
nozzle of polished stainless steel to the metallic tube in front of the thermocouple
sensor. Note that in most engines it is more practical to measure exhaust gas
temperature at the outlet from the turbine, since measurement inside the combustor may
present nearly insurmountable problems. A suitable pre-determined differential between
the temperatures at the combustor discharge and the turbine exit that is ascertained from
analytical methods may then be factored in to obtain the temperature at selected
locations within the combustor. A typical gas temperature distribution is shown in figure
10.8.
The concept of ‘combustion intensity’ takes into account the chemical kinetics
theory as applied to the molecules of the reacting oxygen in the air and the vaporized
fuel. The number of molecular collisions per unit of volume and of time determines the
energy and the rate at which a bi-molecular gas reaction occurs. When the energy
exceeds a certain activation value, the reaction rate may be expressed as r ∝ p2, where p
is the pressure, when the temperature is maintained high enough to provide an
approximately stoichiometric mixture in the primary zone. In experimental setups, the
theoretical exponent assumes the value of 1.8 when the complex reaction of the
homogeneous mixture takes place even under extreme conditions, such as at high
altitudes.
The heat release rate, nominally defined by the expression mfQnet,p, where m is air
mass flow, f is fuel/air ratio and Qnet,p is net calorific value of fuel, generally dictates the
size of the combustor. The other criteria for a good combustor design – high efficiency,
low pressure loss, good temperature distribution and flame stability – are also achieved
with as large a volume as practical. An alternate definition of combustion intensity
commonly used is heat release rate divided by the product of combustor volume and
pressure. Thus, the task of designing a combustor that meets the design requirements is
facilitated when the combustor intensity parameter assumes lower values. In aircraft
engines, combustion intensity usually is in the range of 2 × 104 to 5 × 104 kw/m3-atm.
Since space is mostly not of consequence in industrial gas turbines, combustor intensity
values are lower, and may be further reduced if the air is pre-heated prior to entering the
combustor.
Pressure losses arise from friction and from turbulence. In addition, increase in
temperature due to combustion leads to decreased density, which in turn implies
increased velocity and momentum of the stream, and hence drop in the stagnation
pressure. Sometimes referred to as ‘fundamental loss’, the increased momentum is
 COMBUSTION METHODS 383

caused due to the product of pressure loss and associated surface area. The stagnation
pressure drop may be predicted in this case from the Rayleigh line functions discussed
in section 2.16 (equations 2.38 to 2.42). For a single-dimension frictionless flow in a
constant cross sectional area a duct, the equation is:
Am(p2 - p1) + m(v2 - v1) = 0 (10.3)
Stagnation pressure p0 for incompressible flow is (p + ρv2/2), so:
p02 - p01 = (p2 - p1) + (ρ2v22 - ρ1v12)/2 (10.4)
where ρ1 and ρ2 are density, v1 and v2 are flow velocities at inlet and outlet of
combustor, m is air mass flow, and maximum cross-sectional area is Am. Since m =
ρ1Amv1 = ρ2Amv2, then:
p02 - p01 = -(ρ2v22 - ρ1v12) + (ρ2v22 - ρ1v12)/2 = -(ρ2v22 - ρ1v12)/2 (10.5)
If T1 and T2 are flow velocities at inlet and outlet of combustor, for incompressible flow
density ρ ∝ 1/T, hence:
2(p01 – p02)/ρ1v12 = (T2/T1 – 1) (10.6)
The assumption of incompressible flow and constant cross-sectional area are not
met in an annular combustor, but the results are not far from correct. Thus, when the
ratio of temperatures at the outlet and at the inlet is between 2 and 3, the corresponding
pressure loss is about 1 and 2 inlet dynamic heads. In comparison, the pressure loss
from friction is of the range of 20 inlet dynamic heads (ref: Lefebvre, et al, 1969). Also
called ‘cold loss’, pressure loss due to friction is large mostly due to the need for large
levels of turbulence developed from the swirl vanes and in the secondary flow and
dilution air jets. Dual objectives of controlling the pressure loss and obtaining uniform
temperatures at the turbine inlet are to be met. Thorough mixing of the secondary air
with the burning gases is essential for stabilizing the flame and to prevent local chilling.
Good mixing with dilution air through circular or elongated holes in the flame tube
eliminates hot streaks in the turbine. The higher-density cooler air jets are capable of
penetrating the hot stream to obtain less deviation in temperature distribution. In aircraft
engines the shorter duct between the combustor discharge and turbine inlet produces
acceptable pressure loss, while mean temperature distribution deviation is ± 10 percent.
Industrial gas turbines, on the other hand, have a longer duct and hence experience
greater pressure loss, but the temperature distribution at the turbine inlet is more
uniform.
Pressure loss from friction when the flow regime is considerably turbulent is not
affected much by the Reynolds number when expressed in terms of dynamic head non-
dimensionally. From experimental tests, the ‘pressure loss factor (PLF)’ may be given
as:
∆p o T 
PLF = 2
= K 1 + K 2  02 − 1 (10.7)
2
m / 2ρ1 Am  T01 
where dynamic head ρ1v12/2 is based on velocity determined from density at inlet, v1, air
mass flow, m, and maximum cross-sectional area Am, and coefficients K1 and K2 are
384 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

obtained from rig tests on a combustion chamber during hot and cold operation. Values
for PLF range from 35 for tubular to 25 for tube-annular and 18 for annular combustor
designs. Flow velocity is generally brought down from about 150 m/s as air exits the last
stage of the compressor to 60 m/s as it enters the combustor. For cycle performance
calculations, ∆p0 as a fraction of compressor delivery pressure p01 in terms of PLF is:
2
∆p o ∆p o m 2 / 2ρ1 Am 2 R  m T01 

= × = PLF × (10.8)
p 01 m 2 / 2ρ1 Am 2 p 01 2  Am p 01 
 
where (ρ1 - ρ01) is negligible at low velocities. When space and weight considerations
are of prime interest as in aircraft engines, Am/m is usually selected to provide ∆p0/p01 in
the 4 to 7 percent range. In industrial applications the corresponding value is 2 percent.
Instability of the flame arises when the ratio of fuel and air in a combustor exceeds
the bounds of both a rich and a weak mixture of the two. The excessively rich and weak
limits of the fuel and air mixture are generally set when the flame blows out, but
instability can set in before the limits are reached. Instability in the flame usually
manifests in the form of rough engine operation due to improper combustion of the fuel
and from aerodynamic excitations that are set up in the combustion chamber. Airflow
velocity and mass flow also play a role in determining the set limits, with the range
between the limits reduced as flow increases.

10.6 Role of Staged Combustion in Dry Low NOx System

Staged combustion is a popular technique for achieving the objective of holding

combustion temperatures within narrow limits. Instead of altering airflow distribution,
fuel flow is switched from one zone to another (ref: Bahr, 1987). Fuel is provided in
stages to selected combinations of injectors at various engine operation points. For
example, in an aircraft engine combustor, every alternate injector may not be active at
light off and at idle condition, but the full complement participates during cruise and
takeoff. The equivalence ratio is then increased to raise combustion temperatures in
local regions when power output is low. Lean blow out limits are also enhanced in
addition to controlling CO and UHC pollutants by this modulating technique. But at the
fringes of individual combustion regions, incomplete combustion has been noted to
occur, which reduces combustion efficiency and increases pollutant formation. Also, the
staged combustion process yields uneven temperature distribution of the gases around
the circumference, tending to reduce turbine efficiency. Some manufacturers have opted
to sacrifice some of the objectives, mostly concentrating on primary zones to achieve
the required temperature rise and CO and UHC emissions at low power operation. At
higher power output, the primary zone acts as a pilot to anchor the main combustion
zone receiving the properly mixed air and fuel mixture. The equivalence ratio in the
primary zone at low power is kept at 0.8, and 0.6 in both regions at high power to
reduce NOx and smoke.
Staging may be accomplished by placing the injectors radially or axially. Radial
staging achieves the performance targets in a larger diameter combustor without
affecting the overall length of the engine, a consideration in the weight and dynamics
 COMBUSTION METHODS 385

aspects of the rotating system. But the arrangement of fuel tubing and injectors becomes
complex, lowers the lean blow out limit due to the asymmetry in the airflow, shifts the
radial temperature profile and requires more cooling of the outer liner. Performance
characteristics at intermediate power setting are also found to be below optimum
requirements. Figure 10.9 illustrates the radial staging concept used in a General
Electric Company’s CFM56-5B aircraft engine.
Axial staging of the fuel system calls for injection of some of the fuel in the primary
combustion region, and the remainder, usually premixed, in the main combustion zone
downstream. The primary injectors operate at low power settings, and aid in rapid
combustion in the main zone at higher loads and speed. Axial staging offers more
reliable and faster ignition, and combustion is more complete even at low equivalence
ratios. A uniform radial temperature profile at the combustor exit is available using
dilution holes (ref: Segalman et al, 1993). But this in-line arrangement makes the liner
and the engine longer. Figure 10.10 provides details of an axial staged combustor
design from Pratt and Whitney Company for V2500-AS engine (ref: Koff, 1993).
Alternative methods to control the NOx are coming on the scene. One interesting
process calls for injection of ozone (O3) directly into the gas stream (ref: Buecker,
2002). Because of its powerful oxidizing characteristics, ozone converts NO and NO2
into readily soluble nitrogen penta-oxide (N2O5). This compound reacts with water to
form dilute nitric acid (HNO3), which subsequently reacts with alkaline scrubbers such
as limestone to produce Ca(NO3)2. A distinct advantage of this procedure is the absence
of a catalyst, thus eliminating substantial initial and periodic replacement cost. The
process can also serve as a polishing device on units with other NOx control devices
such as the SCR method.

Pilot dome
Split duct Center body
diffuser dilution

Main
dome

Pressure atomizing
fuel nozzle assembly Shingled liner
Counter rotating construction
swirlers

Fig. 10.9. Radial Staged General Electric Combustion System (Bahr, 1987)
386 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

Main fuel injectors

Pilot fuel injectors

Main stage

Pilot stage

Fig. 10.10. Axial Staged Pratt and Whitney Combustion System (Koff, 1993)

10.7 Effects of Swirl

Lean pre-mixed combustion offers the advantage of lower NOx emissions by

reducing peak flame temperature at the fuel-air interface in traditional diffusion flame
type of combustors. Fuel and air are mixed upstream of an arrangement to provide swirl
to the flow for stabilizing the flame. Stabilization is achieved by transporting hot and
chemically active combustion species from the downstream region to the root of the
flame, creating a thermal non-uniformity between the re-circulating hot gases and the
cooler gases flowing from upstream of the swirler and the flame zone. The extent of
non-uniformity is difficult to characterize in premixed flames, but can be expected to
depend on combustor configuration, the degree and distribution of swirl and operational
parameters. The non-uniformity influences the efficiency of the combustor and the NOx
emissions level.
Significantly different combustion characteristics can be obtained by altering the
radial distribution of the swirl in a burner (ref: Qi et al, 1997). In a research project
conducted at the University of Maryland, swirl flow direction in the outer annulus of a
double concentric burner was observed while maintaining the inner swirl direction
fixed. Each annulus may be given a desired degree of swirl, so the flame can have either
co-swirl in both annuli or co- and counter-swirl between the inner and outer tubes. Pre-
mixed air fuel mixture in the desired ratio may be admitted into any annulus or central
nozzle of the burner (ref: Gupta et al, 2000). A 30° swirler for annulus # 1 and +50°
and -50° swirlers for annulus # 2 are used to investigate flames produced from the
change of swirl direction in the annuli. The arrangement with both swirlers having
positive angles is referred to as producing co-swirl flame, while angles of opposite
directions have a counter-swirl flame. Figure 10.11 provides a diagram of the burner
outlet where the flame stabilization zone occurs, and figure 10.12 shows details of the
 COMBUSTION METHODS 387

Annulus # 1

Annulus # 2

Central nozzle

Swirler

Fig. 10.11. Double Concentric Burner Outlet Region (Gupta, 2000)

swirling flow field and the regions of a swirl stabilized pre-mixed flame (ref: Marshall,
1996).
High-frequency temperature measurements are taken with a micro-thermocouple
probe, with a wire diameter that is small enough not to cause interference on the flame’s

Fig. 10.12. Swirling Flow Field of Pre-Mixed Flame (Marshall, 1996)

388 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

Fig. 10.13. Compensated Mean Temperature Maps (Gupta, 2001)

structure while providing rigidity for the probe. At every location in the flame the signal
is amplified and digitized for a sampling time of 30 seconds to allow averaging over
low frequency temperature measurements and to assure a good statistical representation
of the thermal field. Large variations in the temperature are present at any location in
the flame. The sampling frequency used is 10 kHz, which is high enough to resolve
small thermal time scales in the flame. Direct flame photographs taken during the tests
provide data about the overall features of the flame and its stability. Negative images of
the photographs determine the size of the flame in proportion to the burner.
Raw temperature data has to be compensated for radiation losses and thermal
inertia effects of the thermocouple. Radiation losses can be significant, particularly at
high temperatures. Similarly, the level of fluctuations obtained without compensating
the thermocouple output can be considerable. Fluctuating temperatures are lower by as
much as 250° C at some locations in the flame without compensation. Qi et al (1997)
provide a method for making corrections. The compensated mean temperature maps,
shown in figure 10.13, display substantial differences between the left and right sides of
the counter-swirling flame, with a flat hot shear layer present at the left side where
temperatures exceed 1700 K. The shear layer on the right is steeper but comparatively
cooler at about 1500 K. The non-symmetric behavior of the counter-swirling flame is
observed by comparing it with the co-swirling map. In the post-flame region large
differences exist in the mean temperatures on both sides. The co-swirling map tends to
be wider with a long area of reduced temperature fluctuations. A thin but intense
reaction zone in the counter-swirl case causes non-symmetrical fluctuations in a smaller
area of the flame. But overall differences in mean temperatures between the two cases
are not large.
The temperature maps make it possible to locate the combustion area, the re-
circulation zone and the post-flame region. Outside the shear layers the flame tends to
 COMBUSTION METHODS 389

show higher fluctuating temperatures than in the re-circulation zone. The regions of low
fluctuations are caused by continuous combustion, and represent pockets of burned
gases within the re-circulation zone. High temperature fluctuations outside the
combustion zone are caused from mixing between the hot reaction products and the
surrounding air, and suggest a stream of ambient air entrained towards the flame caused
by the re-circulation zone of the swirling flow field. Thus, the regions of high
temperature fluctuations are outside the hot regions. Examination of the effects of swirl
on the flame shape, mean and fluctuating temperatures can be useful in evaluating
eddies present in the flame, which subsequently affect formation of NOx.

10.8 Acoustic Resonance

Combustion of the air and fuel mixture is accompanied by noise directly as a

consequence of the process and indirectly due to the flow of burned gases through the
turbine and exhaust nozzle. Combustion noise can become detrimental when
instabilities arising in the burning process couple with acoustic modes inside the
chamber. The natural frequencies of the combustor can be excited by resonant pressure
waves in the main gas flow along the axial and radial directions, as also by lateral
modes in the tangential direction (ref: Paxson et al, 1995, Ohtsuka et al, 1998).
Sustained oscillating phenomena due to a higher level of mixing of the fuel and air prior
to combustion lead to engine noise and vibration problems.
Premixed combustion in gas turbines helps produce low levels of NOx emissions,
but practical application of this concept is limited by self-excited combustion
oscillations. When operation in a lean, premix combustor is close to the flammability
limit slight changes in operating conditions can lead to sudden flame extinction or to

Fig. 10.14. Acoustic Oscillations Damaged Transition Piece (Lieuwen, 2002)

390 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

excessive CO emissions. In addition to static stability, lean premix combustors must

achieve dynamic stability, meaning the combustion must not oscillate. Oscillation must
be eliminated in a combustor design because the associated pressure oscillations tend to
have life shortening consequences (ref: Richards et al, 1997). Figure 10.14 shows
cracks experienced in a transition piece due to excessive acoustic oscillations.
Operation near the lean limit is especially prone to oscillation problems, where minor
variations in fuel/air ratio lead to appreciable variations in combustion reaction rate.
When these variations in the reaction rate couple with the acoustic modes, significant
pressure oscillations occur, with frequencies ranging from hundreds to a few thousand
Hertz.
The task of studying and eliminating combustion oscillations in a gas turbine is
complicated by the specific acoustic response of a combustor’s design. The combustion
process interacts with the acoustic field, leading to instabilities. Rapid changes in air
and fuel supply and aerodynamic disturbances may lead to the instability because of a
sequence of extinction and re-ignition of the flame in parts of the combustor. If the heat
release rate does not take place uniformly and periodic spikes occur, acoustic waves of
the same frequency may be expected in the combustion zone. Reflection from the liner
causes pressure waves to be returned to the combustion zone after a time delay, and the
waves are reinforced when the heat release and pressure wave peaks coincide. As
defined by Lord Rayleigh’s criterion, oscillations set in when changes in heat release are
in phase with acoustic pressure disturbances. Conversely, oscillations are dampened
when heat release fluctuations are out of phase with pressure fluctuations. This criterion
serves as the cornerstone for the development of combustion oscillation analysis.
Variation in heat release result from changes in flame structure produced by acoustic
pressure disturbances. Time delay between the pressure disturbance and the heat release
variation determines the phase and, consequently, the stability of the system. Based on
these observations, lean premix combustors can be characterized by a simple time lag
approach. Figure 10.15 shows for a specific case a schematic of important processes,
where a sinusoidal pressure disturbance produces a sinusoidal variation in airflow 180°
out of phase with the pressure. Time lag τ is estimated from the distance between the

Pressure
Fuel rich pocket P(t) t
Fuel Flame

P(t) Velocity
Air U(t) to U(t) t
uavg Q(t) Turbine

Swirl Vane L L′ Heat

Release
Flame Q(t) t
front

Fig. 10.15. Flow Characteristics During Acoustic Oscillation (Richards, 1997)

 COMBUSTION METHODS 391

point of fuel injection and the flame front divided by average axial velocity, or:

τ = (L + L′)/Uavg (10.9)

where L is the distance from fuel injection point to nozzle tip, L′ is distance of nozzle
tip to flame-front and Uavg is average velocity of air-fuel mixture in the nozzle.
A positive pressure fluctuation in the combustor produces a momentary decrease in
airflow. If the fuel supply is choked, fuel flow rate will not change with pressure
variation. Thus, the reduced airflow will receive a proportionally higher amount of fuel,
creating a fuel rich pocket. This richer pocket arrives at the flame front with a time lag,
indicated by the equation given above. If the additional fuel produces an immediate
increase in heat release, oscillations will be most likely when the pressure fluctuation
peak is in phase with the increased heat release; that is, when time lag (t2 – t1) is an
integer multiple of acoustic period. This criterion for oscillations may be stated as: (time
lag)/(acoustic period) = 1, 2, 3… Since acoustic period is the reciprocal of frequency f,
then: (time lag) × (frequency) = 1, 2, 3… or, f(L + L′)/Uavg = 1, 2, 3… This is a
restatement of Rayleigh’s criterion. In practice, heat release and pressure do not
necessarily need to be exactly in phase to drive oscillations. Heat release fluctuations
leading or lagging pressure by as much as ¼ of the acoustic cycle will also cause some
oscillations, although driving is greatest for integer values where pressure and heat
release are exactly in phase.
The discussion above is specific to the example where positive pressure produces
an immediate decrease on airflow, and assumes that the fuel rich pocket produces an
immediate increase in reaction rate when arriving at the flame front. Other mechanisms
for variable heat release can complicate the criterion for oscillations such that the
expression may have values other than 1, 2, 3, … Similar criteria can be developed to
account for fuel system impedance, or to describe oscillations linked to tangential
velocity component in the fuel nozzle swirl vane. Geometry of flame front has also been
shown to produce a numeric series.
Radiated sound may have frequencies ranging from 100 to 2000 Hz. Sound
pressure frequencies mostly do not depend on engine power or flame temperature, but
radiated noise level tends to vary with these factors. In the presence of combustion
instability, a rumbling or growling form of noise is audible in the low frequency 50 to
180 Hz range when the engine may be in the sub-idle operating condition. The growl is
objectionable because it increases the time to start an engine, while also reducing the
stall margin in the compressor. At higher frequencies corresponding to takeoff condition
(200 to 500 Hz) the generated noise takes a more distinct howling or humming pattern.
Unstable operation in the compressor tends to play a role, and may even act to trigger
the noise. Increase in air temperature to combustor inlet has been noted to decrease the
rate of occurrence and intensity of growling noise, while raising combustor pressure has
the opposite effect. Fluctuations in fuel pressure may also induce high frequency noise.
Thermo-acoustic response of a gas turbine engine combustor for two different
fuel injectors has been investigated in a study conducted by the US Air Force (ref:
Arana et al, 2000), with the intention of identifying design features that cause increase
in the acoustic pressure. A hybrid air blast injector presently in use with inner and outer
392 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

Fig. 10.16. Baseline (left) and New (right) Fuel Injector Designs (Arana, 2000)

flow passages is selected as a baseline design. To lower the smoke production level the
investigation focused on using higher swirl flow in the proximity of the spray point,
while lean blowout and dynamic stability can be obtained with lower swirl in the zone.
Simultaneously achieving the apparently conflicting requirements for high and low
swirls near the spray point led to the development of a new design concept with
variances. Figure 10.16 provides details of the baseline and new fuel injector designs.
The new injector design differs from the baseline in the configuration of the
venturi, the counter-rotating swirlers of the venturi and the middle passage and the ratio
of vane and discharge areas. The last parameter is 50 percent larger than in the baseline
design, suggesting that the new swirler exhibits less resistance to dynamic changes in
pressure at higher frequencies. Use of velocity on the downstream side may be expected
to maintain a higher level of the transfer function.
Co-rotating and counter-rotating swirlers are characterized for different passages.
The injectors are initially tested at atmospheric and high-pressure conditions in an
ignition rig, and then assembled in the combustor of a development engine demonstrator
employing 24 injectors around the circumference of the bulkhead. Air is fed to the
combustor through a stepped diffuser.
The radial swirlers are the primary conduits of air between the external combustor
shrouds and the internal combustion chamber. If coupling and amplification between the
chambers is the root cause of the instability, then swirler response to a forcing function
needs to be checked by measuring the impedance of the conduit. Impedance defines the
total resistance and reactance opposition exerted by the swirlers to the forced, or pulsed,
airflow of a given frequency, and is determined by measuring the transfer function of
the swirlers. Pressure is measured as the upstream parameter and velocity on the
downstream side for a number of frequencies.
Figure 10.17 shows the measured transfer functions and corresponding phase
angles for the two designs. The new design swirlers exhibit a higher value of the transfer
 COMBUSTION METHODS 393

-35 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 50

Baseline Design
-40 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 0

Phase Angle, degrees

-45 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– -50
Magnitude, dB

-50 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– -100

-55 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– -150

New Design

-60 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– -200

Magnitude Phase Angle

-65 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– -250
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Frequency, Hz

Fig. 10.17. Transfer Function of Upstream Velocity and Downstream Pressure (Arana, 2000)

function in the 400 to 500 Hz frequency range, where the natural frequency of the
annular combustor occurs. The phase angle relation between the pressure and velocity
oscillations also points to this aspect, and is considered to be indicative of a dynamic
response as opposed to a static one. The implication is that if the frequency of the
acoustic chamber of less than 400 Hz is obtained, the new fuel injector design provides
better attenuation and less acoustic response.

10.9 Active Combustion Instability Control

Combustion instabilities are difficult to predict analytically in the design phase for
all operating conditions due to the complex geometry of the system. Noticeable
humming caused by self-excited vibrations can occur during shop tests in the premixed
mode operation of the turbine. Pressure oscillations may exceed unacceptable levels,
and a quick and flexible response in the form of control mechanism may be necessary
while the combustor design is optimized.
A similar situation has been experienced on a Siemens model V84.3 gas turbine
equipped with a new ring (or annular) combustor design (ref: Seume et al, 1997).
Dynamic pressure and heat release rate are measured at different locations in the
combustor, and dominant signals are recognized at 217 Hz and 433 Hz due to
oscillations in the combustor. Several cross power density spectra and transfer functions
are derived from two dynamic pressure signals in different areas of the combustor.
Modal analysis indicated the oscillations excite standing sound waves in the structure.
The standing waves consist of alternating regions of high and low sound pressure
amplitudes, related to each other by a characteristic difference in phase. Azimuthal
modes in the form of waves are distributed along the circumferential coordinate. With a
394 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

mean diameter of d = 2.5 m and speed of sound c = 844 m/s at a mean temperature of
1500º C, the frequency of vibration fn = nc/πd yields 215 Hz and 430 Hz for the second
and fourth harmonics, indicating good agreement with the measurements. Significant
amplitudes are not observed for the first and third harmonics of 108 and 326 Hz. Figure
10.18 provide details of the second and fourth modes.
Passive methods rely on making changes in operating parameters (such as
equivalence ratio) or geometry of the combustion system to hinder the self-exciting
mechanism. The sound pressure amplitude can also be decreased to a tolerable level by
dissipative baffles or mufflers (ref: Culick, 1988). By contrast, active methods use a
feedback control loop. Heat release or pressure in the combustor is processed by a
controller and used as an input signal for an actuator to influence the oscillating
combustion that counteracts the self-excitation process (ref: Candel, 1992, McManus et
al, 1993). Fluid stream inside the combustion chamber can be modulated to reduce

2nd Harmonic at 217 Hz

+ Sound pressure

t = 0.75T
Circumferential
coordinate

Ring combustion
chamber

Burner pitch-line
t = 0T, 0.5T and T
t = 0.25T

4th Harmonic at 433 Hz

+ Sound pressure

Circumferential
coordinate

t = 0.75T

t = 0T, 0.5T and T

t = 0.25T

Period of Oscillation T = 1/f

Fig. 10.18. Excited Modes in Combustion Chamber (Seume, 1997)

 COMBUSTION METHODS 395

pressure fluctuations by introducing inversed sound pressure oscillations, as in a loud

speaker. The method is impractical for bigger turbines because of large amounts of air
and exhaust gas to be handled. Combustion oscillations can be suppressed if the rate of
fuel reaching the flame is anti-cyclical to the oscillations of the heat release rate. In
either case, modulation of gases or fuel must take place at the frequency of the self-
excited vibrations. Since these can often reach 1000 Hz, suitable actuators must be used
to meet the requirement.
The active stability control system for the V84.3 gas turbine uses pressure transducer
measurements in the chamber, and the signals are sent to a control unit to derive an
input signal for the actuator to modulate the fuel flow rate. A few basic problems needed
to be solved for operation on a ring combustor. In the premixed mode and at base load
the engine uses 9 kg/s of gas. Thus, the actuator has to handle this mass flow rate at the
observed frequencies. Active control is secured through additional diffusion flames that
contribute about 10 percent of the total power of the burner to stabilize the main
premixed flame. Fuel flow rate to the pilot flame is modulated to influence the heat
release in the main flame accordingly. A special high-speed direct-drive valve serves to
actuate the pilot gas flow. The success of the control mechanism depends heavily on the
pressure amplitudes in the pilot gas pipes, with higher amplitudes increasing the heat
release in the flame. Hence, the length of the pipe to the pilot must be acoustically tuned
to the frequency to be controlled. When the pilot’s gas piping layout is complex and
introduces damping, a suitable device may also need to be placed upstream of the
actuator to acoustically decouple it. Figure 10.19 shows a schematic of the control
mechanism.
The second problem is associated with azimuthal modes of the instabilities. Since
several control systems are placed in different locations along the circumference, the

Flame

Fig. 10.19. Active Instability Control System for V84.3 Gas Turbine (Seume, 1997)
396 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

control devices are also situated in different regions of the excited acoustic field, with
prevailing oscillating parameters strongly differing in amplitude and phase. The
symmetry of the azimuthal modes is marked by a characteristic distribution of nodes
and anti-nodes, with regions of high and low amplitudes related to each other by a
constant phase shift. Consequently, it is possible to use a signal measured at a certain
circumferential location on the ring combustor to calculate not only the actuator signal
for the particular location but also for other defined locations. One control unit can then
be used for all the actuators in the system. Figure 10.20 depicts this principle for the
second harmonic to provide the input signal for four actuators located 90º from each
other.
Performance of the active control system can be gauged from shop test
measurements of the 170 MW gas turbine’s ring combustor (figure 10.21). The
mechanism reduced the oscillations at the dominant frequency of 433 Hz by up to 17
dB. With active control turned off, measured sound pressure amplitudes rose to 210
mbar (corresponding to sound pressure level of 177 dB), falling to about 30 mbar with
the control system turned on.
Modulation of fuel flow rate is commonly achieved by using reciprocating flow
devices where instability occurrence is at about 200 Hz or when the level of modulation
required is small. In instances where instability frequencies are in the 200 to 500 Hz
range and attenuation requires modulation of large fractions of engine fuel flow rate of
hundreds of pounds per hour, a spinning drum valve has proved more useful (ref:
Barooah et al, 2002). The spinning valve design is based on a rotary concept to generate
maximum frequency response. A rotating drum with a selected number of holes equally
spaced around the circumference is used, with the holes aligned in the surrounding
enclosure to pass the liquid fuel flow. By minimizing the clearance between the drum

Valve # 1

Burner pitch-line

Sensor # 1
Control
Valve # 19 -1 System

Valve # 7

Ring combustion Valve # 13

chamber

Fig. 10.20. Sensor and Signal Input Controller for Second Harmonic Mode (Seume, 1997)
 COMBUSTION METHODS 397

and the enclosure, leakage is reduced when the holes in the rotating and stationary
components come in line. The holes in the enclosure are radially opposed to balance the
pressure and to minimize the traverse loads. Unlike a reciprocating device, the upper
frequency limit is not affected by the inertia of the spool or the low power requirement
to accelerate it.
Liquid fueled low NOx combustors can mitigate combustion instability at realistic
operating conditions by modifying the fuel nozzle (ref: Cohen et al, 1998). The fuel is
injected through axial tubes with spray tips protruding from the nozzle centerpiece. A
pilot injector is placed a short distance downstream of the fuel ejection plane. After
passing through a venturi the airflow is split between the fuel nozzle and a bypass
segment. Airflow from the bypass is injected at the downstream end combustor, and
represents dilution air. To obtain control of the acoustic oscillations, one tube delivers
the fuel to a metering system and a solenoid valve. The tubing between the valve and
the injection point is minimized to reduce attenuation and time lag due to capacitive
effects. The main fuel flow takes place through the other injection tubes. The solenoid
valve is driven at varying frequencies independent of the combustor behavior using a
signal generator, with an on/off duty cycle of 50 percent. Combustor pressure and heat
release rate are measured. When the control sensor signal crosses a predetermined
threshold level, a command sent to the solenoid valve turns it on or off. Time delay
between the instant of crossing and valve command is also taken into account. The
threshold level and the time delay are manipulated through a user interface to the
control algorithm. A proper choice of the two parameters yields 15 dB attenuation of
the objectionable oscillating mode. The control system is also effective in holding the
NOx emission relatively constant across the range of equivalence ratios.

AC adjustment A/C on off A/C on

16 –
14 –
12 –
Gain [-]

10 –
8–
6–
4–
2–
0–
0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 Time
2nd Harmonic Amplitude at 217 Hz (maximum of 6 pressure transducers)

0.18 –
Amplitude, bar

0.16 –
0.12 –
0.08 –
0.04 –
0.00 –
0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 Time
Fig. 10.21. Control System Test Operation at Base Load (Seume, 1997)
398 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

10.10 Thermal Protection of Combustor Liner

The functional nature of a combustion liner imposes on it high temperature levels

and steep thermal gradients. Mechanical strength of nickel and cobalt based alloys used
for the liner deteriorates considerably when temperatures exceed 1100 K, hence means
must be designed to relieve the heat build up. With gas turbines employing higher
operating pressures and temperatures to improve performance and power, the need for
cooling the combustion liner becomes even more acute. At the same time the liner is
required to possess a minimum number of operating hours (ref: Lefebvre, 1999).
The temperature of the liner increases due to the combination of heating by
radiation and convection from the internal hot gas flow and cooling due to radiation to
the outer case and convection to the air in the annulus. Depending on the volume,
pressure, temperature and chemical composition of the gases flowing through it, as also
the dimensions and shape of the component, a considerable amount of heat is radiated
on the liner. The size and number of hot and glowing soot particles formed during the
combustion also control the intensity of radiation. Geometric shape factor between the
liner and the casing and surface areas of the liner and outer case will govern the heat
radiated by the liner to the casing. Internal heat convected to the liner walls from the
gases is complicated by the rapidly changing physical and chemical characteristics, as
also the temperature, of the gases. Steep gradients in flow velocities and pressures add
even more uncertainties, because the state of boundary layer development makes it
difficult to prepare an adequate model. In a can combustor reversal of flow designed in
the primary zone permits only a portion of the flow to be modeled using the pipe
analogy. Using a Reynolds number based index consistent with observed parameters for
extreme turbulence, an expression using the hydraulic diameter (proportional to the
ratio of cross sectional flow area and wetted perimeter) may be used. When a swirler is
used, local gas velocity at the wall increases by the factor 1/(cos β) relative to the
downstream velocity, where β is the angle between the velocity vector and axis of the
combustor. Bulk gas temperature used for internal convection in the primary zone may
also need to be modified by reducing the corresponding radiation temperature by about
15 percent. External convection from the cylindrical surface requires the Reynolds
number to be calculated using the hydraulic mean diameter of the annular air space.
Film cooling of the inner surface of the liner is useful in achieving additional
extraction of heat, and is accomplished by injecting air along the wall axially through
slots and holes machined in the liner. The small diameter, closely spaced holes may be
provided by laser drilling or by the electro-discharge machining method. Since the
turbulent hot gases gradually eliminate this film, the hole and slot pattern is repeated at
specific intervals along the length. Cooling air is supplied through rings rolled or
machined in the liner, through stacked rings with holes sized to deliver adequate
amounts of cooling air and through corrugated spacers attached between overlapping
segments of the liner. Depending on the design and method of attachment, the rings also
serve to provide stiffness to the liner. Cooling efficiency in the liner is enhanced by
improving the heat transfer coefficient on the coolant side (ref: Nealy, 1980) and by
increasing surface roughness of the heat transferring areas.
Sheets of cobalt or nickel based alloys are commonly used to produce combustor
 COMBUSTION METHODS 399

liners exposed to severe temperatures and pressures. Resistance to oxidation and

corrosion is a primary consideration in the selection of material and manufacturing
process, but low coefficient of expansion and Young’s modulus, resistance to thermal
fatigue and high thermal conductivity also play a major role. Steep thermal gradients are
encountered around the edges of cooling holes and in isolated hot spots. The pace of
oxidation is noted to appreciably increase when metal temperature approaches 1300 K.
A thin layer of a thermal barrier coating (TBC) may be applied on the inner surface of
the liner for extra protection. The refractory material of low thermal conductivity has
the capacity to reflect much of the radiated heat from combustion while offering
increased resistance to heat flow to reduce the temperature of the metallic liner. To
adequately provide the protection the thermal barrier coat must be chemically inert, be
resilient to thermal shocks and have good erosion and wear characteristics. Also, its
coefficient of thermal expansion must match that of the underlying substrate. A base
metallic coat of Ni-Cr-Al-Y is overlaid with one or two coats of ceramics to constitute
many TBC’s. Plasma flame spraying is found effective in obtaining durability,
consistency and thickness uniformity of the coats.

10.11 Review Problems

Example Problem # 10.1: Find the primary zone temperature of an uncooled liner for a
tubular combustor from the following data:
Combustor inlet pressure = P = 2750 kPa
Combustor inlet temperature = T = 920 K
Case diameter = DC = 0.2 m
Liner outer diameter = DL = 0.15 m
Liner thickness = tL = 0.001 m
Casing emissivity = εc = 0.4
Liner emissivity = εL = 0.65
Liner thermal conductivity = kL = 25 W/(m-K)
Mass flow rate through combustor = dma/dt = 7.0 kg/s
Mass flow rate through primary zone = dmp/dt = 2.5 kg/s
Fuel/air mass ratio = q = 0.06
Luminosity factor = L = 1.75
Primary zone combustion efficiency = ηc = 0.85

Solution: Temperature of gas in the primary zone is obtained from temperature increase
due to combustion and added to the inlet temperature. Using temperature rise curves for
a mixture of air and kerosene at 2750 kPa, 920 K and assumed 85 percent combustion
efficiency, the effective q = 0.06 × 0.85 = 0.051 and ∆T = 1415 K. Assume a decrease
of 50 K for heat loss in the evaporation of fuel and raising its temperature to that of the
surrounding gases. Then primary zone gas temperature Tg is 920 + 1415 - 50 = 2285 K.

Example Problem # 10.2: Determine the radiation heat flux from the combustion gas to
the liner for this combustor.
400 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

Solution: The rate of heat transfer R1 by non-luminous radiation from a gas to its
enclosure depends on the size and shape of the container and the mean, or bulk,
conditions of the gas. The gas emits only a few narrow bands of wavelengths, and
absorbs only those wavelengths included in its emission bands. Also, the surface
exposed to the flame has an effective absorption rate under unity, and can be estimated
by the factor 0.5(1 + εl). Then the heat transfer rate is given by:

R1 = 0.5σ (1 + ε L )(ε g T g 4 − α g Tw1 4 ) (10.10)

where σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 × 10-8 W/(m2-K4), εg = gas emissivity, Tg

= gas temperature, Twl = liner temperature on flame side and αg = gas absorption rate at
Twl. αg may be approximated from αg = εg(Tg/Tw1)1.5. At gas temperature of 2285 K gas
emissivity εg is assumed to be 0.6. For tubular can type of combustors beam length is
given by the expression (ref: Fishenden, 1950): lb = 3.4 × (volume)/(surface area),
working out to between 0.6 and 0.9 times the liner diameter, or 0.6 × DL = 0.09 m. So:
Rl = 0.5 × 5.67 × 10-8 × (1 + 0.65) × 0.6 × 22851.5 × (22852.5 - Tw12.5)
= 765126 - 0.003066 × Tw12.5 W/m2

Example Problem # 10.3: Determine the radiation heat flux from the liner to the casing
for this combustor.

Solution: Radiation heat flux from the liner to the casing, R2, is expressed by:
σε L ε c
R2 = (Tw2 4 − T 4 ) (10.11)
ε c + ε l (1 − ε c ) D L /Dref
where εL = 0.65, εc = 0.4, ratio of hydraulic mean diameters for a tubular combustor
DL/Dref = 0.15/0.192 = 0.78 and Tw2 is liner temperature on coolant side.
5.67 ×10 −8 × 0.65 × 0.4
Then: R 2 = (Tw2 4 − 920 4 )
0.4 + 0.65 × (1 − 0.4) × 0.78
= 2.0934 × 10-8 × Tw24 - 14997 W/m2

Example Problem # 10.4: Determine the liner temperatures on the casing (Tw1) and the
coolant (Tw2) sides in example problems 10.1, 10.2 and 10.3.

Solution: Gas properties at primary zone temperature of 2285 K, pressure of 2750 kPa
and liner data are:
Thermal conductivity kg = 0.153 W/(m-K)
Dynamic viscosity µg = 7.02 × 10-5 kg/(m-s)
Mass flow rate through primary zone = dmp/dt = 2.5 kg/s
Liner outer diameter = DL = 0.15 m
Cross sectional flow area of liner = AL = π × (0.15)2/4 = 0.01767 m2
Since internal convection is difficult to estimate precisely because of rapid physical and
 COMBUSTION METHODS 401

chemical changes during combustion, some form of classical heat transfer expression
for straight pipes may be assumed if the Reynolds number is consistent with the stated
conditions of extreme turbulence. The expressions for casing (C1) and coolant (C2) sides
0.8
kg  dm p / dt 
are: C1 = 0.017   (T g − Tw1 ) (10.12)
D L 0.2  A µ 
 L G 
0.8
0.153  2.5 
Hence: C1 = 0.017 0.2
 −5
 (2285 − Tw1 )
0.15  0.01767 × 7.02 × 10 
= 960004 - 420.1 × Tw1
0.8
ka  dm a / dt 
A similar expression: C 2 = 0.020   (Tw2 − T3 ) (10.13)
 A µ 
D a 0.2  a a 
where: Thermal conductivity ka = 0.0553 W/(m-K)
Dynamic viscosity µa = 3.85 × 10-5 kg/(m-s)
Mass flow rate through primary zone = dma/dt = 7.0 kg/s
Annular width = DC – DL = Da = 0.2 - 0.15 = 0.05 m
Liner cross sectional flow area = Aa = [π × (0.22 - 0.152)]/4 = 0.01374 m2
Combustor inlet temperature = T = T3 = 920 K
0.8
0.0553  7.0 
Then: C 2 = 0.020 × 0.2
 −5
 (Tw2 − 920)
0.05  0.01374 × 3.85 × 10 
= 1002.7 × Tw2 - 922480 W/m2
Conduction heat transfer through a solid liner wall due to a temperature gradient in the
wall K1-2 is:
k
K 1− 2 = L (Tw1 − Tw2 ) (10.14)
tL
25
Then: K 1− 2 = (Tw1 − Tw2 ) = 25000(T w1 − Tw2 )
0.001
For equilibrium, R1 + C1 = R2 + C2 = K1-2 (10.15)
Substituting for R1, C1, R2, C2 and K1-2 gives the equations:
- 0.003066 × Tw12.5 - 25420.2 × Tw1 + 1725130 = - 25000 × Tw2
2.0920 × 10-8 × Tw24 + 26003 × Tw2 - 937477 = 25000 × Tw1
Then: Tw1 = 1589 K, and Tw2 = 1559 K.

Example Problem # 10.5: In the first four example problems cooling of the liner has not
been considered, but the results do not necessarily indicate maximum temperatures in
the liner. If in a region annulus flow velocity is substantially lower than the mean value
on one side, and if the cooling flow is restricted in the same zone on the other side of
the wall, the liner may reach exceptionally high temperatures in the form of hot spots.
402 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

Calculate the liner temperatures at a distance x downstream of a cooling slot of

height s = 0.0020 m and thickness t = 0.0008 m. Ratio x/s = 18 where the coolant flow
rate is 0.3 kg/s.

Solution: s = 0.002 m, x/s = 18, x = 0.036 m and surface area of slot:

As = π × DL × s = π × 0.15 × 0.002 = 0.0009425 m2
Flow rate of coolant through the slot: dma/dt =ρaUaAs = 0.3 kg/s, hence:
ρaUa = 0.3/0.0009425 = 318.3 kg/(m2-s)
At 2750 kPa and 920 K, properties of air are:
Dynamic viscosity µa = 3.85 × 10-5 kg/(m-s)
Thermal conductivity ka = 0.0548 W/(m-K)
ρ a U a s 318.31× 0.002
Then flow Reynolds number in slot Re s = = = 16536
µa 0.0000385
ρ aU a x 318.3 × 0.036
And flow Reynolds number along liner Re x = = = 297640
µa 0.0000385
For flow along the liner, AL = 0.01767 m2, Tg = 2285 K, µg = 7.02 × 10-5 kg/m-s, fuel-air
ratio in the primary zone qp = 0.051, (dmg/dt) = ρgUgAL = 2.5 kg/s, kg = 0.153 W/(m-K).
Then, ρgUg = 2.5/01767 = 141.5 kg/(m2-s).

Also, m = ρaUa/ρgUg = 318.3/141.5 = 2.25. From an analysis of experimental data on

the influence of slot thickness t on cooling effectiveness, a correction factor is available
(ref: Ballal et al, 1973):
0.15
µ   xt 
− 0.2
 3.85 
0.15
η = 1.28 ×  a   2 = 1.28 ×   (18 × 0.4) −0.2 = 0.788
 µg  s   7.02 
 
T g − Tw, ad 2285 − Tw,ad
Cooling efficiency η = = = 0.788 and Tw,ad = 1209 K.
T g − Ta 2285 − 920

where Ta = combustor inlet temperature = 920 K.

In the heat transfer calculations with a film-cooled liner, constants R1, R2 and C2
remain the same as for a non-cooled liner. Constant C1 is altered by changes in coolant
flow velocity and hot gas temperature near the wall, and is expressed by:
−0.36
k  x
C1 = 0.10 ×  a (Re x ) 0.8   (Tw,ad − Tw1 ) (10.16)
 x  s
−0.36
 0.153  0.8  0.036 
Hence: C1 = 0.10 ×   × (297640) ×   (1209 − T w1 )
 0.036   0.002 
 COMBUSTION METHODS 403

= - 1287 × Tw1 + 1556038 = -3593 × Tw1 - 4343808

From example problems 10.1 through 10.4,
Rl = 765126 - 0.003066 × Tw12.5 W/m2
R2 = 2.0934 × 10-8 × Tw24 - 14997 W/m2
C2 = 1002.7 × Tw2 - 922480 W/m2
K1-2 = 25000 × (Tw1 - Tw2)
Substituting for R1, C1, R2, C2 and K1-2 in (10.15) gives the equations:
- 0.003066 × Tw12.5 - 28592 × Tw1 - 3578682 = - 25000 × Tw2
2.0934 × 10-8 × Tw24 + 26002.7 × Tw2 - 937466 = 25000 × Tw1
Then Tw1 = 1320 K and Tw2 = 1303 K

10.12 Exercises

10.1 Discuss the role of a combustor in a gas turbine. How is the efficiency of a
combustion system defined?

10.2 What are the primary objectives in the design of combustors for large power
generation gas turbines? Compare them with that for a modern high-bypass turbo-fan
engine for aircraft propulsion.

10.3 Explain the design features of combustors in stationary power generation gas
turbines. How do they differ from those for modern aero engines.

10.4 How is complete combustion of the fuel achieved in gas turbines? Are the
methods employed different for liquid and gas fuels?

10.5 How is the combustor flame stabilized to a steady condition?

10.6 Why is a fighter jet engine more likely to flameout compared with other forms
of gas turbines? Explain the role of various parameters.

10.7 Why does combustion efficiency decrease during relight following a flameout?

10.8 What is a combustor liner? Describe their major design features. How is
thermal resistance built into the liners?

10.9 Why is it essential to cool the liner? Describe some common ways of cooling.

10.10 Describe the method of supporting combustor liners. What are the primary
requirements to be met in ensuring adequate structural support?

10.11 What are the primary products of combustion, and which components are
objectionable?
404 THEORY AND PRACTICE IN GAS TURBINES

10.12 What is the role of combustion temperature in the formation of exhaust gas
emissions? Explain for individual emission components.

10.13 Explain the need for staged combustion. What are the various design methods
used in staged combustion?

10.14 Describe the dry low-NOx method of fuel combustion? Compare its merits with
other methods of reducing production of NOx.

10.15 What are some common problems encountered during startup of a gas turbine
unit?

10.16 How is a gas turbine unit started? Discuss various means commonly used to
initially turn the rotor before fuel is ignited in the combustion system.

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