Number theory

2
This chapter at a glance
Stage 2/3
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

classify a positive whole number as either odd or even

list the multiples of a number

find all factors of a number

state whether a number is prime, composite or neither

Number theory

express a number as the product of its prime factors using a factor tree.

Stage 4
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

identify a palindromic number

list the first 12 square and triangular numbers

form the Fibonacci number sequence

use the divisibility tests to determine whether one number is divisible by another

use the divisibility tests to determine whether a number is prime or composite

find the lowest common multiple of two numbers

find the highest common factor of two numbers

find squares and square roots of numbers

find cubes and cube roots of numbers

use prime factors to find the square root or cube root of a number.

51
52 Mathscape 7

2.1 Odd and even numbers

All counting numbers are either odd or even. A number is even if it is divisible by 2.
For example, 10 is even because 10 ÷ 2 = 5, or 2 × 5 = 10. A number is odd if it leaves a
remainder of 1 when divided by 2. For example, 9 is odd because 9 ÷ 2 = 4 remainder 1, or
(2 × 4) + 1 = 9. The first five even numbers are 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10. The first five odd numbers are
1, 3, 5, 7 and 9. For a large number, we can determine whether it is odd or even by looking at
the units digit.

A number is even if it ends in 2, 4, 6, 8 or 0.

A number is odd if it ends in 1, 3, 5, 7 or 9.

Example Solutions
EG State whether the following a The units digit of 334 is 4, which is even, ∴ 334 is even.
+S numbers are odd or even. b The units digit of 659 is 9, which is odd, ∴ 659 is odd.
a 334 c The units digit of 5870 is 0, which means the number is
b 659 divisible by 10, and hence it is also divisible by 2,
c 5870 ∴ 5870 is even.

Exercise 2.1

1 Complete the following statements.

a All even numbers are divisible by _____ .
b If a number is divisible by 2, then it is an ______ number.

2 List the first 10:

a odd numbers b even numbers

3 State whether the following numbers are odd or even.

a 36 b 47 c 50 d 164 e 271 f 399
g 700 h 1003 i 4625 j 8421 k 37 628 l 110 101

■ Consolidation
4 Write down the next:
a odd number after 83 b even number after 170 c even number after 1098
d odd number before 117 e even number before 560 f odd number before 2301

5 Write down the:

a smallest 2-digit even number b largest 2-digit odd number
c smallest 3-digit odd number d largest 3-digit even number
e largest 2-digit even number f smallest 2-digit odd number
g largest 3-digit odd number h smallest 3-digit even number
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 53

6 Write down the:

a smallest 2-digit odd number with a 7 in the tens place.
b largest 2-digit even number with a 4 in the tens place.
c smallest 2-digit even number with a 9 in the tens place.
d smallest 3-digit odd number with a 2 in the tens place.
e largest 3-digit odd number with a 1 in the tens place.
f largest 3-digit even number with a 5 in the tens place.

7 a Find the smallest 3-digit odd number b Find the largest 4-digit even number
with a 4 in the hundreds place and a with a 6 in the thousands place and a
7 in the tens place. 3 in the tens place.

■ Further applications
8 State whether each of the following are odd or even.
a the sum of 2 odd numbers
b the product of 2 odd numbers
c the difference between 2 even numbers
d the sum of an odd number and an even number
e the product of an even number and an odd number
f the difference between an odd number and an even number
g the product of 2 odd numbers and an even number
h the sum of 3 odd numbers

9 How many positive integers from 1 to 100 can be expressed as the product of two even
numbers? What else do these numbers have in common?

2.2 Special numbers

■ Palindromic numbers
A palindrome is a word or number that reads the same from left to right or from right to left.
For example, madam, toot and deed are palindromic words, while 33, 171 and 52 825 are
palindromic numbers.

■ Square numbers
The pattern of square numbers is derived from the following diagrams.
* * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * *
1 4 9 16
54 Mathscape 7

In the diagram, each square has one more star horizontally and one more star vertically than the
previous square. The number of stars in each square can be found by multiplying the number
of horizontal stars by the number of vertical stars. That is,
1×1=1 2×2=4 3×3=9 4 × 4 = 16.
So the first four square numbers are 1, 4, 9, 16.
When a number has been multiplied by itself, we say that it has been squared. If a number can
be expressed as the square of a counting number, then it is a square number. For example,
49 = 7 × 7, so 49 is a square number. However, 10 = 1 × 10 or 2 × 5 only, so 10 is not a square
number.

■ Triangular numbers
The pattern of triangular numbers is derived from the following diagrams.
*
* * *
* * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * *
1 3 6 10
Each triangle has one more row than the previous triangle and each row has one more star than
the row above. The number of stars in each triangle can be found by adding consecutive
counting numbers. That is,
1=1
1+2=3
1+2+3=6
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
So the first four triangular numbers are 1, 3, 6 and 10.

Example 1 Solutions
EG Find the: a 9 × 9 = 81, so 81 is the 9th square number.
+S b 16 × 16 = 256, so 256 is the 16th square number.
a 9th square number
b 16th square number

Example 2 Solution
EG Find the 6th triangular 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21, so the 6th triangular number is 21.
+S number.

Exercise 2.2

1 Which of these numbers are palindromes?

a 66 b 131 c 275 d 2002
e 3013 f 24 342 g 478 784 h 9 133 319
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 55

2 a What is the smallest 2-digit palindromic number?

b What is the largest 2-digit palindromic number?

3 Make up four palindromic numbers that have 5 digits.

4 Which digit can never be found in the units place of a palindromic number? Why?

5 a Write down the square numbers indicated by the following diagrams.

* * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * *
b Draw the next two squares in the pattern and hence find the next two square numbers.
6 Find the first 12 square numbers.

7 Write down the first:

a 6 odd square numbers b 6 even square numbers

8 a Write down the triangular numbers indicated by the following diagrams.

*
* * *
* * * * * *
* * * * * * * * * *
b Draw the next two triangles in the pattern and hence find the next two triangular
numbers.
9 Find the first 12 triangular numbers.

10 Write down the first:

a 6 odd triangular numbers b 6 even triangular numbers

■ Consolidation
11 Select all the square numbers from the given list. 25, 35, 9, 48, 36, 99, 18, 64, 1, 44, 96, 121

12 Explain how you could find the 20th square number, then find this number.

13 Find the:
a 13th square number b 15th square number c 19th square number

14 a Evaluate each of the following.

1=
1+3=
1+3+5=
1+3+5+7=
1+3+5+7+9=
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 =
56 Mathscape 7

b What type of numbers are the answers in part a?

c How could we find the sum of the first 6 odd numbers without doing an addition?

15 Using the method outlined in Q14, write down a multiplication that could be used to
evaluate the following sums, then find the answer to each.
a 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + … + 15 b 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + … + 19 c 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + … + 31

16 How many consecutive odd numbers would have to be added to find the value of 14 × 14?

17 a Find the first two square numbers that are each the sum of two other square numbers.
b Find the first four square numbers that are each the product of two different square
numbers other than 1.
18 Select all triangular numbers from the given list. 2, 15, 18, 25, 21, 36, 60, 6, 10, 89, 91, 28

19 Explain how you could find the 20th triangular number. (Do not find the number.)

20 Find the:
a 13th triangular number b 14th triangular number c 15th triangular number

21 a Evaluate each of these sums.

i 1+3 ii 3 + 6 iii 6 + 10 iv 10 + 15 v 15 + 21 vi 21 + 28
b What kind of numbers are the answers in part a?

22 Take any three consecutive triangular numbers. Add the numbers, subtract 1, then divide
the answer by 3. Repeat this several times. What do you notice?
23 Every even counting number can be expressed as the sum of at most three triangular
numbers. Express each of the following as the sum of either 2 or 3 triangular numbers.
a 14 b 16 c 26 d 44

24 a Find the first triangular number that is equal to the product of two other triangular numbers.
b Find the first four triangular numbers that are equal to the sum of two other triangular
numbers.
25 Two triangular numbers differ by 23. If the smaller of the numbers is 253, what is the other
number?

26 a Evaluate each of the following.

[(3 × 3) − 1] ÷ 8 =
[(5 × 5) − 1] ÷ 8 =
[(7 × 7) − 1] ÷ 8 =
b Continue this pattern for another three lines. What kind of numbers are the answers?

■ Further applications
27 a Write down the square number that lies between 80 and 90.
b Find the first square number that is divisible by 12.
c Find the first odd 2-digit square number.
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 57

d Find the two square numbers whose difference is 17.

e Find the first square number whose digits differ by 2.
f Find the first square number that is divisible by 27.
g Find the first 2-digit square number whose digit sum is even.
h Write the first two square numbers that have a 6 in the tens place.
i Find the first two square numbers, each of which is the square of another square
number.
j State the first square number with more than one digit that is also a palindrome.
k Find the square number which when doubled and then increased by 2 gives another
square number.
l Find the first 4 digit square number.

28 Use the first 14 triangular numbers to find answers to each of these.

a Find the first 2-digit triangular number.
b Write down two triangular numbers that are also square numbers.
c Find two triangular numbers each of which is 1 less than a square number.
d Find two triangular numbers greater than 10 that are also palindromes.
e Write down a triangular number that is divisible by 13.
f State the largest 2-digit triangular number.
g Find the first 2-digit triangular number whose digits are also triangular numbers.
h Write down the first 2-digit triangular number whose digit sum is also a triangular number.
i Find the first 3-digit triangular number.
j Calculate the product of the 7th square number and the 4th triangular number.
k Calculate the quotient of the 9th and 5th triangular numbers.
l Find two triangular numbers whose product is 5 more than one triangular number and
6 less than another.

TRY THIS Palindromes

‘Dad’ is a word which is the same whether you read it forwards or backwards; so is
‘Mum’! 464 is a palindromic number; so is 41314. It is said that every number can
be changed to a palindromic number by the following method of reversing digits then
adding until it is palindromic, e.g.
1 34: 34 2 124: 124 3 96: 96
43 421 69
77 545 165
561
726
627
1353
3531
Can any whole number be changed to a
4884
palindromic number in this way? Why?
58 Mathscape 7

2.3 Fibonacci numbers

The Fibonacci numbers are an important sequence of numbers discovered by the famous
Italian mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci (also known as Leonardo of Pisa) in 1202. The
sequence of Fibonacci numbers begins with two consecutive 1s and each term thereafter is
found by adding the two previous terms.

What makes the Fibonacci numbers interesting is that they occur so often in nature. For
example, in the centre of a daisy we see that there are two sets of intersecting spirals that radiate
in opposite directions, 34 in one direction and 21 in the other. In the seed cones of fir trees, the
8 13
ratio of the numbers of spirals is 13
------ or --- , while the ratio for a pineapple is ------ . In ripe sunflower
8 5 8
21 34 55 144
heads the spiralling rows of florets are in the ratio ----- - , ------ , ------ or in a giant sunflower --------- . The
13 21 34 89
Fibonacci numbers can also be found in the arrangement of leaves on a stem in many plants. If
you count the number of leaves passed before you reach a leaf directly above the first leaf, the
number of leaves in most cases is a Fibonacci number. The numbers can also be found in
connection with starfish, sea urchins and many other marine animals.

Example
EG Find the first six Fibonacci numbers.
+S
Solution
The sequence is 1, 1, 1 + 1 = 2, 1 + 2 = 3, 2 + 3 = 5, 3 + 5 = 8.
Therefore, the first six Fibonacci numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8.

Exercise 2.3

1 Find the first 10 Fibonacci numbers.

2 Find the first Fibonacci number, other than 1, that is also a square number.

3 Which of the first 10 Fibonacci numbers, other than 1, are also triangular numbers?

■ Consolidation
4 a Is there a pattern with the odd and even Fibonacci numbers? If so, what is it?
b Will the 24th Fibonacci number be odd or even?
c Will the 31st Fibonacci number be odd or even?
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 59

5 In which positions are the Fibonacci numbers that are divisible by:
a 3 b 5

6 a Find the sum of the first 10 Fibonacci numbers. Is it divisible by 11?

b Find the sum of the 10 Fibonacci numbers starting with the second number (i.e. the
second 1). Is it divisible by 11?
c Find the sum of the 10 Fibonacci numbers starting with the third number (i.e. the 2).
Is it divisible by 11?
d What do these results suggest about Fibonacci numbers?

7 The pattern below highlights an interesting relationship between sets of three consecutive
Fibonacci numbers.
For 2, 3, 5: (3 × 3) = (2 × 5) − 1
For 5, 8, 13: (8 × 8) = (5 × 13) − 1
a Is this pattern still true for 13, 21, 34?
b How should we adjust the pattern for 3, 5, 8 and 8, 13, 21?

8 Take any four consecutive Fibonacci numbers such as 2, 3, 5, 8.

a Find the product of the inner pair of numbers and find the product of the outer pair
of numbers.
b Repeat this for three more sets of four consecutive Fibonacci numbers. What do
you notice?
9 a If the 13th Fibonacci number is 233, what is the sum of the first 11 Fibonacci numbers?
b If the sum of the first 12 Fibonacci numbers is 376, what is the 14th Fibonacci number?

10 Complete the next three lines of this pattern. What do you notice?
12 + 12 = 2 = 1 × 2
12 + 1 2 + 2 2 = 6 = 2 × 3
12 + 12 + 22 + 32 = 15 = 3 × 5

■ Further applications
In the following questions, the subscript refers to the position of the number in the sequence. For
example, F2 means the second Fibonacci number, and in Q11, L2 means the second Lucas number.

11 a Is 6 divisible by 2? Is F6 divisible by F2?

b Is 8 divisible by 4? Is F8 divisible by F4?
c In general, one Fibonacci number will be divisible by another if the subscript of the
larger number is divisible by the subscript of the smaller number. Which Fibonacci
numbers will divide into F12?
12 The Lucas numbers are closely related to the Fibonacci numbers. For Lucas numbers, the
first two terms are 1 and 3 and each following term is found by adding the two previous
terms, as for Fibonacci numbers.
a Write down the first ten Lucas numbers.
b Show that F1 + F3 = L2, F2 + F4 = L3, F3 + F5 = L4.
c How could you use the Fibonacci numbers to find L7, the 7th Lucas number?
60 Mathscape 7

2.4 Divisibility tests

The following tests can be used to determine whether one number is divisible by another
without performing the division.

A number is divisible by:

2 if it is even, i.e. if the units digit is 2, 4, 6, 8 or 0

3 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3

4 if the number formed by the last two digits is divisible by 4

5 if the last digit is either 5 or 0

6 if the number is divisible by both 2 and 3

8 if the number formed by the last three digits is divisible by 8

9 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9

10 if the units digit is 0

11 if the sum of the digits in the odd positions is equal to the sum of the digits in
the even positions, or they differ by a number that is divisible by 11.

NOTE: A divisibility ‘test’ for 7 is given in the Further Applications section of Exercise 2.4.

Example
EG Use the divisibility tests to show that:
+S
a 178 is divisible by 2 b 768 is divisible by 3 c 1524 is divisible by 4
d 635 is divisible by 5 e 978 is divisible by 6 f 5848 is divisible by 8
g 9576 is divisible by 9 h 4320 is divisible by 10 i 259 864 is divisible by 11

Solutions
a The number ends in an 8, which is even. Therefore, 178 is divisible by 2.
b The sum of the digits is 7 + 6 + 8 = 21, which is divisible by 3. Therefore, 768 is divisible
by 3.
c The number formed by the last two digits is 24, which is divisible by 4. Therefore, 1524
is divisible by 4.
d The number ends in a 5. Therefore, 635 is divisible by 5.
e The number ends in an 8, so 978 is divisible by 2. The sum of the digits is 9 + 7 + 8 = 24,
so 978 is also divisible by 3. Therefore, 978 is divisible by 6.
f The number formed by the last three digits is 848, which is divisible by 8. Therefore,
5848 is divisible by 8.
g The sum of the digits is 9 + 5 + 7 + 6 = 27, which is divisible by 9. Therefore, 9576 is
divisible by 9.
h The number ends in a zero. Therefore, 4320 is divisible by 10.
i The sum of the digits in the odd positions (i.e. 1st, 3rd, 5th) is 2 + 9 + 6 = 17. The sum of
the digits in the even positions (i.e. 2nd, 4th, 6th) is 5 + 8 + 4 = 17. The sum of the digits
in the even positions is equal to the sum of the digits in the odd positions. Therefore,
259 864 is divisible by 11.
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 61

Exercise 2.4

1 Look at the last digit and hence determine which numbers are divisible by 2.
176 297 548 685 900 1374 1469 9999

2 Find the sum of the digits and hence determine which numbers are divisible by 3.
252 284 442 486 2899 9651 20 895 26 237
3 Look at the number formed by the last two digits and hence determine which numbers are
divisible by 4.
122 132 328 809 1520 2741 4817 5636
4 Look at the last digit and hence determine which numbers are divisible by 5.
53 95 170 554 862 965 2038 3900

5 Look at the last digit and find the sum of the digits. Hence determine which numbers are
divisible by 6.
138 146 234 461 470 693 762 5496
6 Look at the number formed by the last three digits and hence determine which numbers are
divisible by 8.
1168 1231 1248 2086 7328 3142 9488 16 583
7 Find the sum of the digits and hence determine which numbers are divisible by 9.
123 135 468 516 3250 5823 9297 14 258
8 Look at the last digit and hence determine which numbers are divisible by 10.
141 220 518 690 744 1001 1500 20 360
9 Look at the sum of the digits in the odd positions and the sum of the digits in the even
positions. Hence determine which numbers are divisible by 11.
176 2188 6358 12 346 71 258 82 431 93 523 472 868

■ Consolidation
10 Use the divisibility tests to find a 5-digit number that is divisible by:
a 3 b 4 c 5 d 6
e 8 f 9 g 10 h 11

11 Although not always practical to use, one way to test a number for divisibility by 7 is to
multiply by 3 the number formed by all digits other than the units digit, then add the units
digit. If the resulting number is divisible by 7, then so is the original number. For example,
to test 126, we evaluate (12 × 3) + 6. Now, 12 × 3 + 6 = 42, which is divisible by 7.
Therefore, 126 is also divisible by 7.
Use this method to determine which of the following numbers are divisible by 7.
91 97 98 114 119 125 145 154
62 Mathscape 7

12 Use the divisibility tests to find all the numbers from 2 to 11 that will divide into 924.

13 To test a number for divisibility by 6, we test for divisibility by both 2 and 3. How could
we test a number for divisibility by:
a 12? b 14? c 15? d 45?

14 a Is 795 divisible by 15? b Is 518 divisible by 12? c Is 126 divisible by 14?

■ Further applications
15 The divisibility ‘test’ for 7 can be extended as follows. Multiply the left-hand digit by 3 then
add the next digit to the right. Rewrite all unused digits at the end. Repeat this procedure as
often as necessary until you can clearly determine whether the number is divisible by 7. For
example, to determine whether 1526 is divisible by 7 we would write:
(1 × 3) + 5 = 8, so we write 826 (since the last two digits 2 and 6 were not used)
(8 × 3) + 2 = 26, so we write 266 (since the last digit 6 was not used)
(2 × 3) + 6 = 12, so we write 126 (since the last digit 6 was not used)
(1 × 3) + 2 = 5, so we write 56.
Now, 56 is divisible by 7, therefore 1526 is also divisible by 7.
Use the method above to determine which of the following numbers are divisible by 7.
a 196 b 1493 c 6545 d 2012

16 Consider the following statement. ‘If two numbers are each divisible by another number,
then their sum is also divisible by that number.’ Is the statement true or false? Give
examples.

2.5 Multiples
The multiples of a number are the numbers into which it can divide without remainder. For
small numbers, we may think of multiples as the answers to multiplication tables. For example,
12 is a multiple of 3 because 12 ÷ 3 = 4, i.e. 3 divides into 12 without remainder.
The first multiple of any number is the number itself, so multiples are all greater than or equal
to the given number.

The multiples of a number are the numbers into which it can divide without
remainder.

The lowest common multiple (LCM) of two or more numbers is the smallest number into
which they all divide. For example, the lowest common multiple of 3 and 5 is 15.

To find the lowest common multiple (LCM) of two or more numbers:

list the set of multiples of each number

find the smallest number that is common to both sets.
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 63

Example 1 Solution
EG Write the first five multiples 1 × 4 = 4 2 × 4 = 8 3 × 4 = 12 4 × 4 = 16 5 × 4 = 20
+S of 4. Therefore the first five multiples of 4 are {4, 8, 12, 16, 20}.

Example 2 Solutions
EG Find the: a 9 × 7 = 63, so the 9th multiple of 7 is 63.
+S b 8 × 5 = 40, so the 8th multiple of 5 is 40.
a 9th multiple of 7
b 8th multiple of 5

Example 3 Solution
EG Find the LCM of 6 and 8. The multiples of 6 are: {6, 12, 18, 24 , 30, …}
+S The multiples of 8 are: {8, 16, 24 , 32, 40, …}
The smallest number common to both sets is 24, so the
LCM of 6 and 8 is 24. That is, 24 is the smallest number
into which both 6 and 8 will divide.

Exercise 2.5

1 List the first five multiples of:

a 2 b 3 c 5 d 6 e 8 f 11
g 1 h 4 i 7 j 9 k 10 l 12

2 Write down the:

a 6th multiple of 4 b 4th multiple of 9 c 8th multiple of 7
d 9th multiple of 5 e 7th multiple of 6 f 4th multiple of 8
g 10th multiple of 9 h 11th multiple of 12 i 12th multiple of 6

■ Consolidation
3 Which multiple of:
a 3 is 18? b 4 is 20? c 8 is 24? d 5 is 40? e 7 is 63?
f 6 is 66? g 11 is 110? h 12 is 96? i 9 is 72? j 10 is 110?

4 Write true (T) or false (F) for each of these:

a 15 is a multiple of 3 b 3 is a multiple of 15 c 7 is a multiple of 7
d 48 is a multiple of 6 e 36 is a multiple of 8 f 38 is a multiple of 4
g 42 is a multiple of 8 h 84 is a multiple of 7 i 100 is a multiple of 3

5 Find all multiples of:

a 3 between 20 and 40 b 4 between 30 and 55 c 5 between 12 and 42
d 7 between 45 and 75 e 8 between 25 and 60 f 12 between 70 and 125
 64 Mathscape 7

6 a Find the sum of the first three multiples of 6.

b Find the product of the first three multiples of 2.

7 a Find the difference between the 8th multiple of 9 and the 5th multiple of 7.
b Find the quotient of the 10th multiple of 6 and the 3rd multiple of 4.
TOR
LA
8 Use the constant multiplier function on your calculator to find the first five multiples of:
CA U
LC

a 13 b 15 c 24 d 29 e 35

9 a If 48 is a multiple of 4, find the next three multiples of 4.

b If 91 is a multiple of 7, find the next three multiples of 7.
c If 144 is a multiple of 6, find the previous three multiples of 6.

10 Write down any three numbers of which 72 is a multiple.

11 Find the LCM of these numbers.

a 2 and 3 b 2 and 5 c 3 and 4 d 4 and 6 e 6 and 8
f 9 and 6 g 6 and 10 h 8 and 12 i 10 and 8 j 15 and 10

12 Find two numbers other than those in Q11 whose LCM is:
a 21 b 24 c 36 d 60
TOR
LA
13 Use a calculator to check that 600 is a common multiple of 25 and 40. Is it the LCM?
CA U
LC

■ Further applications
14 Find the lowest common multiple of:
a 10, 15 and 20 b 8, 10 and 12 c 3, 15 and 25

15 a Write down the first even multiple of 7.

b Find the first square number that is also a multiple of 20.
c Find the first multiple of 8 that is greater than 30.
d What is the first palindromic 2-digit multiple of 8?
e Find the first multiple of 9 that is also a triangular number.
f Write the largest 2-digit multiple of 6.
g Write down the smallest 3-digit multiple of 7.
h What is the first Fibonacci number that is also a multiple of 11?
i Which even multiple of 7 lies between 40 and 50?
j Find the first multiple of 6 that is also a triangular number.
k Find the smallest multiple of 9 that has a 4 in the tens place.
l What is the first multiple of 7 that is also a Fibonacci number?

16 In how many 2-digit numbers is the sum of the digits a multiple of 7?

17 Find the smallest multiple of 9 that has no odd digits.
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 65

TRY THIS A trick

Ask a friend to hold an even number of things
in one hand and an odd number in the other
hand. Tell your friend that if he or she does
as you direct, you will be able to tell which
is which!

Directions to your friend

1 Multiply the left-hand number by an even
number, and the right hand number by an
odd number. (Keep the results quiet.)
2 Add these numbers together, and give the result as odd or even.
3 If the result is odd, then the left-hand side is even and the right is odd. But if the
result is even, the left is odd and the right is even!

Challenge
Work out how this trick works. Try it on another friend.

2.6 Factors
The factors of a number are the numbers that divide into it without remainder. For example,
4 is a factor of 12 because 12 ÷ 4 = 3 or 3 × 4 = 12, i.e. 4 divides into 12 without remainder.
If 4 is a factor of 12, then 12 is a multiple of 4.
The largest factor of any number is the number itself, so factors are all less than or equal to the
given number. Every number has itself and 1 among its factors. If a number is even, then its
second largest factor is half of the number.

The factors of a number are the numbers that divide into it without remainder.

The highest common factor (HCF) of two or more numbers is the largest number that divides
into all of them. For example, the highest common factor of 12 and 15 is 3.

To find the highest common factor (HCF) of two or more numbers:

list the set of factors of each number

find the largest number that is common to both sets.

Example 1 Solution
EG List all of the factors of 30. 1 × 30 = 30 2 × 15 = 30 3 × 10 = 30 5 × 6 = 30
+S Therefore, the factors of 30 are {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}.
66 Mathscape 7

Example 2 Solution
EG Find the second largest 168 is even and 1--- of 168 is 84. Therefore, the second
+S factor of 168.
2
largest factor of 168 is 84.

Example 3 Solution
EG Find the HCF of 12 and 20. The factors of 12 are: {1, 2, 3, 4 , 6, 12}
+S The factors of 20 are: {1, 2, 4 , 5, 10, 20}
The largest number common to both sets is 4, so the HCF
of 12 and 20 is 4. That is, 4 is the largest number that will
divide into both 12 and 20.

Exercise 2.6

1 List all factors of each of the following numbers.

a 5 b 8 c 10 d 12 e 13 f 14
g 15 h 18 i 20 j 21 k 22 l 24
m 27 n 28 o 29 p 30 q 32 r 33

2 List all factors of each of these. The number of factors is shown in brackets.
a 35 [4] b 36 [9] c 40 [8] d 42 [8]
e 44 [6] f 45 [6] g 48 [10] h 50 [6]
i 54 [8] j 56 [8] k 60 [12] l 63 [6]
m 66 [8] n 70 [8] o 72 [12] p 75 [6]

■ Consolidation
3 Write true (T) or false (F) for each of these.
a 9 is a factor of 18 b 18 is a factor of 9 c 8 is a factor of 12
d 7 is a factor of 49 e 21 is a factor of 3 f 14 is a factor of 35
g 5 is a factor of 85 h 16 is a factor of 4 i 9 is a factor of 29

4 Complete these statements by inserting the word ‘factor’ or ‘multiple’.

a 3 is a of 12 b 24 is a of 4
c 30 is a of 6 d 11 is a of 22

5 a Find all factors of 4, 9 and 16.

b Do square numbers have an odd or an even number of factors? Why?

6 Find the second largest factor of each of these.

a 6 b 26 c 68 d 142

7 Which number is a factor of every number?

8 a If a number is divisible by 12, then it must be divisible by what other numbers?

b If a number is divisible by 20, then it must be divisible by what other numbers?
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 67

9 List all of the factors that are common to:

a 16 and 40 b 40 and 60 c 28 and 42

10 Which of these numbers are factors of 100? 5, 15, 50, 20, 75, 25, 10, 100, 40, 60, 4, 3

11 Find the HCF of these numbers.

a 8 and 12 b 10 and 15 c 12 and 18
d 14 and 35 e 16 and 24 f 15 and 21
g 18 and 45 h 24 and 36 i 30 and 42

12 Find a pair of 2-digit numbers other than those in Q11 whose HCF is:
a 4 b 6 c 7 d 13
TOR
LA
13 Use a calculator to check that 17 is a common factor of 85 and 153.
CA U
LC

■ Further applications
14 Find the highest common factor of:
a 24, 28 and 48 b 42, 54 and 72

15 Find all factors of each number. The number of factors is shown in brackets.
a 80 [10] b 84 [12] c 92 [6] d 96 [12]
TOR
LA
16 Find all 24 factors of 420.
CA U
LC

17 a Which factor of 12 other than 1 is also a square number?

b Which factor of 20 other than 1 is also a triangular number?
c Which factor of 6 is also a multiple of 6?
d Write down the first 2-digit square number that is also a factor of 32.
e State the smallest Fibonacci number that has 17 as one of its factors.
f Find the smallest triangular number that has a square number other than 1 as a factor.
g Find the largest 2-digit number with 8 as one of its factors.
h Write the smallest Fibonacci number with factors of 3 and 7.
i Find the even number whose second largest factor is 19.
j State the largest factor of 16 that is also a factor of 72.
k Find the smallest 3-digit number with a factor of 3.
l Write down the largest odd factor of 36.

2.7 Prime and composite numbers

All counting numbers other than 1 are either prime or composite. A prime number has only two
factors—one and itself. A composite number has more than two factors. For example, 7 is
prime because its only factors are 1 and 7 whereas 9 is composite because it has three factors:
1, 3 and 9. Since 1 has only one factor it does not meet either definition. Hence, 1 is neither
prime nor composite. The primes are all odd except for 2, which is even. Prime numbers that
68 Mathscape 7

differ by 2 are called twin primes. For example, 5 and 7 are twin primes because they are both
prime and 7 − 5 = 2.

A prime number has only two factors: itself and 1.

A composite number has more than two factors.

To test whether a number is prime we need only check for divisibility by those primes that are
less than the square root of the number. (Square roots will be explained in detail later in this
chapter if you are not familiar with them.) Therefore, to test any number that is less than 100,
we note that 100 = 10. The only primes less than 10 are 2, 3, 5 and 7. So we need only test
our number for divisibility by 2, 3, 5 or 7.

To test whether a number is prime or composite:

test for divisibility by all primes that are less than or equal to the square root of
the number

if the number is not divisible by any of these primes, then the number itself is
prime.

Example
EG Determine whether each of these numbers is prime or composite.
+S
a 15 b 17 c 97

Solutions
a 15 = 1 × 15 and 15 = 3 × 5. Therefore the factors of 15 are {1, 3, 5, 15}. Since 15 has more
than two factors, it is composite.
b 17 = 1 × 17 only. Therefore the factors of 17 are {1, 17}. Since 17 has only two factors,
it is prime.
c We use the divisibility tests to test for divisibility by 2, 3, 5 and 7 (since 97 is less than 100).

97 ends in a 7 which is odd, so 97 is not divisible by 2.

9 + 7 = 16, which is not divisible by 3, so 97 is not divisible by 3.

97 does not end in a 5 or 0, so 97 is not divisible by 5.

(3 × 9) + 7 = 34, which is not divisible by 7, so 97 is not divisible by 7 (otherwise you
will need to do a short division).
Now, 97 is less than 100 and it is not divisible by either 2, 3, 5 or 7. Therefore, 97 is prime.

Exercise 2.7

1 State whether these numbers are prime (P) or composite (C).

a 2 b 5 c 6 d 7 e 9 f 13
g 15 h 17 i 18 j 21 k 23 l 25
m 27 n 29 o 33 p 37 q 39 r 41
s 43 t 45 u 47 v 49 w 51 x 53
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 69

2 Test the following numbers for divisibility by 2, 3, 5 and 7 to determine whether they are
prime (P) or composite (C).
a 57 b 59 c 61 d 63 e 67 f 69
g 73 h 79 i 81 j 85 k 87 l 91

■ Consolidation
3 List the numbers from 1 to 100 in straight rows with six numbers in each row. Circle the
number 2, then cross out any multiples of 2. Repeat this procedure for 3, 5 and 7. Cross out
the 1. Circle all of the remaining numbers. What do you notice about the numbers that you
have circled? This is called the Sieve of Eratosthenes.
4 List all pairs of twin primes.

5 List all pairs of primes that differ by 10.

6 Can a square number be prime?

7 Which counting number is neither prime nor composite? Why?

8 What is the only even prime?

9 In 1742, a famous German mathematician Christian Goldbach conjectured that every even
number greater than 2 could be expressed as the sum of two primes. As yet, no-one has been
able to prove or disprove this conjecture. Express each of these even numbers as the sum
of two primes.
a 10 b 16 c 20 d 28
e 30 f 38 g 50 h 84

10 Goldbach also conjectured that every odd number greater than 5 could be expressed as the
sum of three primes. Express each of these odd numbers as the sum of three primes.
a 7 b 13 c 19 d 31
e 47 f 55 g 69 h 99

11 Find all pairs of primes whose sum is 100.

12 Express 36 as the sum of four primes.

13 Write down the first prime that can be expressed as the sum of three different primes.
TOR
LA
14 Use a calculator to determine whether these numbers are prime or composite. (You will
CA U
LC

need to test for divisibility by all primes up to 13.)

a 109 b 133 c 117 d 153 e 187

■ Further applications
15 a If a 2-digit number is a palindrome, can it be prime? Explain.
b With the exception of 11, explain why a number cannot be prime if it is a palindrome
and has an even number of digits.
70 Mathscape 7

16 Find a three digit palindrome that is:

a prime b composite

17 a Find the largest 2-digit prime.

b Find the smallest 3-digit prime.
c Find the first prime with a 2 in the tens place.
d Find the largest 2-digit prime that has a 3 in the units place.
e Write down the two prime factors of 44.
f Write the smallest composite number.
g Find a prime that is also a triangular number.
h Find the largest prime that is less than the fourth square number.
i Find the first prime that is greater than the eleventh square number.
j Write down the first composite Fibonacci number.
k Find the first odd composite number.
l Find the smallest triangular number that is the product of a prime number and a square
number greater than 1.
18 List all of the 2-digit primes that are still prime when the order of their digits is reversed.

2.8 Prime factors

Every composite number can be expressed as the product of prime factors. It is common
practice to write any repeated factors in index form. We can find the prime factors of a number
by drawing a factor tree. The idea is to express the given number as the product of two smaller
numbers and then, if possible, express each of these numbers as the product of two smaller
numbers and so on. The process is repeated until all of the remaining numbers are prime. The
divisibility tests may be quite useful when working with large numbers.

■ Highest common factor and lowest common

multiple by prime factors
The highest common factor and lowest common multiple of two or more numbers can be
found by the use of their prime factors.

To find the HCF of two numbers by prime factors:

find the product of the prime factors that are common to both numbers.
To find the LCM of two numbers by prime factors:

find the product of all of the prime factors of the smaller number and those
factors of the larger number that are not contained in the smaller one.

Example 1
EG Use a factor tree to express each of these numbers as the product of its prime factors.
+S
a 90 b 84
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 71

Solutions
a 90 b 84

9 × 10 12 × 7

3 × 3 × 2 × 5 4 × 3 × 7

2 × 2 × 3 × 7
Therefore, 90 = 2 × 32 × 5 Therefore, 84 = 22 × 3 × 7

Example 2
EG Find the HCF of 1050 and 7000 by prime factors.
+S
Solution
1050 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 5 × 7 and 7000 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 7
The HCF = 2 × 5 × 5 × 7
= 2 × 52 × 7
= 350 (optional)

Example 3
EG Find the LCM of 324 and 600 by prime factors.
+S
Solution
324 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 and 600 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 × 5
The LCM = [2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3] × [2 × 5 × 5]
= 23 × 34 × 52
= 16 200 (optional)

TRY THIS Mathematics of pool tables

Yes, pool players do need to know something about
angles! Using angles they can predict the path of
the ball.
In this investigation we will always ‘hit’ our ball from the
lower left pocket at an angle of 45° to the side. We will
also assume that the pockets are at the corners.
Look at this 3 × 5 table:
The ball finishes in the upper right pocket.
72 Mathscape 7

There are three questions here:

1 If you are given the size of the table (e.g. 3 × 5), can you predict which pocket the
ball will finally enter?
2 Can you predict how many times the ball will touch the sides of the table before
entering the pocket?
3 If we multiply both side lengths of the table by the same amount, will the ball
then enter the same pocket and touch the sides the same number of times?
i.e. Is a 3 × 5 table the same as a 6 × 10 table?

Hint
Start by looking at tables with prime number lengths and widths; e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7,
11, 13. Then investigate tables with side lengths that are composite numbers.

Exercise 2.8

1 Draw a factor tree to express each number as the product of its prime factors. Give your
answers in index form.
a 20 b 24 c 28 d 30 e 36 f 40
g 42 h 45 i 48 j 50 k 54 l 56
m 60 n 63 o 72 p 75 q 80 r 100

■ Consolidation
2 Draw a factor tree to express each number as the product of its prime factors. Give your
answers in index form. You may need to make use of the divisibility tests.
a 240 b 540 c 792 d 882
e 1134 f 1225 g 1755 h 1890

3 Use this list of prime factors to find the HCF of each pair of numbers.

216 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3
900 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 5

324 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
990 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 11

432 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3
2058 = 2 × 3 × 7 × 7 × 7

504 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 7
2450 = 2 × 5 × 5 × 7 × 7

810 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 5
3267 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 11 × 11
a 216 and 2058 b 810 and 2450 c 900 and 2450
d 504 and 2058 e 432 and 3267 f 432 and 990
g 2450 and 2058 h 990 and 3267 i 810 and 900
j 216 and 810 k 324 and 504 l 216 and 324
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 73

4 Use this list of prime factors to find the LCM of each pair of numbers.

24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
600 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 × 5

36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3
825 = 3 × 5 × 5 × 11

54 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 3
1188 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 11

56 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 7
1260 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7

200 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5
1400 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 7
a 24 and 36 b 36 and 54 c 24 and 56
d 54 and 56 e 36 and 1260 f 36 and 600
g 1188 and 1260 h 600 and 825 i 54 and 1260
j 200 and 1188 k 825 and 1188 l 1188 and 1400

■ Further applications
The factors of a number can be determined by finding all possible products of the prime factors
one at a time, two at a time, three at a time etc. For example:
30 Now using the prime factors 2, 3 and 5:

one at a time: 2, 3, 5
6 × 5
two at a time: (2 × 3) = 6, (2 × 5) = 10, (3 × 5) = 15

three at a time: (2 × 3 × 5) = 30
2 × 3 × 5
1 is a factor of every number
∴ the factors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15 and 30.

5 Find the prime factors of each number, then use the method outlined above to find all:
a 8 factors of 42 b 8 factors of 66
c 8 factors of 70 d 8 factors of 105
e 8 factors of 110 f 16 factors of 210
g 16 factors of 330 h 12 factors of 90

2.9 Square and cube roots

Finding the square root ( ) is the opposite of squaring a number, in the same way that
subtraction is the opposite of addition and division is the opposite of multiplication. That is,
taking the square root ‘undoes’ the operation of squaring. Similarly, finding the cube root
( 3 ) is the opposite of cubing a number.

Example 1 Solutions
EG Evaluate each of the following. a 25 = 5
+S 3 because 52 = 25 (or 5 × 5 = 25).
a 25 b 8
b 3 8 =2
because 23 = 8 (or 2 × 2 × 2 = 8).
74 Mathscape 7

Example 2 Solutions
EG Evaluate each of the following. a To find the square root of a number using its
+S prime factors, take one factor from each pair of
a 441 if 441 = 3 × 3 × 7 × 7
like factors and multiply them together.
b 3 2744 if 2744 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 × 7 × 7
∴ 441 = 3 × 7
= 21
b To find the cube root of a number using its
prime factors, take one factor from each three
like factors and multiply them together.
∴ 3 2744 = 2 × 7
= 14

Example 3 Solutions
EG Find: a 1600 = 16 × 100
+S = 4 × 10
a 1600
3 = 40
b 27 000 000
b 3 27 000 000 = 3 27 × 3 1 000 000
= 3 × 100
= 300

Exercise 2.9

1 Find the value of each of these square roots.

a 9 b 25 c 4 d 49 e 100 f 1
g 16 h 81 i 121 j 36 k 64 l 144
2 Find the value of each of these cube roots.
a 3 8 b 3 27 c 3 1 d 3 1000 e 3 125 f 3 64

■ Consolidation
3 a If 132 = 169, find 169 b If 142 = 196, find 196
c If 1225 = 35, find 352 d If 1849 = 43, find 432
4 a If 73 = 343, find 3 343 b If 93 = 729, find 3 729
c If 3 216 = 6, find 63 d If 3 1331 = 11, find 113
3
5 a Find 43 b Find 82
6 Does 16 + 9 = 16 + 9 ?

7 Evaluate each of these.

a 12 + 13 b 3
2 + 52 c 5 × 20
d 3 40 ÷ 5 e 3
10 2 + 5 2 f 22 × 32
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 75

8 Evaluate each of the following.

a 25 + 49 b 100 – 64 c 121 × 9
d 144 ÷ 16 e 22 − 36 f 13 + 4
g 3 8 + 100 h 3 27 + 25 i 81 – 3 125
j 3 1000 ÷ 3 125 k 64 – 3 64 l 49 + 3 27
m 92 + 9 n 82 − 3 125 o 121 × 23
p 25 − 144 q 3 64 × 36 × 9 r 3 8 + 121 – 3 27

9 Use the order of operations to evaluate:

a 5+ 9 ×4 b 3 8 + 6 × 16 c 144 ÷ 6 + 23
d 100 – 3 125 × 2 e 49 × 3 1000 ÷ 25 f 4 × 9 + 3 8 × 3 125
TOR
LA
10 Estimate the value of each square root, then check your answers using a calculator.
CA U
LC

a 169 b 225 c 484 d 625 e 961

TOR
LA
11 Estimate the value of each cube root, then check your answers using a calculator.
CA U
LC

a 3 216 b 3 343 c 3 729 d 3 512 e 3 1331

12 State whether or not it would be appropriate to use a calculator to evaluate each of these
square roots. If it is appropriate, say why.
a 1369 b 7 c 81

■ Further applications
13 a Evaluate:
i 9 × 4 and 9 × 4 ii 4 × 25 and 4 × 25
iii 16 × 9 and 16 × 9 iv 4 × 16 and 4 × 16
b Copy and complete this statement.
The _____ of a product is equal to the _____ of the square roots.
c Use this method to evaluate:
i 20 × 5 ii 18 × 2 iii 24 × 6
d Show that 25 × 49 = 1225. Hence, find 1225 .
14 Find:
a 196 if 196 = 2 × 2 × 7 × 7 b 225 if 225 = 3 × 3 × 5 × 5
c 1764 if 1764 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 7 d 324 if 324 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
15 Find:
a 400 if 400 = 24 × 52 b 576 if 576 = 26 × 32
c 1296 if 1296 = 24 × 34 d 7056 if 7056 = 24 × 32 × 72
16 Find:
a 3 216 if 216 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 b 3 1000 if 1000 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 5
c 3 1728 if 1728 = 26 × 33 d 3 91 125 if 91 125 = 36 × 53
76 Mathscape 7

17 Evaluate each of these.

a 400 b 900 c 490 000
d 250 000 e 16 000 000 f 121 000 000
18 Evaluate each of these.
a 3 8000 b 3 27 000 c 3 125 000
d 3 1 000 000 e 8 000 000 f 3 64 000 000 000

B P ROBLEM SOLVING

1 If two different chocolate bars together cost $1.50 and one of them cost 60c more
than the other, how much does each cost?
2 Calculate 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 … + 97 + 99 (i.e. the sum of all the odd numbers less
than 100).
3 What would you rather have, a bucket of 50c coins or a half bucket of $1 coins?
4 A man purchased 5 tyres for his car. He knows that he will travel 25000 km. If he wishes
to use the tyres equally, how many kilometres will each tyre travel?
5 In a tennis tournament there are 32 players. Semi-final
How many matches must be played before
we have the winner, if all losers drop out Smith
v. Final
and the winners play each other in the next Jones
round until only one remains? Smith
v.
Draw a diagram and work backwards until you Brown
Brown
reach 32 players! v.
Grey

6 A clock loses 10 minutes every hour. If it is 12 midnight on Sunday, will the clock ever
show the correct time again? If so, when?
7 In three years’ time, Charlotte will be twice as old as Nicholas is now. If Charlotte is
3 years old now, how old is Nicholas now?
8 There are 3 sacks of potatoes. The first and second sacks together weigh 35 kg; the
second and third sacks together weigh 45 kg, and the third and first together weigh
40 kg. How much does each sack weigh?
9 At a meeting, everyone shook hands with everyone else. If there were 55 handshakes,
how many people were at the meeting?
10 A bishop on a chessboard can only move diagonally. If the
piece starts on a black square, it can only visit other black
squares. It is not possible to visit all the black squares on
the board without retracing your path. How many black
squares can you visit without retracing your steps?
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 77

0
f\F OC
F O C U S OONR W
US ON W K O
I RK
N GI NM MT
G A AT MA
HHEEM TICALLY
ATICALLY

OUR BEAUTIFUL EARTH

L YI C A L L Y
E MI CAA LT
MATHEMAT
W O R KI N G M A T H
Introduction
‘God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. And there was evening, and

FOCUS ON WORKING
there was morning—the sixth day. Thus the heavens and the earth were completed
in all their vast array.’ Genesis 1:31
Down through the ages, people of different faiths and cultures have seen the hand of a Creator
behind the magnificent world in which we live, and beyond to the stars. The book of Genesis
in the Bible, quoted above, is one such description. What is so interesting is that in this account
God completes his work in exactly six days. However our purpose here is not to debate if it is
true, but to draw attention to the number 6 itself. From ancient times people have believed that
this number was chosen by God because it was perfect. Saint Augustine ( AD 354–430) wrote
that God created all things in six days because the number itself is perfect. In the history of
number theory, ‘perfect numbers’ as they came to be known have held a fascination for
Egyptian, Greek, Arab and European mathematicians.

Consider the number 6. It can be written as 6 = 1 + 2 + 3. You can see that 1, 2 and
3 are the set of divisors of 6. If we exclude 6 itself, 1, 2 and 3 are called ‘proper’
divisors of 6. The number 6 is called a perfect number.
Perfect numbers were very special in ancient times. Pythagoras and his followers
(500 BC) thought perfect numbers to have religious and mystical properties.
 78 Mathscape 7

But the first recorded mathematical result concerning perfect numbers was written
by Euclid in his book the Elements around 300 BC. Nicomachus of Gerasa (who died
about AD 120) suggested, but did not try to prove, that all perfect numbers end in
6 and 8 alternately, and that there are infinitely many perfect numbers.
Perfect numbers are very rare and quickly get very large. Today, only 37 have been
discovered. In 1998 the 37th perfect number was discovered using a computer and
Y I C A L L Y

found to have 1 819 050 digits!

2L EARNING ACTIVITIES

Materials needed: Calculator, pencil and paper

1 As you have seen the first perfect number is 6. Let’s find the next one. Try various numbers
up to 20 checking with your calculator if you wish. Now try up to 30. What is the next
perfect number?
A L LT

2 After this the search becomes time consuming. The next perfect number is 496. Use your
calculator to get the complete set of divisors, excluding 496, and add them up. You should
T I CA

get 496.
3 Notice how the gap between the perfect numbers is increasing. The next perfect number is
A T H MEA M

between 8126 and 8136. See if you can find it.

4 In your work you will have found the first four perfect numbers. Write them down in order
of size.
ING MATHE

8E XTENSION ACTIVITY

In 1536 a mathematician called Hudalrichus Regius found the 5th perfect number 33 550 336.
Notice that it ends in a 6. Nicomachus’ claim that perfect numbers end alternately in
6 and 8 seemed to be true: 6, 28, 496, 8128, 33 550 336, … However as so often happens
W O R K I N WGO R K M

in mathematics, the sixth perfect number, found by Cataldi in 1603, turned out to be
8 589 869 056 which also ends in a 6 and not 8 as we might have hoped.
As an extra activity you may like to learn how to generate perfect numbers from the series
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, … Look carefully at the pattern in the table below:
You can continue the table by Prime × last
N

Sum Total
adding the series until you
O

(A prime number) number added

reach the next prime after 31,
1+2 3×2=6
FOCUS

and multiplying by the last 3

number added in the series. 1+2+4 7 7 × 4 = 28
See if you can get 8128.
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 31 31 × 16 = 496
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 79

E L ET’S COMMUNICATE

Write a summary of what you have learned about perfect numbers. Don’t forget to mention that
they are very rare, get very large, and that there have been only 37 discovered so far. We do not

M A T H E M A T I C A L L Y
know yet if there are infinitely many perfect numbers. Does it surprise you that there are
unsolved problems in mathematics? Discuss with your teacher.

%R EFLECTING

Through the ages, a great deal of work went into finding perfect numbers. Although today
computers have made a great difference, no-one still knows if the number of perfect numbers
is infinite. Nor do we know that all perfect numbers are even.
How does this knowledge affect your understanding of what mathematics is?
Finally, did God create the universe in 6 days? In his recent book Just Six Numbers (Weidenfeld
& Nicolson, London, 1999), Martin Rees demonstrates how it is that just six numbers,
imprinted in the ‘big bang’, determine the essential features of the cosmos. If any one of them
varied just a little, there could be no stars and no life. Interesting!

ICALLY
MATHEMAT
1 Explain the difference between a multiple A number of people came. | She has a number of good
and a factor. ideas. 4. the particular numeral or figure given to
something to fix its place in a list or series or to
2 When a number has been multiplied by identify it: Our house number is 67. |
itself what do we call it? What is your phone number? 5. a telephone number:
3 Explain what the expression 23 means in I asked her for her number, but she wouldn’t give it to
your own words. me. | I could ring my father and ask him, but I don’t
4 Define prime number for a new maths know his new number. 6. a song, especially on a
dictionary. concert program: Hans will sing the next number.

W O R KI N G
WORKING
7. Specialised in grammar, the number of persons or
5 Read the Macquarie Learners’ Dictionary objects a noun, pronoun or verb refers to.
entry for number: –verb 8. to mark with a number: We numbered all the
files. 9. to amount to a certain number: The crowd at
number noun 1. a sign or symbol used to represent a the cricket match numbered 80 000.
place in a counting system: 7 is the number which –phrase 10. do a number, to perform a particular
comes after 6 and before 8. | -12 , -14 and -13 are all piece, or routine: Go on, get up on stage and do a
number!
numbers smaller than 1. 2. the sum or total of a
collection of things: What number are you expecting Which jobs need a good understanding of
to come? | This year’s audience was only half the number numbers in our society?
of last year’s. 3. a collection or quantity, usually large:
 80 Mathscape 7
CHAPTER RE

10 Which number in each pair is divisible by

1 State whether each number is odd or
the number in the brackets?
even.
a 341 or 670 [2]
a 6023 b 51 346 c 39 470
b 842 or 4176 [3]
2 Write down the: c 124 or 114 [4]
a largest 2-digit even number d 465 or 554 [5]
b smallest 3-digit odd number e 243 or 138 [6]
c largest 3-digit odd number with a 7 in f 281 or 832 [8]
the tens place g 809 or 765 [9]
d smallest 4-digit even number with a 6 h 105 or 4160 [10]
in the hundreds place i 1452 or 1546 [11]
3 Which of these numbers are 11 How could you test a number for
palindromes? divisibility by 18?
24 124 13 231 46 446 7007
12 Write the first 6 multiples of:
4 What is the only digit that cannot be a 4 b 6 c 7 d 9
found in the units place of a palindromic
13 a Find the 8th multiple of 5.
VIEW

number?
b Which multiple of 6 is 42?
5 a List the first 10 square numbers.
14 List all multiples of 7 between 30 and 65.
b Find the 17th square number.
15 If 1308 is a multiple of 4, find the next 3
6 a Write down the first square number
multiples of 4.
that is greater than 70.
b Give the first two square numbers 16 Find the LCM of:
with a 6 in the units place. a 4 and 5 b 6 and 4 d 9 and 12
c Which two square numbers have a 17 Find all factors of each number.
sum of 52? a 16 b 30 c 42 d 72
7 a List the first 10 triangular numbers. 18 What is the second largest factor of 418?
b Find the 14th triangular number. 19 If a number is divisible by 20, then
8 a Write down the first triangular what other numbers must it also be
number that is greater than 90. divisible by?
b State the first two triangular numbers 20 Find the HCF of:
that contain the digit 2. a 15 and 20 b 21 and 28
c Find the two triangular numbers c 32 and 40
whose product is 63. 21 State whether these numbers are prime or
9 a List the first ten Fibonacci numbers. composite.
b Write the number that is 8 less than a 2 b 9 c 15 d 19
the 8th Fibonacci number. e 21 f 23 g 39 h 47
c By how much does the sum of the 22 Use the divisibility tests to determine
first seven Fibonacci numbers exceed whether 87 is prime or composite.
the sum of the first four?

CHAPTER REVIEW
 Chapter 2: Nu mber t heo ry 81

23 Express each even number as the sum of 28 Use the given prime factors to find the

VIEW
two primes. LCM of each pair of numbers.
a 18 b 24 c 36 d 58 a 18 = 2 × 3 × 3 and 42 = 2 × 3 × 7
24 a What are twin primes? b 392 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 7 × 7 and
b List the first three pairs of twin 700 = 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 7
primes. 29 Evaluate:
25 a Find the first 3-digit prime with a 6 in a 16 b 25 c 81

CHAPTER RE
the tens place. d 144 e 3 8 f 3 27
b Write down the first composite 3 3
g 125 h 1000
Fibonacci number.
c What is the next odd composite 30 Evaluate:
number after 9? a 36 × 49 b 64 + 3 64
26 Draw a factor tree and use it to express c 3 2 3 + 19 d 27 2
each number as the product of its prime 31 Find:
factors. Give your answers in index form. a 484 if 484 = 2 × 2 × 11 × 11
a 72 b 120 c 675 d 1936
b 2704
27 Use the given prime factors to find the if 2704 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 13 × 13
HCF of each pair of numbers.
a 441 = 3 × 3 × 7 × 7 and c 3 35 937 if 35 937 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 11 ×
1134 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 7 11 × 11
b 3575 = 5 × 5 × 11 × 13 and d 3 42 875
33 275 = 5 × 5 × 11 × 11 × 11 if 42 875 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 7 × 7 × 7
32 a Show that 36 × 16 = 576.
b Hence, find 576 .

CHAPTER REVIEW