TRADE

FOCUSED
PRODUCT
REPORTS

Sausages
HS Code 1601
TRADE FOCUSED PRODUCT REPORTS

SAUSAGES
HS CODE 1601
MARCH 2024
Disclaimer
The referencing of particular companies or certain manufacturers’ products does not imply that they
are endorsed or recommended by Jordan Exports in preference to others of a similar nature that are
not mentioned. Errors and omissions are excepted; the names of proprietary products are
distinguished by initial capital letters.

Jordan Exports has taken all reasonable precautions to verify the information contained in this
publication. However, the published material is distributed without warranty, expressed or implied. The
responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader.

The opinions, findings and conclusions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the
views of Jordan Exports.

Please consider the environment before printing this report.

© Jordan Exports 2024

Some rights reserved. This work is licensed to the public through a Creative Commons
Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share Alike 3.0 IGO license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO).
Under the terms of this license, you may copy, redistribute and adapt the publication for
non-commercial purposes, provided the work is appropriately cited. In using this publication,
there should be no suggestion that Jordan Exports endorses any specific organisation, product,
or service. The unauthorised use of the Jordan Exports name or logos is not permitted. If you
adapt the publication, then you must license your work under the same or equivalent Creative
Commons license. If you create a translation of this publication, you should add the following
disclaimer along with the suggested citation: “Jordan Exports did not create this translation.
Jordan Exports is not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation. The original
English edition shall be the binding and authentic edition”. For more information, please visit
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/.

This report was developed with the support of the “Trade for Employment” project implemented by the
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) on behalf of the German Federal
Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

GIZ is not responsible for the content of this report.

1
Contents
Contents 2
Chart and tables 3
Glossary of terms and abbreviations 4
Product descriptions by HS 6-digit code 6
Executive summary 7
Product overview 8
Market dynamics 12
Demand and supply trends 13
Market concentration and product complexity 14
World trade statistics by sausage category on the HS6 level 15
HS 1601 in the context of Jordanian exports 16
Priority markets 17
Saudi Arabia 18
The United Arab Emirates 22
Qatar 27
Recommendations 32
Recommendations in summary 33
Reference information 34

2
Charts and tables
Chart 1 Global sausage production from 2018 to 2028, in billion kilograms 9
Chart 2 Global per capita sausage consumption 2018 – 2028, in kilograms 9
Chart 3 Global meat product and sausage revenue by country in 2022, in $ million 10
Chart 4 Top sausage exporters by value in 2022, in $‘000 11
Chart 5 Top sausages importers by value in 2022, in $‘000 11
Chart 6 Sausage product complexity 2012 to 2021 12
Chart 7 Leading markets by import value for Jordan's sausage exports, in $ 16
Chart 8 Saudi Arabia sausage import values, top exporters, 2018 to 2022 18
Chart 9 Saudi Arabia sausage imports from main supplying countries, in $ per ton 19
Chart 10 Saudi Arabia sausage imports from Jordan 19
Chart 11 United Arab Emirates sausage import values, top exporters, 2018 to 2022 22
Chart 12 UAE sausage imports from main supplying countries, in $ per ton 23
Chart 13 United Arab Emirates sausage imports from Jordan. 24
Chart 14 Qatar sausage import values, top exporters, 2018 to 2022 27
Chart 15 Qatar sausage imports from main supplying countries, in $ per ton 28
Chart 16 Qatar sausage imports from Jordan. 28

Table 1 Sausages export and import statistics and Jordan export market share 15

3
Glossary of terms and abbreviations
Export concentration
This index measures, for each product, the degree of export market concentration by country of origin. It tells
us if a large share of commodity exports is accounted for by a few countries or, on the contrary, if exports are
well distributed among many countries. The index ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating more market
concentration.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)

Consisting of 195 members, including 194 countries and the European Union, the Food and Agriculture
Organization is a United Nations department mandated to pursue global food security. With operations
worldwide, the agency supports governments in matters involving agriculture, forestry, fishing, and natural
resources, particularly land and water.

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Standardization Organization (GSO)

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) member countries created the GSO as a mechanism for developing food and
non-food standards. GSO food-related technical regulations and standards serve as the main point of
reference for food imports into the Gulf region. Codex Alimentarius, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) serve as reference points for GSO standards and technical regulations.

HS (Harmonized System) codes

A standardised number classification system for traded goods. It is used by customs officials around the world
to identify products for the purpose of applying duties and taxes, as well as for statistical purposes.

Market concentration
Market concentration determines the extent to which countries or firms hold market share. It is frequently used
as a measure for the level of competitiveness. Measured on different scales and ranges, the general rule is the
higher the score, the greater the level of competitiveness.

In respect to the Shannon Entropy scoring used by the Observatory of Economic Complexity and referenced
in the report, the closer the number is to 1, the greater the concentration of just a small number of players and
the lower the competitiveness. A score of 4.47 for sausages, HS code 1601 – as stated in this study –
suggests a fragmented market with no dominant player and potentially diverse offerings due to exports from
around 22 countries.

MFN (Most Favoured Nation) tariff

Tariffs imposed by WTO (World Trade Organization) members on importing goods from other WTO members
in the lack of a preferential trade agreement.

Nes (Not elsewhere specified)

Not elsewhere specified is stated for an item that is not mentioned elsewhere in a classification system.

4
NTM (non-tariff measure)
Import and export regulations that reflect conditions of market access other than tariffs. They include numerous
regulatory requirements such as health restrictions for food quality, packaging guidelines, minimum safety
standards for produced goods, etc.

PCI (Product Complexity Index)

PCI ranks the breadth and sophistication of know-how required in manufacture. High PCI scores indicate that
a product requires significant expertise and particular resources for its production, such as advanced
machinery. Goods with a high PCI value, representing a complexity that only a few countries can undertake,
include electronics and chemicals. Conversely, a low score suggests that many countries can produce the
item, like basic agricultural goods or petroleum. The score’s level depends on various factors.

Preferential tariffs
A tariff applied to a product that is less than the MFN levy due to the existence of a preferential trade
agreement. This could be a bilateral advantageous trading arrangement or a single system of favours, such as
the United States GSP (generalised system of preferences).

5
Product descriptions by
HS 6-digit code

HS 160100– Sausages and similar products, of meat, meat offal or blood; food preparations based on
these products
Sausages and similar products: This encompasses all types of sausages, whether they are cooked, smoked,
dried, or otherwise prepared. It includes products made from meat, meat offal (such as liver, kidneys, heart,
etc.), or blood.

Food preparations based on these products: This part of the code covers a variety of food items that are
prepared using sausages or similar products as primary ingredients. These could include certain types of
ready-to-eat or easy-to-prepare meals, where sausages or similar meat products are a key component.

Explanatory note
In respect to Jordan’s trade HS 1601 data reported in this study, significant discrepancies were identified between category exports
and imports, when using the trade statistics database employed in research, namely ITC Trade Map, which in turn accesses UNCTAD
and WTO data. There were also variations in the export values reported by Jordan's Department of Statistics.

Fundamentally, because of the differences, export statistics reported by the Department of Statistics are documented on page 16 - HS
1601 in the context of Jordanian exports. On the prior page 15 - World trade statistics by sausage category on the HS 6 level, however,
export data as recorded on ITC Trade Map is stated, as it aggregates global HS 1601 statistics. Lastly, when it comes to analyses in
the three priority markets sections for Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Qatar – respective import values are maintained as
recorded by the national customs departments in ITC Trade Map.

6
Executive summary
In the global meat market, the sausage industry displays a dynamic tapestry of regional strengths and evolving
trends. North America dominates with the US leading the way, followed by Europe with Germany and France
as major players. Asia has a significant presence with Japan and China in the top 10 of sector revenues.

While global sausage production shows fluctuations, it maintains relatively stable levels of output. From a high
of 15.09 billion kilograms in 2018, it dipped to 13.82 billion kilograms in 2022 but is expected to recover to
14.35 billion kilograms in 2024 and is projected to reach 15.54 billion kilograms by 2028. Consumption per
capita, however, follows a different pattern. Starting at 2.1 kilograms in 2018, it consistently declined to 1.8
kilograms by 2022. While it remains stable at 1.8 kilograms in 2023, it is predicted to slightly increase to 1.9
kilograms by 2024 and 2028, suggesting a potential reversal in the consumption decline.

Evolving appetites are reshaping the sausage landscape. Health-conscious consumers gravitate toward
low-fat, naturally-sourced options, both meat and plant-based, driving a 6.7% annual rise in this segment.
Meanwhile, the plant-powered rise sees sausages at 26.5% yearly growth, fuelled by e-commerce channels.
Traditional collagen casings are moreover making a comeback, with an expected near doubling in market size
by 2033.

Jordan's sausage exports to its key priority markets present a mixed picture. While Saudi Arabia has seen a
remarkable 33% annual growth in imports from Jordan, reaching 33.8 million in 2022, exports to the UAE have
experienced a rollercoaster ride, initially dropping from $2.2 million in 2018 to $1.3 million in 2019, before
recovering to $2.8 million in 2022. Qatar, however, paints a concerning picture with a significant 47% decline
in imports from Jordan during the same period, dropping from $1.2 million in 2018 to $659,000 in 2022. While
this data highlights a significant challenge, it is necessary to approach it with a focus on understanding the
contributing factors – whether it is evolving consumer preferences, increased competition, or internal
production issues. Delving deeper into these explanations will be vital for Jordanian exporters to develop
effective strategies and revitalise their presence in these priority markets.

Jordanian sausage exporters face a landscape of non-tariff barriers in their priority Gulf markets. While the
benefit of preferential tariffs is advantageous, stringent GSO regulations, licensing restrictions, certification
and strict documentation requirements present administrative hurdles.

7
Product
overview

8
Production and consumption
The global average production volume of sausages, measured in billion kilograms, exhibits a gradual decline
from 15.09 billion kilograms in 2018 to 13.82 billion kilograms in 2022.1 However, there is a slight recovery in
subsequent years, reaching 14.35 billion kilograms in 2024. By 2028, the production volume is projected to be
15.54 billion kilograms. Overall, sausages production shows fluctuations but maintains a relatively stable trend
over the specified period.

16
15.54
15.5 15.09
In billion kilograms

15
14.55
14.5 14.31 14.35
14.00 14.07
14 13.82

13.5
13
12.5
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2028

Chart 1 Global sausage production from 2018 to 2028, in billion kilograms

In terms of consumption, the trend in the world’s average volume per capita of sausages from 2018 to 2028
shows a gradual decline. Starting at 2.1 kilograms in 2018, the consumption decreases consistently to 1.8
kilograms by 2022.2 However, there is a slight stabilisation from 2023 onwards, with the value remaining at 1.8
kilograms and then increasing to 1.9 kilograms in 2024 and 2028. Overall, sausages consumption per person
appears to be declining, but recent years show a subtle shift in this trend.

2.5
2.1
2.0
2 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9
1.8 1.8
In kilograms

1.5

0.5

0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2028

Chart 2 Global per capita sausage consumption 2018 – 2028, in kilograms

1
Statista. (2024). Processed Meat - Worldwide | Statista Market Forecast. [online] Available at:
https://www.statista.com/outlook/cmo/food/meat/processed-meat/worldwide
2
Ibid.

9
When considering world revenue, the United States dominates sales in the processed meat product and
sausage market with a significant lead, generating $38.9 million in revenue, almost double that of Germany in
second place at U$20.1 million.3 Additionally, Asia has a significant presence with Japan and China in the top
ten countries by revenue.

$45,000
$38,977
$40,000
$35,000
$30,000
$25,000
$20,167
$20,000 $15,538
$13,793
$15,000 $12,074 $11,006
$10,110 $9,892 $9,570
$10,000 $7,804
$5,000
$0
United Germany France Russia Mexico United Japan Italy Nigeria China
States Kingdom

Chart 3 Global meat product and sausage revenue by country in 2022, in $ million

3
Statista. (2023). Global: revenue of meat products & sausages.[online] Available at:
https://www.statista.com/forecasts/758689/revenue-of-the-meat-products-and-sausages-market-worldwide-by-country

10
Exports and imports
Germany and the United States dominate the global sausages export market by volume, accounting for 25%
($1.6 billion) of exports in 2022.4 Italy, Spain, and Poland together claim a 28% ($1.8 billion) share of the
global market. Between 2015 and 2022, the export value of sausages increased at a compound annual growth
rate (CAGR) of 6%, rising from $4.2 billion to $6.4 billion.5 Jordan’s exported sausages were valued at $2
million in 2022, reflecting a decline of roughly 36% from the previous year.

$0 $200,000 $400,000 $600,000 $800,000 $1,000,000

Germany $855,300

United States of America $747,114

Italy $717,083

Spain $633,012

Poland $481,229

Austria $369,745

Jordan $2,011

Chart 4 Top sausage exporters by value in 2022, in $‘000

The United Kingdom and Germany lead the world in sausage imports by value, together claiming 25% of global
trade in 2022.6 Their imports reached $796.8 million and $751.7 million, respectively. France, Belgium and
Canada follow in the global import standings, collectively contributing 16% to global imports. Mirroring the
export trend, sausages imports saw an increase of 6% CAGR increase, between 2015 and 2022, rising from
US$4.2 billion to US$6.2 billion.7

$0 $200,000 $400,000 $600,000 $800,000

United Kingdom $796,824

Germany $751,704
France $407,343
Belgium $352,499
Canada $266,385
Netherlands $248,050
Mexico $227,185
Jordan $3,563

Chart 5 Top sausages importers by value in 2022, in $‘000

4
ITC (2022). Trade Map - List of exporters for the selected product in 2022 (Sausages and similar products of meat, offal or blood; food preparations
based on these products). [online] Available at:
https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c1601%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c2%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1
5
The Compound Annual Growth Rate (% CAGR) has been calculated based on the annual growth rate of sausages global exports, utilising data
sourced from ITC spanning the years 2015 to 2022. This measurement gives us a yearly growth rate and a year-over-year average growth rate.
6
ITC (2022). Trade Map - List of importers for the selected product (Sausages and similar products, of meat, offal or blood; food preparations based
on these products). [online] Available at:
https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c1601%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1
7
The Compound Annual Growth Rate (% CAGR) has been calculated based on the annual growth rate of sausage global imports, utilising data from
ITC spanning 2015 to 2022.

11
Market
dynamics

12
Demand and supply trends
Low-fat sausages and the clean eating trend
The size of the world market for low-fat sausage was estimated at $2.5 billion in 2021 and is expected to
increase to $4.8 billion by 2031, with a CAGR of 6.7% from 2022 to 2031.8

Clean labels and easy-to-spot ingredients are gaining traction for consumers worldwide. Manufacturers are
taking note, opting for simple, minimally processed ingredients. Plant-based meats, for instance, exemplify this
clean label trend and are a key driver of the booming low-fat sausage market, fuelled by consumers' desire for
natural and transparent food options.9

Growing importance of plant-based sausages

The value of the plant-based sausage market is anticipated to grow from $1,228.1 million in 2023 to $12.9
million by 2033, which is a remarkable CAGR of 26.5%. The main factors driving the increased demand for
plant-based sausages are convenience, environmental, ethical, and health reasons.10

The rise of collagen casing sausages

The market for collagen casings, made from animal hide collagen, was estimated to be worth more than $1.4
billion in 2022 and is expected to almost double by 2033. The expansion is driven by the global increase in
meat consumption, attributed to the greater availability of processed meat and the widespread appeal of
sausages.

8
Allied Market Research. (2021). Low Fat Sausage Market Research, 2031. [online]. Available at:
https://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/low-fat-sausage-market-A31786
9
Ibid.
10
Future Market Insights (2023). Market Survey on Plant-based Sausages Market 2023 to 2033. [online] Available at:
https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/plant-based-sausages-market

13
Market concentration and product complexity
Market concentration.
A Shannon Entropy value of 4.47 in 2021 for sausages, HS code 1601 – as stated in this study – suggests a
fragmented market with no dominant player and potentially diverse offerings due to exports from around 22
countries.

Product complexity score.

In 2021, sausages fell within a middling complexity range on the PCI scale with a product complexity score of
0.21. This ranks them 486 out of 1024 in the HS4 classifications. Further supporting this, sausages also
demonstrate medium complexity at the HS6 level, with a product category score of just 0.01 for HS 160100
in 2021.

Regarding historical progress in the Product Complexity Index (PCI), sausages (HS 1601) show fluctuations
since 2012, with a score of 0.12 rising to 0.21 by 2021. trend continued after a peak score of 0.29 in 2016.

0.30 0.29

0.25 0.23
2021 Product complexity score

0.21 0.20 0.21

0.20
0.20 0.19
0.18 0.17

0.15 0.12

0.10

0.05

0.00
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

Chart 6 Sausage product complexity 2012 to 2021

11
OEC. (2021). Sausages. [online] Available at: https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/sausages
12
Ibid.

14
World trade statistics by sausage
category on the HS6 level
Colour key
Jordan represents > 10% of 2022 world exports
Jordan represents > 1% and <5% of 2022 world exports
Jordan represents > 0% and <1% of 2022 world exports
Exports from Jordan not in evidence in 2022

2022 top 2022 top Jordan’s

2022 world Jordan 2022 share in
HS Code export value import value
exports export value global export
and territory and territory markets
160100 $3.9 billion $855.3 million $796.8 million $2 million 0.05%
Sausages and similar products, of Germany United
meat, meat offal, blood or insects Kingdom

Table 1 Sausages export and import statistics and Jordan export market share

15
HS 1601 in the context of Jordanian exports
According to the Department of Statistics (DoS), Jordan’s total sausage exports to the world have been
declining over the years, starting at $8.6 million in 2018 and decreasing to $2 million in 2022.13 14

Major markets for Jordan’s sausage HS 1601 exports in the last five years
Jordan’s exports to top partner countries are significantly downward trending. Exports to Iraq peaked at around
$1 million in 2020 but declined to $896,000 in 2022.15 Similarly, exports to Qatar experienced a substantial
decrease from $1.8 million in 2018 to $356,932 in 2021, followed by a moderate recovery to $613,406 in
2022. Additionally, exports to the UAE witnessed a steady decline from $1.9 million in 2018 to $567,963 in
2022, while exports to Saudi Arabia saw a decrease from $2.4 in 2018 million to $361,704 by 2022.

$9,000,000

$8,000,000
World
$7,000,000
Iraq
$6,000,000
Export value in $

Qatar
$5,000,000
United Arab Emirates
$4,000,000
Saudi Arabia
$3,000,000 Lebanon
$2,000,000 Bahrain

$1,000,000 Oman

$0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Chart 7 Leading markets by import value for Jordan's sausage exports, in $

13
Dos. (2022). External trade yearly by Kind of Trade, Unit, Country, Commodity and Time. 2017-2022.[online] Available at:
https://jorinfo.dos.gov.jo/Databank/pxweb/en/DOS_Database/START__03__0302/EXTRD_Y/table/tableViewLayout2/
14
Discrepancies have been identified between Jordan's export values for HS code 1601 and the corresponding import values reported by importing
countries.
15
Dos. (2022). External trade yearly by Kind of Trade, Unit, Country, Commodity and Time. 2017-2022.[online] Available at:
https://jorinfo.dos.gov.jo/Databank/pxweb/en/DOS_Database/START__03__0302/EXTRD_Y/table/tableViewLayout2/

16
 Priority
markets

17
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia macroeconomic overview
Saudi Arabia, pursuing Vision 2030 reforms, was the
fastest-growing G20 economy in 2022, with a rise of 8.7%.
This was driven by increases in oil production and growth in
the non-oil GDP. This growth was prompted by private
consumption and non-oil private investments, including
large-scale infrastructure projects. As a result, the country is
advancing economically, marked by record-low unemployment
rates and limited inflation.16

Saudi Arabia sausage consumption

Data on Saudi Arabia sausage consumption was unavailable
at the time of writing this report.

Saudi Arabia sausage imports

Saudi Arabia's sausage imports experienced significant
fluctuations between 2018 and 2022. After falling from
$103 million in 2018 to $59 million in 2019, they rebounded
to reach $104 million in 2022.17 The United Arab Emirates
and Jordan dominated with a combined 75% share of
imports in 2022, followed by Malaysia and France.

$120,000

$100,000
Import value $'000

$80,000 World
United Arab Emirates
$60,000
Jordan
$40,000 Malaysia
France
$20,000

$0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Chart 8 Saudi Arabia sausage import values, top exporters, 2018 to 2022

16
IMF. (2023). Saudi Arabia: 2023 Article IV Consultation-Press Release.
17
ITC (2022). Trade Map - List of supplying markets for the products imported by Saudi Arabia in 2022. [online] Available at:
https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c682%7c%7c%7c%7c1601%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1

18
In 2022, Saudi Arabia’s imports of sausage in dollars per ton, were valued at $3,921 per ton at its average
import prices and ranged from $2,052 per ton to as high as $5,370 per ton across the top four supplying
countries. Jordanian sausage was the highest cost and French, the lowest.18

$6,000

$5,000
Import value in $ per ton

$4,000 World
United Arab Emirates
$3,000
Jordan

$2,000 Malaysia
France
$1,000

$0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Chart 9 Saudi Arabia sausage imports from main supplying countries, in $ per ton

Saudi Arabia sausage imports from Jordan

Saudi Arabia’s import of sausages from Jordan showed a significant increase between 2018 and 2022. The
value of imports rose from $4,480 in 2018 to $33,840 in 2022, representing a CAGR of 33%.19

$40,000

$35,000 $33,840

$30,000

$25,000 $22,504

$20,000 $18,004

$15,000

$10,000
$4,480 $4,776
$5,000

$0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Chart 10 Saudi Arabia sausage imports from Jordan

Saudi Arabia’s trade agreements with Jordan

There are no specific bilateral trade agreements between Saudi Arabia and Jordan. However, there are broader
agreements, as both nations are members of wider regional trade initiatives that might facilitate trade. These
include:

Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA), 1997. Saudi Arabia and Jordan are members of GAFTA, which was
established under the umbrella of the Arab League. The agreement aims to create a free trade area among Arab
countries by reducing and eliminating tariffs and trade barriers among member states. GAFTA includes 18 Arab
countries and promotes increased trade and economic integration in the region.
18
ITC (2022). Trade Map - List of supplying markets for a product imported by Saudi Arabia. [online] Available at:
https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c682%7c%7c%7c%7c1601%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c2%7c3%7c1%7c1
19
ITC (2022). Trade Map - Bilateral trade between Saudi Arabia and Jordan. [online] Available at:
https://www.trademap.org/Bilateral_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c682%7c%7c400%7c%7c1601%7c%7c%7c6%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1

19
Saudi Arabia PESTEL analysis
Politics
Saudi Arabia is a monarchy with strong central governance, where political stability is a key feature. As a central
player in the Middle East, its foreign policies and relations, especially within the Gulf Cooperation Council
(GCC) have significant regional implications.

Saudi Arabia and Jordan have worked closely on regional and international issues and are seen as having
model diplomatic relations. The two nations for example share a similar political viewpoint with major regional
concerns such as Palestine, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen.

Economics
At 8.7% growth in 2022, Saudi Arabia led the G20 nations, supported by oil and non-oil revenues, private
consumption, and non-oil private investment.

Saudi Arabia is furthermore Jordan’s largest economic partner, with investments exceeding $13 billion. Trade
between the two countries reached around $5 billion in 2021. Saudi Arabia has also been a major donor to
Jordan, providing substantial financial assistance, including a recent direct funding of $50 million as part of a
larger economic aid package agreed upon in 2018.

Social
Saudi Arabian consumers’ preference lean towards frozen-ready meals for convenience, minimal nutritional
loss, and extended shelf life, boosting demand for meat-based options across marketplaces.20

KSA's income growth, especially among young professionals and health-conscious families, drives demand for
premium imported foods, influenced by shifting taste preferences towards healthy options.21

Technology
Saudi Arabia's e-commerce boom is skyrocketing. Revenue is expected to hit $13.7 billion by year-end 2023
and nearly double to $23.5 billion by 2027, fuelled by a 14% annual growth rate. Over 34.5 million Saudis will
be online shoppers by 2025, with e-commerce reaching nearly 75% of the population by 2027.22

Environment
Saudi Arabia is exposed to a number of environmental concerns. The region is particularly vulnerable to climate
change, with threats like desertification putting 70 – 90% of land at risk. That said, steps are underway to
combat desertification and expand green areas.

Legal
All imported goods, including food and other products, must comply with strict technical regulations and
standards set by the Saudi Standards and Metrology Organization (SASO).23 The HS 1601 import tariff for
Jordan is between 0% and 10%. There are no specific bilateral trade agreements between Saudi Arabia and
Jordan. However, both nations are members of wider regional trade initiatives such as The Greater Arab Free
Trade Area (GAFTA) that facilitate trade between member nations, including Saudi Arabia and Jordan.

20
Mordorintelligence.com. (2024). Saudi Arabia Ready Meals Market Trends. [online] Available at:
https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/saudi-arabia-ready-meals-market-industry/market-trends
21
Baig, Mirza Barjees, et al. (2022). Food Waste in Saudi Arabia: Causes, Consequences, and Combating Measures. Sustainability, 14(16), 10362.
22
Deloitte. (2023). Unlocking the eCommerce potential for Saudi Arabian SMEs in a post-Covid world. p.5. [online] Available at:
https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/xe/Documents/consumer-business/me_unlocking-eCommerce-potential-for-saudi-arabian-SMEs-in-a-post-Covid-world.pdf
23
Trade.gov (2024). Saudi Arabia - Standards for Trade. [online] Available at:
https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/saudi-arabia-standards-trade#:~:text=SASO%20has%20specific%20requirements%20for,meet%20established%20shelf%2Dlife%20requirements.

20
Saudi Arabia sausage suppliers and distributors

Almunajem: Over 70 years of experience importing and distributing food in Saudi. They reach over 18,000
outlets with their extensive network of warehouses and partnerships with 60+ established international
suppliers. The company distributes sausage brands, including Doux and Dari.
Website: https://almunajemfoods.com/about/

Americana: The Kuwait Food Company, doing business as the Americana Group, is a Kuwaiti food company
headquartered in Sharjah City. It operates food products throughout the Middle East and North Africa region.
Website: https://www.americanafoods.com/

Sadia: A global food giant, BRF Sadia, known for its Sadia brand, operates in a staggering 117 countries,
offering a diverse array of products from whole chicken and parts to ready-to-prepare meals, fries, frozen
vegetables, and sausages. Website: https://www.sadia-life.com/en

Seara: A leading chicken and beef producer with a growing global presence. The company manufactures,
markets, and distributes frozen products, including sausages. Website: https://www.searafoodsme.com/

Zamil Food Industries: A Saudi Arabian distribution company, operating in two sectors, meat and dairy.
Website: https://www.zamilfood.com/

Exhibitions and trade fairs in Saudi Arabia

Dates Exhibition name City Country Website

12 to 15 August 2024 Saudi Food Expo 2024 Riyadh Saudi Arabia https://www.saudifoodexpo.com/

12 to 14 May 2025 The Saudi Food Show Riyadh Saudi Arabia https://www.thesaudifoodshow.com/

21
 The United Arab Emirates
United Arab Emirates macroeconomic overview
GDP growth of 3.5% is estimated for 2023 in the
United Arab Emirates, following 7.4% growth in
2022.24 Inflation is currently projected at 3.4%. The
implementation of an IMF reform is further expected to
limit medium-term growth.25

Economic growth is forecasted to slow, though

support exists due to strong oil pricing and economic
policies focused on foreign investment, which are
intended to aid diversification strategies.

United Arab Emirates sausage consumption

Data on United Arab Emirates sausage consumption
was unavailable at the time of writing this report.

United Arab Emirates sausage imports

The total value of sausage imports climbed from $26
million in 2018 to $31 million in 2022, highlighting
sustained demand.26 In 2022, the Philippines remained
the largest trade partner with exports valued $3.7
million. While it faced a temporary setback in 2019,
Jordan, the Emirate’s second largest importer in 2022,
achieved trade worth $2.8 million. Trailing closely
behind, Turkey, Canada, and Italy also secured top category export positions

$35,000

$30,000

$25,000 World
Import value $'000

Philippines
$20,000
Jordan
$15,000 Turkey
$10,000 Canada
Italy
$5,000

$0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Chart 11 United Arab Emirates sausage import values, top exporters, 2018 to 2022

24
IMF. (2023). IMF Country Reports: United Arab Emirates.
25
Ibid.
26
ITC (2022). Trade Map - List of supplying markets for a product imported by United Arab Emirates. [online] Available at:
https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c784%7c%7c%7c%7c1601%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1

22
From 2018 to 2022, the average price of imported sausages to the Emirates, declined across all countries
dipping from $3,438 per ton to $2,961.27 While some territories, such as Italy and the Philippines, maintained
consistent pricing and market share, others, like Turkey, experienced significant price fluctuations and shifts in
ranking. Despite an initial price dip in 2019, Jordan consistently ranked among the top three suppliers and saw
its average price steadily climb to $3,649 per ton by 2022.

$14,000

$12,000
Import value in $ per ton

$10,000 World
$8,000 Philippines

$6,000 Jordan
Turkey
$4,000
Italy
$2,000

$0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Chart 12 UAE sausage imports from main supplying countries, in $ per ton

27
ITC (2022). Trade Map - List of supplying markets for a product imported by United Arab Emirates. [online] Available at:
https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c784%7c%7c%7c%7c1601%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c2%7c3%7c1%7c1

23
United Arab Emirates sausage imports from Jordan
Jordan's sausage exports to the UAE saw a sharp drop from $2.2 million in 2018 to $1.3 million in 2019.28
However, recovery ensued, culminating in a 2022 figure of $2.8 million.

$3,000 $2,828

$2,500
$2,221
$1,968
$2,000
$1,714

$1,500 $1,267

$1,000

$500

$0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Chart 13 United Arab Emirates sausage imports from Jordan.

United Arab Emirates trade agreements with Jordan

There are no specific bilateral trade agreements between the United Arab Emirates and Jordan. However, both
nations are members of wider regional trade initiatives that might facilitate trade. These include:

Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA), 1997. The United Arab Emirates and Jordan are members of GAFTA,
which was established under the umbrella of the Arab League. The agreement aims to create a free trade area
among Arab countries by reducing and eliminating tariffs and trade barriers among member states. GAFTA
includes 18 Arab countries and promotes increased trade and economic integration in the region

Industrial Partnership for Sustainable Economic Growth, 2022. Though not an agreement, this initiative has
overseen deals of more than $2 billion, and involves the UAE, Egypt, Bahrain, and Jordan. It aims to foster
industrial cooperation in sectors such as agriculture, fertilisers, food, minerals, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals
and textiles. 29

28
ITC (2022). Trade Map - Existing and potential trade between United Arab Emirates and Jordan. [online] Available at:
https://www.trademap.org/Bilateral_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c784%7c%7c400%7c%7c1601%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%
7c1%7c1
29
Jordan Times (Feb 26,2023) Prime Minister opens 3rd meeting of Higher Committee of Industrial Partnership in Amman:[online] Available at:
https://jordantimes.com/news/local/pm-opens-3rd-meeting-higher-committee-industrial-partnership-amman

24
United Arab Emirates PESTEL analysis
Politics
The United Arab Emirates benefits from political stability, which has helped advance business and economic
development. The country’s active foreign policy, particularly its relations within the Gulf Cooperation Council
and with global powers, has defined its international status.

Political relations between the United Arab Emirates and Jordan are defined by deep-rooted connections,
focusing on cooperation, strategic partnerships, and regional stability.

Economics
With a 7.4% incline in GDP during 2022, the United Arab Emirates, benefits from a strong economy, 29th
largest in the world, that continues on a path of diversification away from oil to other sectors including tourism,
transport and private investment. GDP in 2022 was $507.5 billion and GDP per capita was $53,800.
Economic relations between the United Arab Emirates and Jordan are robust, focusing on investment, develop-
ment, and industrial cooperation.

Social
Social relations between the United Arab Emirates and Jordan are defined by close historical roots and joint
efforts in areas like education, and regular high-level interactions, underscoring the strong and multifaceted ties
between the two nations.
A multicultural society, with a large expatriate population, very good infrastructure and high living standards.

Technology
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) stands out as the frontrunner in eCommerce within the Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) region. In 2020, the UAE witnessed a remarkable surge of 53% in its eCommerce market,
reaching a record high of $3.9 billion in sales. This impressive figure translates to 10% of the country's total
retail sales. Furthermore, the Dubai Chamber of Commerce and Industry predicts even further growth, with
eCommerce sales anticipated to reach $8 billion by 2025. This optimistic outlook is fuelled by the UAE's
near-universal internet and mobile phone penetration, with almost the entire population having access to these
technologies.

Environment
Sustainable packaging solutions and waste management practices can be a competitive advantage, especially as
the UAE tackles water scarcity and resource limitations. Moreover, capitalizing on the UAE's growing interest in
sustainability by offering environmentally friendly products can unlock further market potential. By embracing an
eco-conscious approach, Jordanian exporters can not only cater to evolving consumer preferences but also
secure a long-term niche in the UAE's food tech future.

Legal
The UAE strengthened its intellectual property (IP) framework in 2021 with new patent and trademark laws, and
by joining the Madrid Protocol. They also increased penalties for commercial fraud. The UAE's IP laws are aligned
with the wider GCC region. Additionally, the UAE updated its trade remedy legislation to comply with international
standards and introduced its own independent mechanism.

Strict import regulations, particularly around labelling and halal certification, demand meticulous compliance.
Meeting the UAE’s high food safety and hygiene standards is non-negotiable, while protecting intellectual proper-
ty and adhering to ethical sourcing practices ensure a strong brand image.

25
United Arab Emirates sausage suppliers and distributors

Al Masa.: Dubai-based meat processor acquired by Siniora in 2016, specialises in diverse individual quick
freezing (IQF) chicken (breasts, wings, lollipops) and custom marinated/grilled/cooked chicken, beef, turkey.
Website: https://www.almasadubai.com/

Freshly Frozen Foods.: Freshly Frozen Foods is a leading UAE foodservice supplier renowned for its extensive
portfolio of high-quality, innovative ingredients, including NO MDM (mechanically deboned meat) meats,
seafood, and global flavours. Featuring two state-of-the-art processing units spanning 110,000 square feet, the
company boasts four dedicated lines for poultry, seafood, vegetables, and meat, with an annual production
capacity of 15,000 metric tons. Website: https://freshlyfoodservice.com/index.php

JMM Meat Processing LLC.: Headquartered in the UAE, this company specialises in premium meat, poultry,
and seafood. They source their products from world-renowned brands and selected suppliers, catering to the
HORECA market (hotels, restaurants, and catering) across the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and neighbouring
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states. Website: https://jmmmeat.com/

Sadia.: A global food giant, BRF Sadia, known for its Sadia brand, operates in a staggering 117 countries,
offering a diverse array of products from whole chicken and parts to ready-to-prepare meals, fries, frozen
vegetables, and sausages. Website: https://www.sadia-life.com/en

Exhibitions and trade fairs in the United Arab Emirates

Dates Exhibition name City Country Website

17 to 21 February 2025 Gulfood 2025 Dubai United Arab https://www.gulfood.com/register-interest-2025

Emirates

26
Qatar
Qatar macroeconomic overview
Qatar's economy, while navigating a period of slower
growth compared to previous years, remains resilient.
Its GDP stands at $246.36 billion, demonstrating
continued economic strength. Despite a moderate
2.2% real GDP growth in 2023, projections for 2024
indicate a slight uptick to 2.4%.30 This slower growth
is partly balanced by a manageable inflation rate of
2.3%, offering stability for both businesses and
consumers. However, the Qatari economy remains
heavily reliant on its vast natural gas reserves, making
it vulnerable to global energy price fluctuations. With a
relatively small population of 2.9 million, the domestic
market presents both limitations and opportunities for
businesses, requiring strategic targeting of niche
sectors and competitive pricing.

Qatar sausage consumption

Data on Qatar sausage consumption was unavailable
at the time of writing this report.

Qatar sausage imports

Qatar's total sausage import value from partner countries plummeted by over 50% between 2018 and 2022,
plunging from $24.6 million to $11.6 million.31 In 2022, Turkey emerged as Qatar's top trade partner for
sausages, exporting a value of $5.8 million. The United States followed with exports totalling $1.1 million.

$30,000

$25,000
World
Import value in $'000

$20,000
Turkey

$15,000 United States of America

Brazil
$10,000
Oman

$5,000 Jordan

$0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Chart 14 Qatar sausage import values, top exporters, 2018 to 2022

30
IMF. (2024). Qatar and the IMF. [online] Available at: https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/QAT
31
ITC (2022). Trade Map - List of supplying markets for a product imported by Qatar. [online] Available at:
https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c634%7c%7c%7c%7c1601%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1

27
From 2019 to 2022, the average import price per ton reached its highest point in 2022 at $6,077 and its
lowest in 2021 at $2,210.32 Throughout the period, the United States remained the highest cost supplier.
Brazil, Oman, and Jordan exhibited mixed trends, with price fluctuations varying across the years.

$7,000

$6,000 World

$5,000 Turkey
Import value $'000

United States of America

$4,000
Brazil
$3,000 Oman

$2,000 Jordan
Philippines
$1,000
France
$0
2019 2020 2021 2022

Chart 15 Qatar sausage imports from main supplying countries, in $ per ton

Qatar sausage imports from Jordan

Qatar's import value of sausage from Jordan experienced a dramatic decrease of over 47% between 2018 and
2022, from S$1.2 in 2018 to S$659,000.33

$1,400 $1,274
$1,246
$1,200
$1,026
$1,000

$800
$659
$600

$400
$218
$200

$0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Chart 16 Qatar sausage imports from Jordan.

32
ITC (2022). Trade Map - List of supplying markets for a product imported by Qatar. [online] Available at:
https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c634%7c%7c%7c%7c1601%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c2%7c3%7c1%7c1
33
ITC (2022). Trade Map - Existing and potential trade between Qatar and Jordan. [online] Available at:
https://www.trademap.org/Bilateral_TS.aspx?nvpm=1%7c634%7c%7c400%7c%7c1601%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1

28
Qatar’s trade agreements with Jordan
There are no specific bilateral free trade agreements between the Qatar and Jordan. However, both nations
have bilateral trade and economic agreement and are members of wider regional trade initiatives that might
facilitate trade. These include:

Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA), 1997. Qatar and Jordan are members of GAFTA, which was
established under the umbrella of the Arab League. The agreement aims to create a free trade area among Arab
countries by reducing and eliminating tariffs and trade barriers among member states. GAFTA includes 18 Arab
countries and promotes increased trade and economic integration in the region.34

The Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) between Qatar and Jordan, 2009. The treaty came into force in May
2018. It aims to promote and protect investments from parties of either country and includes provisions that
ensure non-discriminatory treatment, protection against expropriation, and compensation for losses due to war
or other armed conflict, revolution, or state of emergency. It also provides mechanisms for the resolution of
investment disputes, which includes arbitration under international guidelines.35

34
WTO. (1997). Arab Free Trade Area Agreement (1997). [online] Available at:
https://rtais.wto.org/UI/PublicShowMemberRTAIDCard.aspx?rtaid=16
35
Unctad- Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs), Jordan - Qatar BIT (2009), available at:
https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/international-investment-agreements/treaties/bit/2177/jordan---qatar-bit-2009-

29
Qatar PESTEL analysis
Politics
Qatar fosters a favourable environment for foreign investors and businesses through its stable and robust politi-
cal system, featuring a constitutional monarchy and a hereditary succession. Additionally, its membership in key
regional and international organizations like the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), the Organization of Islamic
Cooperation (OIC), and the Arab League enhances its trade relations and cooperation with other countries.

Economics
Qatar boasts a highly attractive tax regime, featuring no personal income tax, corporate tax, or value-added tax,
alongside competitive incentives and benefits for foreign investors and businesses. This approach complements
Qatar National Vision 2030, an ambitious diversification strategy aiming to develop non-oil sectors like manufac-
turing, tourism, finance, education, and healthcare. Per capita GDP amounted to US$87,661 in 2022. 36

Social
As of December 2023, Qatar’s total population reached 2.9 million.37 Qatar boasts a young and adventurous
demographic, with a median age of 34. This translates to eager consumers open to exploring new brands and
products. However, even with their high incomes, value for money remains paramount, especially for the signifi-
cant immigrant workforce. Brands must strike a delicate balance between offering exciting novelty and competi-
tive pricing to succeed in this dynamic market.38

Technology
Qatar's digital transformation is gaining momentum, fuelled by a government pushing for modern tech in public
services. This commitment, coupled with a youthful population (67% within the 15 years to 44 years age group)
deeply interested in online shopping, has nurtured a vibrant e-commerce ecosystem. Valued at $1.5 billion in
2019, this sector is poised for further growth, supported by widespread credit card adoption among the 87%
of businesses.39

Environment
Qatari consumers stand out for their strong preference for locally made products, and they prioritise environmental,
social, and governance (ESG) factors more than the global average when making purchasing decisions.40

Legal
Qatar's legal landscape undergoes a transformation, fostering a more conducive environment for foreign trade
and investment. Significant efforts have been made to enhance transparency and streamline administrative
processes. E-government portals dedicated to trade, legal matters, and e-commerce offer convenient access
to information, fostering greater clarity and predictability. Restructuring of ministries and agencies has created
dedicated entities like the Investment Promotion Agency and the General Tax Authority, improving efficiency
and support for foreign businesses. Law No.1 of 2019 significantly liberalises foreign direct investment (FDI)
regulations, allowing full ownership (up from 49%) in most economic sectors.41

36
World Bank. (2024). GDP per capita (current US$) - Qatar [online] Available at:
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=QA
37
Psa.gov.qa. (2023). Monthly Figures on Total Population. [online] Available at:
https://www.psa.gov.qa/en/statistics1/StatisticsSite/pages/population.aspx
38
Export Connect. (2022). Qatar: A Small Market Buzzing With Strong Export Potential. [online]. Available at:
https://exportconnect.com.au/qatar-a-small-market-buzzing-with-strong-export-potential/
39
Trade.gov (2022). Qatar - eCommerce. [online] Available at: https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/qatar-ecommerce
40
PwC. (2022). Qatar’s consumers think local, regional and global: 2022 Global Consumer Insights Pulse Survey. [online] Available at:
https://www.pwc.com/m1/en/media-centre/2022/2022-global-consumer-insights-pulse-survey-qatar-findings.html
41
WTO. (2021). Trade Policy Review: Qatar. Summary. [online] Available at: https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/s408_sum_e.pdf

30
Qatar sausage suppliers and distributors

Al Qusaimi Meat Co. One of the leading providers of meats, including Australian beef, lamb, veal, and mutton
for the Qatari market. It imports, distributes, and processes its meat for hypermarkets, hotels, hospitals, catering
companies, and butcheries throughout Qatar. Website: https://www.alqusaimi.com/

Qatar Meat Production Company.: A local company that produces and supplies various meat products, such
as frankfurter sausages, mortadella, salami, and luncheon meat.
Website: https://www.qmart.qa/product.php?id=2613

Mena Group.: A local company that imports and distributes various food products, including meats, poultry,
seafood, dairy, and frozen food, from different countries, such as Australia, Brazil, India, and Turkey.
Website: https://menagroup.qa/

Exhibitions and trade fairs in Qatar

Dates Exhibition name City Country Website

12-14 November, 2024 Hospitality Qatar Doha Qatar http://www.hospitalityqatar.qa/

2024

31
Recommendations

32
Recommendations in summary
Jordanian sausage exporters should have good opportunities in the priority Gulf markets. Saudi Arabia, the
United Arab Emirates and Qatar offer strong potential driven by several converging factors, including growing
populations, rising disposable incomes, changing lifestyles dependent on convenience foods and in the case
of the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia at least, significant tourism sectors.

Jordan's proximity to these markets offers a logistical advantage, allowing potentially lower transportation costs
compared to more distant suppliers. Equally, preferential trade agreements defined through GAFTA offer
Jordanian exporters administrative and cost customs advantages, enhancing their competitiveness.

Exporters can take heed of specific preferences within each market, tailoring product offerings and marketing
strategies to cater to tastes and price sensitivities. Importantly, identifying fitting distribution channels are
critical factors to consider, in order to achieve long-term gains.

33
Reference
information

34
Priority markets tariff and non-tariff barriers
Saudi Arabia

35
The United Arab Emirates

36
Abu Dhabi Food Control Authority. General Food Labelling Requirements
Link:
https://www.adafsa.gov.ae/English/PolicyAndLegislations/Guidelines/Documents/General%20Food%20Labelling%20Requirements%20cop.pdf

Europe Direct. The Food and Beverage Market Entry Handbook: United Arab Emirates (UAE): a Practical
Guide to the Market in the UAE for European Agri-food Products
Link:
https://www.flandersinvestmentandtrade.com/export/sites/trade/files/market_studies/Market%20Entry%20Food%20and%20Beverage%20UAE.pdf

USDA. Food and Agricultural Import Regulations and Standards Country Report. United Arab Emirates
Link:
https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Food%20and%20Agricultural%20Import%20Regulations
%20and%20Standards%20Country%20Report_Dubai_United%20Arab%20Emirates_TC2022-0009.pdf

Global Trade Help Desk

Link: https://globaltradehelpdesk.org/en

ITC Market Access Map

Link: https://www.macmap.org/

37
Qatar

42
Trade.gov. (2023). Qatar - Import Requirements and Documentation. [online] Available at:
https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/qatar-import-requirements-and-documentation#:~:text=Import%20Licenses%3A%20All%20imported%20meats,Islamic%20center%20in%20that%20country.

38
Methodology

This material was produced by Manafeth Middle East Consulting & Technology with the
technical support of the Trade for Employment (T4E) project implemented by the Deutsche
Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH on behalf of the German Federal
Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and co-financed by the Kingdom
of the Netherlands.

39