GEOL 104 Introduction to Physical Geology
Dr. Thomas Seers
[email protected] / Room 204F
Earth Origins, Composition and Dynamics
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Earth Origins: learning objectives
We will be addressing frequently asked questions about planet
earth
• Uniformitarianism: present is key to the past
• What is the mechanical and chemical structure of our planet?
• What drives the evolution of the dynamic earth?
• What are the key components of the earth system?
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
How do we use geological knowledge to
Interpret the Earth’s history and structure?
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Uniformitarianism
• Modern geology is founded upon the recognition of this role of ‘deep
time’ in the formation of the Earth
• Post-Renaissance Europe: Earth formation based upon biblical
dogmatics (Catastrophism).
• It was held that the Earth was formed over a relatively short period of
time due to cataclysmic events (e.g. the Great Flood).
Sir James Hutton, 1726 – 1797
‘Father of Modern Geology’
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Uniformitarianism vs. Catastrophism
• Gentleman farmer and ‘Father of Modern Geology’, James Hutton,
challenged this view.
• Hutton (and later fellow British pioneers of geology John Playfair and
Charles Lyell) proposed that a state of temporal invariance exists with
respect to natural laws and processes…
‘The present is the key to the past…’
Sir James Hutton, 1726 – 1797
‘Father of Modern Geology’
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Uniformitarianism
• Processes are (generally) time invariant: a sand dune formed at any time
during the Phanerozoic (geological eon spanning the past 541 Ma) will have
the same basic characteristics
• This recognition that geological processes tend to be slow, incremental and
time invariant led to a paradigm shift in the way mankind views its place in
the earth’s history, giving rise to the concept of ‘deep time’
Ancient desert sand dunes, Jurassic Aged Navajo Sandstone, Utah, USA Theme
Modern dune formation, Sahara 1: Earth
Desert, Fundamentals
Libya
Hutton’s unconformity: Siccar point:
Berwickshire, near Edinburgh, East Scotland
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
James Ussher c. 1654 (Biblical)
Deep Time
6pm on 22 October 4004 BC (6 KA)
• As our understanding of geological processes and
rock physics has improved, the age of the Earth
has been pushed back to its current estimated
value of 4.54 billion years: we tend to deal in units
of mega-annum (1 Ma = 1000000 years). kilo-
Lord Kelvin c. 1860s-1890s
annum scale processes (1 Ka = 1000 years) is
(thermodynamic)
20 Ma – 400 Ma
considered to be ‘fast’
• In particular, advances in quantifying the decay
rates of fissile isotopes in rocks has been
instrumental in establishing current estimates
Clair Patterson c. 1956
(radiometric) 4540 Ma
• Early biblical based estimates still prevalent only
200 years ago would represent around 0.1 seconds
if we considered the earth’s age to correspond to a
single day
Do cataclysmic events matter over
geologic time?
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Importance of Cataclysmic Events
• We recognize however, that though physical processes may be relatively
constant, their rates may differ greatly over geological time
• We also recognize that high magnitude – low frequency events such as
bolide (meteorite) impacts, tsunamis, storms and volcanic eruptions can
leave a significant imprint upon the geological record
Modern Tsunamite Papua New Guinea (USGS) Chicxulub bolide crater, Gulf of Mexico Theme
Deccan Traps (Flood1:Basalts),
Earth Fundamentals
Central India
Study Area
Exceptions to Uniformitarianism?
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Biogenic Rock Forming Processes
• We need to be careful when applying strict uniformitarianism towards rock
forming processes which are the product of biological activity.
• The major types of rocks produced by these processes are carbonate
sedimentary rocks (formed by biochemical precipitation of calcium carbonate:
CaCO3). Note that these form the major reservoirs of the Middle East.
Modern day reef (Great Barrier Reef, Aus.) Permian age Capitan reef (260 Ma) Theme 1: Earth
Precambrian stromatolite Fundamentals
reef (550 Ma)
What is the story behind
the earth’s formation?
?
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Planetary Accretion
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Chrondrules
1
• Chondrules are spheroidal objects found the major class of meteorites (chondrites) along with
iron nickel meteorites
• Understood to have formed within the accretion disc through condensation of the nebular gas
cloud
• Larger bodies (1-10km diameter) known as planetesimals formed initially from cohesion of dust
and chrondules (weak electrostatic forces) then rapid gravitational collapse of dense clumps of
chrondules (Keuper Belt = failed planetesimals)
1mm Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Why does is Earth’s structure
layered?
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Violent and Rapid Planetary Accretion
1
• The final stage of accretion has been described as 'runaway accretion‘
• Planetesimals are swept up into well defined zones around the sun which approximate to the
present orbits of the terrestrial planets
• The giant-impact hypothesis (Theia Hypothesis) suggests that the Moon formed out of the debris
tail left over from a collision between Earth and an astronomical body the size of Mars,
approximately 4.5 billion years ago (Hadiean Eon)
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Chemical Differentiation
1
• ‘The Great Iron Catastrophe’ – occurred when the temperature of the planet reached, and passed, the
melting point of iron (1538°C). Post rapid accretion phase.
• Organized earth with the internal layers that characterize the modern planet.
• When the melting point was reached, droplets of liquid iron, one of Earth’s most abundant elements
(about 35% overall) + high atomic number elements (esp. Nickel), flowed towards the planet’s
interior under gravity. Compounds of lighter elements rich in silicon (Si), oxygen (O), and other light
elements (i.e., Al, Na, Ca, K) were displaced toward the surface.
Crustal vs. Whole
Earth Elemental
Abundance
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Atmosphere and Oceans
• Earth's first atmosphere 4.6 billion years ago was most likely comprised of hydrogen and helium (two
1
most abundant gases found in the universe). Dissipated by solar winds
• Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late bombardment of earth
(comets, iron and chrondrites), produced the proto-atmosphere: Na + CO2 + inert gases + proto ocean
• Sedimentary evidence of running water c. 3800 Ma / Evidence of life c. 3.4 Ma
• Free oxygen introduced c. 2.4 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event: oxygen produced
by photosynthesis prior to this was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials (esp. iron)
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Chemical and Mechanical
Structure of the Earth
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Chemical and Mechanical
Structure of the Earth
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
The Earth’s Interior
• Differentiation has resulted in a planetary structure which is layered both rheologically,
mechanically and chemically
• Classification of the Earth’s structure based upon chemical properties:
- the crust (silicate rich outermost layer)
- the mantle (> Ma:Fe / < Si / Al than the crust - divided into upper and lower mantle)
- the core (mostly Fe / Ni: divided into inner / outer through acoustic + rheological properties)
Increasingly temperatures
Increasingly silicate rich
Increasingly pressure
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
The Earth’s Interior
• The crust and the uppermost mantle also form a single mechanical unit know as the
lithosphere (from Greek lithos ‘rock’ + “sphere”). This is the rigid outer shell of the planet
which is subdivided into tectonic plates.
• Below this lies the asthenosphere (from Greek asthenḗs 'weak' + "sphere") which forms a
second mechanical unit. The asthenosphere is ductile and experiences plastic flow
• The rigid lithosphere is thought to "float" / move about on the slowly flowing asthenosphere
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Evidence of the Earth’s Internal Structure
1 • Deepest drill hole (Kola Superdeep Borehole) = 12 km
• Some evidence comes from parts of the upper mantle exposed at the surface (Ophiolites)
• Most evidence is indirect (geochemical analysis of meteorites, experimental rock
deformation, analysis of seismic waves propagated through the Earth*)
• Two types of seismic waves propagate through the Earth: P (primary/compressional)
waves and S (secondary) waves: these response to material density and rheology
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Evidence of the Earth’s Internal Structure
1 • Seismic waves are reflected / refracted (deflected) at interfaces which separate materials
with different properties (esp. density)
• S-waves cannot travel through liquids: S-wave shadow zone evidences a liquid outer core
• Refraction of P-waves at the mantle-core boundary (D” Layer) can be used to estimate the
size and the shape of the core
• Seismic velocity jumps at around 410 and 660 km indicate mineral / chemical changes
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
The Earth’s interior layers in
detail
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
The Earth’s Crust
• As engineers, as your activities will be concerned with the crustal rocks (these comprise < 1% of the
entire Earth’s volume but contain all economically extractable resources)
• The crust is subdivided into continental crust and oceanic crust
• Continental crust: lower density (µρ = 2.7 g/cm3) / composed of more felsic silicate rocks (> feldspar /
quartz) / often abbreviated SiAl (rich in aluminum silicate rocks) / thicker (25 - 70 km)
• Oceanic crust: higher density (µρ = 2.9 g/cm3) / composed of more mafic rocks (> magnesium / iron
rich silicate rocks) / often abbreviated SiMa (Silicon-Magnesium) / thinner (often < 10 km)
• Boundary between the crust and the mantle is defined by a abrupt acceleration in seismic waves
velocities (Mohorovicic = higher ρ mantle)
0
Depth (km)
50 Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Plate Tectonics Preview
• The Earth’s crust is subdivided up into seven major tectonic plates: African plate, Antarctic plate,
Eurasian plate, Indo-Australian plate, North American plate, Pacific plate, South American plate.
• These are not static: they experience constant (slow) motion driven by tectonic forces from within
the Earth (typically 10 mm – 100 mm per year)
• The nature of plate movements with respect to each other at their boundaries gives rise to three
basic configurations of plate margin: convergent, divergent and transform
• Plate boundaries are the locus of volcanism and seismicity and govern sedimentary basin formation
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Plate Margins
• Convergent Margin: two plates vector towards one another – compression. This is also
known as a destructive margin.
• Divergent Margin: two plates vector away from each other – tension. This is also known as
a constructive margin.
• Transform margin: two plates slide past one another – shear. This is also known as a
conservative margin
• It should be noted that these configurations are a major simplification
Convergent Divergent Transform
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Plate Tectonics Preview
• As engineers, as your activities will be concerned with the crustal rocks (these comprise < 1% of
the entire Earth’s volume but contain all economically extractable resources)
• The crust is subdivided into continental crust and oceanic crust
• Continental crust: lower density (µρ = 2.7 g/cm3) / composed of more felsic silicate rocks (>
feldspar / quartz) / often abbreviated SiAl (rich in aluminum silicate rocks) / thicker (25 - 70 km)
• Oceanic crust: higher density (µρ = 2.9 g/cm3) / composed of more mafic rocks (> magnesium /
iron rich silicate rocks) / often abbreviated SiMa (Silicon-Magnesium) / thinner (often < 10 km)
0
Depth (km)
50
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
What Drives the Movements of
the Earth’s Tectonic Plates?
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
The Mantle
• Note that the mantle IS composed of ROCK. It does contain melt inclusions but these are small
• Distinct changes in minerology between the crust and the Mantle indicated by an abrupt increase in
acoustic velocities at the Moho Discontinuity: due to higher density rocks (loss of Si / Al)
• It is divided into two (upper and lower) separated by a transition zone based upon seismic properties
- Upper mantle (starting at the Moho: 7 to 35 km downward to 410 km
- Transition zone (410–660 km)
- Lower mantle (660–2,891 km)
Mantle = 84%
of the Earth’s
volume
Samail Ophiolite, Oman (agu.org) Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
The Earth’s Internal Heat Engine
• Heat engine (from thermodynamics): a system that converts thermal energy into useful
work (mechanical energy). Heat in the earth is from radiogenic and primordial sources
• Heat from within the planet drives the movement of plates, creates earthquakes and
tsunamis and is fundamental to the formation of petroleum (thermal maturation)
• Heat is transferred through the mantle from the core by ‘convection’: hot buoyant material
moves up – cold denser material moves down. Note that the mantle is largely solid: ductile
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Costin, S.O. and Butler, S.L., 2006. Modelling the effects of
internal heating in the core and lowermost mantle on the Earth’s
magnetic history. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors,
157(1-2), pp.55-71.
Earth’s Interior
1 • Advances in seismic data processing are now revealing spectacular images of the Earth’s
interior: whole Earth seismic tomography
• Uses forward modelling on high performance computing (HPC) servers
• Reveals mantle processes are more chaotic than conceptual models of mantel convection
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
The Core
• The Earth’s core is believed to be composed of a mixture of iron and nickel: this is based
upon density considerations given measured gravitational attraction at the Earth’s surface
and the ‘known’ densities of the Earth’s crust and mantle.
• S-wave velocities indicate that the outer core is liquid: undergoing convection
• Core-mantle boundary (D”): 200 km thick ultra low velocity zone (ULVZ). Thought to be
a result of the core melting the overlying mantle, creating an undulating low velocity zone
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Nickel -Iron meteorite
Geomagnetism
• A region of magnetic force (magnetic field) surrounds the Earth
• The widely accepted hypothesis of the source of geomagnetism relates to convection of
electrically conductive fluids within the Earth’s outer core: geodynamo
• Coriolis effect, caused by planetary rotation, organizes the flow into rolls aligned along the
north-south polar axis
• Deflect solar wind (ozone layer) / key evidence for plate tectonics
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
Revision Questions
What is the internal structure of the Earth? What are the sources of
evidence behind current models of Earth structure?
What governs the propagation of seismic waves within the subsurface?
What are the mechanical subdivisions of the crust and mantle?
What drives the motions of the Earth’s tectonic plates?
What are the sources of heat within the subsurface?
What are the three main plate margin configurations (use diagram with
plate vectors indicated)?
Directed Reading
Plummer et al [15th Ed]:
Ch. 1: p. 10-19 - external / internal heat engine, basic Earth structure,
plate tectonics introduction
Ch. 17: 414-420 - Earth structure with seismic wave evidence
Ch. 17: 424-425 - Geomagnetism
Glossary of Terms
Tectonics: large-scale processes affecting the structure of the earth's crust
Rheology: branch of physics that deals with deformation and flow of matter
Convergent Margin: tectonic margin where two plates move together
Divergent Margin: tectonic margin where two plates move apart
Transform margin: tectonic margin where two plates slide past one another
The crust: rocky outermost layer of the Earth
The mantle: mostly-solid rock layer lying between the core and the crust.
The core: iron-nickel rich central portion of the earth
Earth Structure and Uniformitarianism
What should you know?
• Deep time: remember what the abbreviation Ka and Ma mean
• Uniformitarianism is the foundation of geology: expect to asked for definitions and exceptions (i.e. process
rates change over time / rock forming biota changes)
• Earth composition and structure will always be favorites on asseessments: be prepared to label diagrams of
the Earth’s structure (chemical and mechanical).
• Know what the seismic discontinuity that defines the base of the crust is called (Moho)
• Questions about mantle convection and the sources of heat that drive lithospheric plate motions: basically
heat from the core and mantle derived from planetary accretion (primordial) and the decay of fissile isotopes
• Plate boundary configurations have come up time and again and are likely to reappear.
• Pressure-temperature / compositional trends with depth are also important to know
• How does earthquake activity and volcanic activity relate to plate boundaries? Where on earth do we find the
majority of such phenomena
• How does the earth’s continental and oceanic crust differ (think composition, thickness, density)?
• What theories account for the layered structure of the earth? What evidence (both direct and indirect) do we
draw upon to understand the composition and material properties of the earth’s crust, mantle, outer core and
inner core?
• What geodynamic mechanism accounts for the earth’s magnetic field and why is its existence so critical for
life on earth?
Theme 1: Earth Fundamentals
