SCAFFOLDING

Definition: A scaffold is a temporary working platform erected around the perimeter of a building or structure
to provide a safe working place at a convenient height. It includes any working platforms, ladders
and guard rails.
 They are usually required when the working height or level is 1,500 mm or more above the ground
level.

Scaffold materials
 Scaffolding can be of:
(i) Tubular steel
British Standard 1139 gives recommendations for both welded and seamless steel tubes of 48 mm
outside diameter with a nominal 38 mm bore diameter. Steel tubes can be obtained galvanised (to guard
against corrosion); ungalvanised tubes will require special care such as painting, varnishing or an oil
bath after use. Steel tubes are nearly three times heavier than comparable aluminium alloy tubes, but
are far stronger, and as their deflection is approximately one-third that of aluminium alloy tubes, longer
spans can be used.

(ii) Tubular aluminium alloy

Seamless tubes of aluminium alloy with a 48 mm outside diameter are specified in BS 1139 for metal
scaffolding. No protective treatment is required unless they are to be used in contact with materials
such as damp lime, wet cement or seawater, which can cause corrosion of the aluminium alloy tubes. A
suitable protective treatment would be to coat the tubes with bitumastic paint before use. Commonly
used in the manufacture of lightweight mobile access platforms where weight is a factor that affecting
assembly in construction sites.
Advantages of metallic or tubular scaffolds
a) It is durable as it is less likely to deteriorate than wooden scaffold.
b) It is quick and simple to erect.
c) The poles are all the same quality and strength.
d) More convenient for internal work owing to their wider range of widths.
e) Used for multi-storey buildings.
f) Takes up less storage area.
Disadvantages of metallic or tubular scaffolds
a) The initial cost is higher.
b) Many parts and joint fittings are required.
c) Cost of preservation is high as the poles must be carefully stored and protected when not in use.

(iii) Timber
The use of timber as a temporary structure in the form of a scaffold is now rarely encountered in the
UK, although it is extensively used in the developing world. The timber used is structural-quality
softwood in either putlog or independent format. The members are lashed together with wire or rope
instead of the coupling fittings used with metal scaffolds.
Advantages of timber scaffolds
a) It is cheaper to buy timber poles than metal.
b) The scaffold parts can be joined without special fittings.
c) It is easy to cut and fit.
d) No extra maintenance costs.
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 e) The timber can be reused when no required for scaffolding and therefore it has high scrap value.
Disadvantages of timber scaffolds
a) It takes longer to erect.
b) Use is restricted to low rise buildings.
c) As the logs are obtained from young trees, they are prone to insect attack, thus limiting duration
of usefulness.
d) Timber putlog scaffold poles leave large holes in the walls after use which require to patched or
filled in
e) The poles joints are secured with string and nails rather than stronger purpose made fittings.
f) The timber may have hidden defects.

(iv) Glass fibre

This is a product that does not conduct electricity and therefore can be used effectively chemical
environments where an ignition spark could prove fatal. They are non-corrosive and non-oxidising.
They have an extended lifespan and use. They are used to manufacture access towers and ladders.

Regulations for scaffolding materials

1. The poles and the components should be in a sound condition and suitable for the purpose.
2. Metal poles should be from rust.
3. Timber poles should not be split or contain any rot or insect holes.
4. Both metal and timber poles should be straight.
5. Poles should not be repaired or joined in ways that create weakness.
6. Poles should not be painted as this may conceal defects.

Scaffold parts and fittings

- The major parts and fittings used in scaffolding are:
(i) Base boards or sole plates – Timber boards that support the base plate on soft or uneven ground.
(ii) Braces – Poles fixed diagonally to stiffen the scaffold.
(iii) Bridles – short lengths of tubing that are fitted to each side of a window opening and clamped to the
transom. They fix the putlog scaffold to the surface of the building.
(iv) Guard rails – Horizontal poles that are fixed above the working platform to prevent workers falling off.
(v) Ledgers – The horizontal poles that connect the standards. They are parallel to the building.
(vi) Putlogs – Cross pieces that have one end built into the wall of the building.
(vii) Double coupler - The only real load bearing fitting used in scaffolding; used to join ledgers to standards.
(viii) Swivel coupler - Composed of two single couplers riveted together so that it is possible to rotate them
and use them for connecting two scaffold tubes at any angle.
(ix) Putlog coupler - Used solely for fixing putlogs or transoms to the horizontal ledgers.
(x) Base plate - A square plate with a central locating spigot, used to distribute the load from the foot of a
standard on to a sole plate or firm ground.
(xi) Split joint pin - A connection fitting used to joint scaffold tubes end to end. A centre bolt expands the
two segments, which grip on the bore of the tubes.
(xii) Reveal pin - Fits into the end of a tube to form an adjustable strut.
(xiii) Putlog end - A flat plate that fits on the end of a scaffold tube to convert it into a putlog.

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 Types of scaffolds
1. Putlog (Dependent) scaffold
 This form of scaffolding consists of a single row of uprights or standards set away from the wall at a
distance that will accommodate the required width of the working platform. One end is supported by
the building under construction.
 The standards are joined together with horizontal members called ledgers and are tied to the building
with cross-members called putlogs.
 The scaffold is erected as the building rises, and is used mostly for buildings of traditional brick
construction.

Figure: Typical tubular steel putlog scaffold.

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2. Independent scaffold
 An independent scaffold has two rows of standards, which are tied by cross-members called transoms.
This form of scaffold does not rely upon the building for support and is therefore suitable for use in
conjunction with framed structures.
 Every scaffold should be securely tied to the building at intervals of approximately 3.600 m vertically
and 6.000 m horizontally. This can be achieved by using a horizontal tube called a bridle bearing on
the inside of the wall and across a window opening with cross-members connected to it; alternatively a
tube with a reveal pin in the opening can provide a connection point for the cross-members.
 If suitable openings are not available then the scaffold should be strutted from the ground using raking
tubes inclined towards the building.

Figure: Typical tubular steel independent scaffold.

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3. Mobile scaffold or Mobile Access Tower
 Mobile access towers are temporary structures used for gaining access to buildings for maintenance
and repair.
 They are preferred to conventional scaffolding for work of a relatively short duration and where a
ladder would be inadequate.

Figure: Assembled mobile access tower

Features of a mobile scaffold

a) They are assembled from prefabricated components.
b) They have a facility to be moved manually on firm, level ground.
c) They have dimensions to a predetermined design.
d) They are freestanding, with supplementary support optional.
e) They have at least one platform to work from.
f) They have at least four legs; normally each leg is fitted with castors. A base plate
can be used at the bottom of each leg where mobility is not required.
g) The platform is accessed by a ladder or steps contained within the base dimensions of the tower.
h) The platform is accessed by a ladder or steps contained within the base dimensions of the tower.
i) A ladder should not touch the ground; the first rung is located not more than 400 mm above the
ground.
j) The working platform should have a hinged opening for ladder access, adequate guard rails, and
toe boards.
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4. Patent scaffolding
 These are systems based on an independent scaffold format in which the members are connected
together using an integral locking device instead of conventional clips and couplers used with traditional
tubular scaffolding.
 Although simple in concept patent systems of scaffolding can lack the flexibility of traditional tubular
scaffolds in complex layout situations.

Figure: Patent scaffolding

Advantages of patent scaffolding

a) Easy to assemble and take down using semi-skilled labour.
b) Cross bracing is not required with this system but facade bracing can be fitted if necessary.

5. Slung scaffolds
 These are a form of scaffold which is suspended from the main structure by means of wire ropes or steel
chains and is not provided with a means of being raised or lowered.
 Each working platform of a slung scaffold consists of a supporting framework of ledgers and transoms
which should not create a plan size in excess of 2.500 x 2.500 and be held in position by not less than six
evenly spaced wire ropes or steel chains securely anchored at both ends.
 The working platform should be double planked or underlined with polythene or similar sheeting to
restrict the amount of dust reaching the floor level.

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  Although more difficult to erect, slung scaffolds have the advantage of leaving a clear space beneath the
working platform which makes them suitable for cinemas, theatres and high ceiling banking halls.

Figure: Slung scaffolding

6. Cantilever scaffolds
 These are a form of independent tied scaffold erected on cantilever beams and used where it is
impracticable, undesirable or uneconomic to use a traditional scaffold raised from ground level.
 The assembly of a cantilever scaffold requires special skills and should therefore always be carried out
by trained and experienced personnel.

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 Figure: Cantilever scaffold

7. Truss- out scaffold

 This is a form of independent tied scaffold used where it is impracticable, undesirable or uneconomic to
build a scaffold from ground level. The supporting scaffold structure is known as the truss-out.
 The assembly of this form of scaffold requires special skills and should therefore be carried out by
trained and experienced personnel.

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 Figure: Truss-out scaffold

8. Birdcage scaffolds
 These are a form of independent scaffold normally used for internal work in large buildings such as
public halls and churches to provide access to ceilings and soffits for light maintenance work like
painting and cleaning.
 They consist of parallel rows of standards connected by leaders in both directions, the whole
arrangement being firmly braced in all directions.
 The whole birdcage scaffold assembly is designed to support a single working platform which should be
double planked or underlined with polythene or similar sheeting as a means of restricting the amount of
dust reaching the floor level.

Assignment: Sketch and label a birdcage scaffold.

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9. Gantry scaffolds
 These are elevated platforms used when the building being maintained or under construction are
adjacent to a public footpath.
 A gantry over a footpath can be used for storage of materials, housing units of accommodation and
supporting an independent scaffold.
 A gantry can be constructed of any suitable structural material and may need to be structurally
designed to meet all the necessary safety requirements.

Figure: Gantries

Erection of scaffolding
 Standards are erected upright and rest on a square plate which spread the load to the ground. The base
plate has shank in its centre to hold the standards.
 Ledgers are connected between the standards.
 Transoms are put to rest upon the ledgers at right angle. Main transoms are placed next to the standards
to hold them in place and provide support for boards.
 Cross braces are placed diagonally from ledger next to the standards to which they are fitted.
 Right angle couplers are used to join ledgers to transoms and to standards.

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  Spacing of ledgers is 2 metres.
 Transom spacing is determined by the thickness of the boards, 38 mm boards require a transom spacing
of not more than 1.2 metres.

Safety guidance in scaffolding

i) Scaffolding should be constructed by competent persons.
ii) Height to base ratio:
- 3:1 maximum indoors;
- 2.5:1 maximum outdoors.
iii) Maximum height of scaffold to be 12 m indoors, 8 m outdoors.
iv) Never move a scaffold with persons, equipment or materials on the platform or frame.
v) Access ladders to be fitted within the frame.
vi) Castors to be fitted with a locking device and secured before access are permitted.
vii) Erecting a scaffold on a stable ground is essential.
viii) Components to be visually inspected for damage before assembly.
ix) Inspection by a competent person before use and every 7 days if it remains in the same place. Inspection
is also to be done after any substantial alteration or period of exposure to bad weather.
x) Local authority Highways Department approval required prior to use on a public footpath or road.
Licence or permit to be obtained.
xi) Use barriers or warning tape to prevent people walking into the tower. Where appropriate, illuminated.
xii) No work to be undertaken below a platform in use or within the tower.
xiii) Material storage on the platform to be minimal.
xiv) Ladders or other means of additional access must not be used from the platform or any other part of the
structure.

Sample Examination questions

1. (i) Differentiate between the terms ‘scaffolding’ and ‘shoring’.
(ii) Name four types of scaffolding. (6 marks)

2. Sketch and label a pictorial putlog steel scaffold. (7 marks)

3. (a) (i) Define the term scaffold.

(ii) Describe the following types of scaffolds:
(I) Independent scaffolds;
(II) Putlog scaffolds;
(III) Gantry. (10 marks)

4. Sketch and label an independent scaffold. (6 marks)

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