The Contemporary World

Lecture Notes

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF GLOBALIZATION

LESSON 1 - Definition and approaches of globalization
What is globalization?
 Globalization according to Ake (1995) is about growing cultural differentiation and
functional integration in the world economy; it is growing interdependence across
the globe; it is about the nation state coming under pressure from the urge of
transnational phenomena; it is about the emergence of global mass culture driven
by mass advertising and technical advances in mass communication.
 Nnoli (2000) asserts that globalization interfaces with various elements of social life
and is suffused with ambiguities, variations, uncertainties, and incompatibilities; its
core, is the inevitable expansion of capitalism worldwide including the spread of its
values.
 Manfred Steger described globalization as the expansion and intensification of
social relations and consciousness across world-time and across world-
space (Claudio, 2018). ). Expansion involves the creation of new and the
multiplication of existing social networks and activities that increasingly overcome
traditional political, economic, cultural, and geographical boundaries. .
Intensification is reflected in the expansion and the stretching of social relations,
activities, and interdependencies. The way people perceive time and space -
people begin to feel that the world has become a smaller place and miles and miles
of distance away to just a mouse-click away.

A. Approaches of globalization

1. Globaloney

Several scholars contend that the existing accounts on globalization are incorrect,
imprecise, or exaggerated. Hence, they suspect that such general observations often
amount to little more than “globaloney” (Veseth, 2010). Baloney is a term that has
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American-English origin. It denotes nonsensical or absurd talk or ideas. Hence,

globaloney means ridiculous ideas about globalization.

The arguments of these globalization critics fall into three broad categories: a)
rejectionists, b) skeptics, and c) modifiers. Rejectionists dispute the usefulness of
globalization as a sufficiently precise analytical concept. Their arguments typically
originate from within a larger criticism of similarly vague words used in academic
discourse. Skeptics pointed out the limited nature of globalizing processes. Modifiers
dispute the novelty of the process, implying that the label ‘globalization’ has often been
applied in a historically imprecise manner. They argue that those who refer to
globalization as a recent process miss the bigger picture and fall prey to their narrow
historical framework.

2. Economic process
● The increasing linkage of national economies through trade, financial flows, and
foreign direct investment by multinational firm.
● Effects
● Rapid development around the world
● Rise in wages and increased social services
● International trade

3. Political process
● Successful mobilization of political power allows forces of globalization to be
unleashed.
● Globalization is a long-term, technology-driven process whose contemporary
shape has been politically determined by the world's most powerful nations.

4. Cultural process
● Globalization is a densely growing network of complex cultural interconnections
and interdependencies that characterize modern social life.
○ culture is transmitted
○ dominant cultural global context tends to influence local lives
○ international media
● Perspectives on Global Flows of Culture:
○ Cultural differentialism - ‘catastrophic collision’ among different cultures
○ Culture hybridization – cultural borrowing
○ Cultural convergence - convergence of cultural ideas between/among
cultures

B. Brief History of globalization

● Ancient Civilizations (marketplaces)

● Age of Exploration
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Perhaps one of the turning points in the history of globalization was during the Age of
Exploration which began in the early 15th century. This was pioneered by the European
superpowers: Portugal, Spain, France, and England. This was the time when European
countries were seeking new trade partners hence paved the way in search for new
trade routes.

A. Silk Road

The Silk Road is an infamous network of routes used by traders. It connected East Asia
(China) and Europe during the Middle Ages. Famous Chinese commodities like silk,
porcelain, and spices traveled the Silk Road in exchange of horses, glassware, textiles
and other European manufactured good (National Geographic Society, 2022).

Alongside goods, religion and ideas also fluidly spread like wildfire. This
exchange of ideas between diverse cultures gave rise to new technological
development that would soon change the world.

B. Spice/Trade routes/Maritime Silk Roads

Another famous trade routes that many believed to have paved the way for globalization
was the Spice Routes, also known as Maritime Silk Roads. With the dramatic
improvements in Europeans navigational skills, many expeditions were set up to travel
further in search of new trade routes. For example, Christopher Columbus voyage to the
New World in 1492 and the famous voyage of Ferdinand Magellan between 1519 and
1522 in search of Spice Island and bumped into the Philippines in Asia.

The Manila – Acapulco, popularly known as the Galleon Trade, during the
Spanish colonization of the Philippines was believed to be a perfect image of the
international trading system. The goods from Manila were sent to European markets
and vice versa. This trade lasted for 250 years.
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● Age of Revolution (Industrial Revolution)

Furthermore, the impact of globalization continued its journey through the Age of
Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was remarkable in the history of markets since
it led to the growth of mass production and the establishment of a global economy. With
the expansion of international commerce, markets have become more linked and
complicated, trading a wider range of products and services (Vallarino, 2023). Some
features of the Industrial Revolution include the use of new energy resources such as
coal, the use of steam engines, invention of machines, the birth of factory system, and
the increasing application of science to industry.

The first, second, third and fourth industrial revolutions are different phases of
technological and economic development that have transformed the world in different
ways. Here are some of their main characteristics:
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First Great Wave of Globalization

The first age of globalization started from 1870 to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
Great Britain dominated the world geographically with the establishment of the British
Empire and technologically with innovations and use of steamships, railroads, weaving
machine, the telegraph, and other breakthroughs. It was the era of the First Industrial
Revolution.

The first industrial revolution (IR 1.0) started in the late 18th century and lasted until the
mid-19th century. It was driven by the use of steam power, mechanization, and textile
production. It led to the growth of factories, railways, and urbanization.

Second Great Wave of Globalization

The second great wave of globalization rose out of the ashes of the Second World War
(1945 – 1980). It was spearheaded by the United States of America. The second wave
benefitted from major technological breakthroughs from the Second Industrial
Revolution like cars, jet planes, television, communication satellites (Vanham, 2019).

The second industrial revolution (IR 2.0) started in the late 19th century and lasted until
the early 20th century. It was driven by the use of electricity, steel, chemicals, and mass
production. It led to the development of industries, automobiles, telephones, and
consumer goods.

Third Wave of Globalization

The third great wave of globalization, from the 1980s to the present. Third Industrial
Revolutions brought about rapid advances in information and communications
technologies (ICTs) such as the Internet, World Wide Web, cell phones, and other
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wireless technologies accelerated global connectivity (Vanham, 2019). Business-to-

business (B2B) and business-to-consumer (B2C) electronic transactions, or
ecommerce, expanded into the trillions of dollars.

The third industrial revolution (IR 3.0) started in the mid-20th century and lasted until the
early 21st century. It was driven by the use of computers, digitalization, and information
technology. It led to the emergence of the internet, software, biotechnology, and
globalization.

Fourth Wave of Globalization

The fourth industrial revolution (IR 4.0) started in the early 21st century and is still
ongoing. It is driven by the use of artificial intelligence, robotics, nanotechnology, and
biotechnology. It is expected to lead to the creation of smart systems, cyber-physical
systems, and new forms of social interaction.
C. Regionalization
Regionalization is the societal integration and often undirected process of social and
economic interaction among countries in the same region.
Regionalization x Regionalism x Globalization
Regionalization is the societal integration and often undirected process of social and
economic interaction among countries in the same region.
Regionalism is the formal process of intergovernmental collaboration between two or
more states.
Globalization is the increasing interconnectedness among nations from various parts of
the world.
Globalization is seen as to have failed in addressing transnational security and political
issues.
▪ It appears to be selective as some countries benefit from integration while others
suffer from it.
To preserve economic, political, and cultural stability, the states have responded
through regionalization or forming regional blocs.
▪ Regionalization has risen to address the weakness and shortcomings of globalization
LESSON 2 – Drivers of globalization
A. Trade flows
B. Knowledge flows - •The spread of ideas, values, norms, and lifestyles across
borders.
C. Cultural flows -
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D. Political flows - Liberalized trading rules and deregulated markets lead to lowered
tariffs and allow foreign direct investments in almost all over the world.
E. Technological flows - Technology shaped and set the foundation for modern
globalization.
CHAPTER 2 – GLOBALIZATION AND WORLD POLITICS
LESSON 1 – The International System
International System is a concept for analysis or description of international politics or
relations, but therein lies a sense of prescription for diplomatic or military action too.
According to Hedley Bull he defines:
a system of states (or international system) is formed when two or more states have
sufficient contact between them, and have sufficient impact on one another’s decisions,
to cause them to behave—at least in some measure—as parts of a whole.
Joseph Frankel described the International System as “a collection of independent
political units, which interact with some regularity.” (Guruge, 2015). In other words, the
international system refers to the comprehensive global context in which states operate.
The international system reflects all aspects of economic, political, social, cultural,
ecological, and other forms of interaction that exist among states.
Structure of the International System
Structure is a set of overarching principles, rules, roles, and constraints that bind actors
together into a larger system.
● Structure plays a crucial role in organizing and ordering actors within the system.
● It also has a significant influence on the interests of actors and how they respond
to each other within the system.
● The elements of structure exist independently of any one actor in the system.
International structures can be categorized based on two key attributes: the relative
importance of material or ideational components and whether the structure
constraints the behavior of actors or constitutive prominent characteristics of
actors, such as their interests or identity.
A. Five evolutionary periods of international system

1. Classical Period

The Peace of Westphalia was a series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty
Years’ War and the Eighty Years’ War between Spain and the Dutch. Peace was
negotiated in the Westphalian towns of Münster and Osnabrück. The treaty is widely
regarded as the foundation of the modern international order, characterized by the
coexistence of sovereign states that do not acknowledge any superior power. The treaty
also established the principle of territorial sovereignty, which means that each state has
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exclusive control over its territory and domestic affairs. This principle has been a
cornerstone of international relations ever since.

The Peace of Westphalia had several consequences for international relations. It

marked the end of religious wars in Europe and paved the way for secularism. It also
led to the rise of nation-states, which were based on shared language, culture, and
history. The treaty also contributed to the development of international law and
diplomacy.

2. Post-classical Period

The Congress of Vienna was an international conference held in 1815 in Vienna,

Austria, with the aim of reorganizing Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. The Congress
was attended by representatives of the major European powers, including Russia,
Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of
international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, an attempt to
forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe.

Here are some highlights of the Congress of Vienna:

The Congress reorganized Europe’s political boundaries and restored many of the
monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon.

The Congress established a balance of power among the major European powers,
which helped to prevent another major war in Europe for almost a century.

The Congress established the principle of legitimacy, which meant that rulers who had
been deposed by Napoleon were restored to their thrones.

The Congress established a system of international diplomacy that helped to prevent

conflicts between nations.
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The Congress established a new system of international relations based on cooperation

and mutual respect among nations

The Concert of Europe was a series of international meetings held between 1815 and
1914, which aimed to maintain peace and stability in Europe. The Concert was based
on the principle of balance of power, which meant that no single country could dominate
Europe. The Concert helped to prevent major wars in Europe for almost a century. It
also established a system of international diplomacy that helped to prevent conflicts
between nations.

Here are some highlights of the Concert of Europe:

The Concert of Europe was established after the Congress of Vienna in 1815 with the
aim of maintaining peace and stability in Europe.

The Concert established a new system of international relations based on cooperation

and mutual respect among nations.

The Concert helped to prevent major wars in Europe for almost a century.

The Concert established a system of international diplomacy that helped to prevent

conflicts between nations.

3. Transitional Period

World War I was an international conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918. It was fought
between the Allied Powers, which included Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy,
Romania, Canada, Japan, and the United States, and the Central Powers, which
included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. The war was
triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in 1914.

Here are some highlights of World War I:

 The war saw unprecedented levels of carnage and destruction due to new military
technologies and trench warfare.

 More than 16 million people—soldiers and civilians alike—were dead by the time
the war ended with the victory of the Allied Powers.

 The war marked the end of several empires and monarchies in Europe.

 The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, imposed heavy penalties on Germany and
is widely regarded as a contributing factor to World War II.

World War II was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945. The war involved the
majority of the world’s nations, including all of the great powers, and was fought in two
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opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. Here are some highlights of World
War II:

The war saw unprecedented levels of carnage and destruction due to new military
technologies and trench warfare.

More than 85 million people—soldiers and civilians alike—were dead by the time the
war ended with the victory of the Allied Powers.

The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, imposed heavy penalties on Germany and is
widely regarded as a contributing factor to World War II.

The Holocaust, a genocide in which millions of Jews were systematically murdered by

Nazi Germany, occurred during World War II.

The United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in
August 1945, leading to Japan’s surrender and the end of the war.

4. The Cold War

The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the
Soviet Union that lasted from the end of World War II in 1945 until the collapse of the
Soviet Union in 1991. The conflict was waged on political, economic, and propaganda
fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. Here are some highlights of the Cold
War:

 The Cold War began after World War II and lasted until the early 1990s.

 The Cold War was characterized by a nuclear arms race between the United States
and the Soviet Union.

 The Cold War saw several proxy wars, including the Korean War, the Vietnam War,
and the Soviet-Afghan War.

 The Cold War also saw several crises, including the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

 The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

5. The Contemporary World

 Under the impact of the Second World War several changes came to characterize
international relations which continue to be operative even with the changes that
came during the last two decades. The USA continues to be a superpower. NATO
continues despite the end of the Cold War and the Warsaw Pact. Nuclear weapons
along with their impact continue to be the factor of international relations, though
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there is now an increasing awareness in favor of containment of nuclear

proliferation and arms race through arms-control and disarmament measures.

 The era of imperialism and colonialism has ended and yet neo-colonialism has
come to characterize the relations between the former colonial masters (the
developed and rich states of the North) and the new states (the developing and
poor states of the South). Humankind fully realizes the dangers of a future world war
and yet local wars and ethnic conflicts continue to characterize international
relations. Rise of several new Asian and African actors and the resurgence of the
Latin American states have come, marking an end of the era of imperialism and
colonialism and yet the evils continue to operate in new forms of Neo-colonialism
and new imperialism.

 Trends towards international integration are distinctly visible from increased regional
cooperation, global cooperation, and South-South cooperation (South Commission,
G-8, G- 24, G-25, etc.) and yet the sovereign nation states system continues. The
non-state actors have come to play a bigger role in shaping international relations.
International economic relations have gained tremendous importance and yet
political relations continue to determine the course of international relations.

Some characteristics of the contemporary international relations:

1. Transformation of Bi-multipolarity into Unipolarity, and New Trends towards
Polycentrism or Multipolarity
2. Increased and Ever-increasing International Interdependence
3. Increasing Number and Invigorating Role of Non-State Actors
4. Issue of Nuclear Proliferation vs. Non-Proliferation and Arms Control
5. Enhanced Popularity of Peace and World Order Movements
6. Stronger Role of the United Nations
7. Increased Ethnic Conflicts, Ethnic Violence and Ethnic Wars
8. Little Progress towards Arms Control and Disarmament
9. Growing and Dangerous Menace of International Terrorism
10. Sustainable Development, Protection of Environment and Protection of Human
Rights of all as the Key Objectives

B. The Actors of the International System

A. Nation-states

Nation-state refers to a community of people, more or less numerous, permanently

occupying a definite portion of territory, independent of external control, and possessing
an organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual
obedience. The term state is used interchangeably with the word country. The
fundamental elements of states are:
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1. Population - A population that willingly gives its allegiance to that government

2. Territory - Land with boundaries

3. Government - A government or a system of rule

4. Sovereignty - The supreme authority within a territory.

5. Recognition- as an equal partner among states

The relationships of nation-states are governed by the following principles:

Sovereignty - Jean Bodin defined sovereignty as “absolute and perpetual power of

commanding in a state.

Territoriality- Territorial jurisdiction is the power of the state that affects persons,
property, and conditions within its internationally recognized boundaries. This applies to
their handling of criminal activities according to the laws of the land within their
boundaries.

Non-interference- The principle of non-interference is that sovereign states shall not

intervene in each other’s internal/domestic affairs.

Cooperation- Cooperation involves individuals or groups working together for the

achievement of their individual or collective goals.

Diplomacy- the chief instrument of foreign policy. Foreign policy refers to how a
government deals with other countries.

B. Non-state Actors

1. International Organizations (IOs)

○ Different international organizations facilitate interdependent relationships
of among independent countries.
○ However, these international organizations do not serve as a global
government with authority over the member countries.
○ They, however, exist to regulate the behavior or countries.
○ They exert power if one country becomes a challenge to the sovereignty
of the others.
○ These forms of global governance are what characterize global politics.
○ International organizations (IOs) refer to international intergovernmental
organizations or groups composed of member-states.
■ IOs can become influential as independent organizations.
■ They have the power to fix meanings.
■ They serve as legitimate source of information.
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■ They also have the power to diffuse the norms.

■ They compel countries/governments to spread these norms.
■ They can promote what policies are necessary (e.g. for
environmental protections).
2. Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)
○ According to Britannica, NGO refers to the voluntary group of individuals
or organizations, usually not affiliated with any government, that is formed
to provide services or to advocate a public policy.
○ Unlike UN and NATO, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are not
tied to any country and its government.
○ They operate freely around the world.
○ One prominent NGO is the Red Cross which is called Red Crescent in
Muslim countries.
○ The main goal of Red Cross is to do volunteer works and facilitate
donations of foods, blood, medical supplies.
○ They provide emergency relief on places experiencing aftermaths of
various disasters and wars.
○ Neutrality
○ Aside form Red Cross, other NGOs dedicated to helping people from all
over the world.
■ Doctors Without Borders providing healthcare
■ Oxfam fighting famine and diseases
■ Amnesty International fighting for human rights
■ Save the Children helping children to access healthcare and
education.
○ These organizations go hand in hand with the governments in providing
welfare services for the global population.
■ They can also influence the local policies and programs of these
governments.
3. Multinational Corporations
○ A multinational corporation (MNC) is a company that has business
operations in at least one country other than its home country. By some
definitions, it also generates at least 25% of its revenue outside of its
home country.
4. Civil Society Organizations, Social Movements, Media Outlets
○ Civil society organizations (CSOs) and social movements play a
significant role in shaping public opinion and influencing policy decisions.
They are non-governmental organizations that work to promote social
justice, human rights, and sustainable development. Media outlets, on the
other hand, are responsible for disseminating information to the public and
holding those in power accountable.
○ In the Philippines, CSOs have been instrumental in working alongside the
government to help cut poverty, promote human rights, and support
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inclusive economic growth. They monitor graft, tackle environmental and

social issues, and work closely with development partners to improve the
lives of poor and marginalized people.
○
○ Social movements are collective efforts by groups of people who share a
common goal or interest. They can be peaceful or violent and can take
many forms such as protests, boycotts, strikes, and sit-ins. Social
movements have been successful in forcing change in many countries
around the world .
○ Media outlets have a crucial role in shaping public opinion by providing
accurate information to the public. They also hold those in power
accountable by exposing corruption and other wrongdoings

C. How the International System Operates

One subfield of political science is International Relations (IR). IR focuses on the ways
that different states interact with one another. Its scope includes but is not limited to all
intercourse among states and all movements of peoples, goods, and ideas across
frontiers, as a field of study. Its main goal is to establish balance and a system of peace
in the international arena.

There are two most important factors that a country considered in dealing with other
countries:

a. National Interest- National interests are those things that states could do or
seek to protect or achieve vis-à-vis other states. There are two types of national
interests:

1. Vital national interests – those for which a state is normally willing to fight
immediately or ultimately. Examples are the protection of existing territories and
preservation of their prestige from a massive loss of face.

2. Secondary interests – cover all the numerous desires of individual states that
they would like to attain but for which they will not fight. Secondary interests are the
stuff of diplomatic compromise. One interest can be obtained by giving up another in
negotiation.

b. Power- In international relations, power is the ability of a state to prompt its

preferred outcome in a given situation. States aim to protect their sovereignty—their
authority to govern themselves—and guard against attacks from other countries.
Growing and projecting their strength is the means through which they achieve this
goal.

Power distribution in the international system:

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1. Unipolar - a position in which one state is superior to others in terms of power

2. Bipolar - is a system of international order in which two competing powers

3. Multipolar - refers to a power distribution in which more than two equally

powerful states contend for dominance

Types of power

1. Military power- Military power refers to the ability of a country to use its military
forces to achieve its objectives. Military power can be measured in terms of the size of a
country’s military, the quality of its weapons and equipment, and the training and
experience of its soldiers.

2. Economic power- Economic power refers to a country’s ability to use its economic
resources to achieve its objectives. Economic power can be measured in terms of a
country’s gross domestic product (GDP), trade balance, and access to natural
resources.

3. Political power- Political power refers to a country’s ability to influence other

countries and international organizations through diplomacy, alliances, and other
means. Political power can be measured in terms of a country’s membership in
international organizations, its diplomatic relationships with other countries, and its
ability to influence global decision-making.

4. Soft power- In international politics, soft power is the ability to co-opt rather than
coerce other countries through appeal and attraction. Soft power is non-coercive and
uses culture, political values, and foreign policies to enact change. Joseph Nye of
Harvard University popularized the term in his 1990 book, Bound to Lead: The
Changing Nature of American Power. According to Nye, a country’s soft power rests on
three resources: its culture (in places where it is attractive to others), its political values
(when it lives up to them at home and abroad), and its foreign policies (when others see
them as legitimate and having moral authority).

LESSON 2 - Global Governance and the United Nations (UN)

According to Weiss (2013), global governance is “governance minus government”
Global governance can be defined as the “collective efforts to identify, understand, or
address worldwide problems that go beyond the capacities of individual states to solve”.
A defining characteristic of its power is the international ability to provide government-
like services and public goods at any time without the existence of a world government.
What are public goods? Public goods include, but are not limited to, education, health
care, security, human rights, development aid, and natural disaster relief. They are
material goods that, if provided to anyone, must be provided to everyone (Fung and
Warren, 2011). Global governance achieves the goal of delivering public goods by
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combining informal and formal values, rules, procedures, policies and various types of
organizations. In addition to these types of arrangements, more formal measures can
be utilized, such as international law and treaties. Ultimately, the result is order, stability,
and predictability on a global scale (Weiss, 2013).
A. Theoretical Foundation of Global Governance

a. Liberal Institutionalism

Liberal institutionalists believe that global governance is an effective system because it

fosters collaboration and cooperation among IGOs to address worldwide problems.
Institutions “provide information, reduce transaction costs, make commitments more
credible, establish focal points for coordination, and in general facilitate the operation of
reciprocity” (Keohane and Martin, 1995, p. 387).

Liberal institutionalists believe that states need to cooperate through IGOs to prevent
cheating or taking advantage of other states, anarchy, and unequal gains from
cooperation, as well as to maintain “stability” through “collective security” (Keohane and
Martin, 1995, p. 394). Collective security is based on the notion that an approach of “all
against one provides more stability” than an approach of “each for his own,” where
stability is defined as the “absence of major war” (Kupchan and Kupchan, 1995, 397-
398). Collective security deters other states from violating laws and does not focus on
individual security and peace, but that of the state. IGOs are instrumental in facilitating
global harmony and the prevention of anarchy because they promote global governance
that is equitable for states with common needs and interests. Therefore, the incentive
for states to cooperate in developing and achieving collective goals is high.

b. Realism

Realists reject the belief that a global world economy has gained more significance than
political boundaries and national governments (Gilpin and Gilpin, 2001). They believe
that the nation-state is the prevailing actor in domestic and international economic
affairs (Gilpin and Gilpin, 2001). Although IGOs exist, realists view national
governments as the primary decision-makers for economic matters and believe national
governments are the ones who establish the rules for other actors (Gilpin and Gilpin,
2001). Therefore, the ultimate power remains with individual states, despite the increase
in IGOs. Realism advocates that global governance is merely a tool for major world
powers to maintain the divide between the least and most powerful states.

Realists view the international system as a ruthless arena in which states take
advantage of each other, and have minimal reason to trust each other (Mearsheimer,
1994). The basis of the realist perspective on global governance is that power is the
driving force and motivator for state action and interest. According to Mearsheimer, the
international arena is essentially a struggle for power between states where competition
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supersedes cooperation. However, he argues that cooperation among states exists but
has limitations, such as security competition, and that genuine peace is unlikely
(Mearsheimer, 1994). Realists believe that cooperation is hindered by “relative-gains”
and “cheating,” and that institutions operate under guidelines that favor state
calculations of self-interest that are established on the global distribution of power
(Mearsheimer, 1994).

Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to
other states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power;
therefore, a powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of
power)—will always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a
major theme in realism, as states must always seek power to protect themselves. In
realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders
may be moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism
recognizes that international organizations and law have no power and force, and that
their existence relies solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.

Emphasize the role of power. Power may be in the form of military capabilities, strong
economy, internal stability, and foreign alliances.

c. Marxism and Social Constructivism

Marxists believe that global governance is ineffective because MNCs and the more
powerful and wealthier states exploit the poorer states. Marxists believe that because of
multinational systems of trade, finance, and production, the state’s authority regresses
to just one of many at global, national, and local levels (Dunn, 2009, p. 307).

Social constructivists, for example, believe that global governance is proficient. They
believe that structural change is determined by altering a system of expectations that
could be mutually strengthening (Wendt, 1995). They also believe that social structure
is made up of social relationships and they examine how ideas influence states and
non-state actors in the international system. Social constructivism focuses on the
process of relationship building and collaboration between actors.

B. Characteristics of Global Governance

C. The United Nations (UN)

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The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945. The purpose of
the United Nations is to bring all nations of the world together to work for peace and
development, based on the principles of justice, human dignity, and the well-being of all
people.

There are currently 192 Members of the United Nations. The United Nations
Headquarters is in New York City. UN General Assembly – occupies the central position
as the chief deliberative, policymaking, and representative organs of the United Nations.

The UN does not have its own military, but it has peacekeeping forces which are
supplied by the member states.

UN Principal Organs
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The General Assembly

• composed of representatives of all 193 member states
• the UN's central deliberative body, empowered to discuss and make
recommendations on any subject falling within the scope of the charter itself.
• approves the UN's budget and determines—alone or with the Security
Council—part of the composition of the other main organs, including the Security
Council.

The Security Council

• a 15-member body with five states as permanent members: China, France,
the United Kingdom, Russian Federation, and the United States. The remaining
Security Council members are elected by the General Assembly for two-year
terms.
• primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security
• In times of crisis, it is empowered to act on behalf of all member states and
to decide on a course of collective action that is mandatory for the entire
membership.
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The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

• It consists of 54 members elected for overlapping three-year terms by the
General Assembly.
• is assigned the task of organizing the UN's work on economic and social
matters and the promotion of human rights.

The International Court of Justice

• It consists of 15 judges elected to nine-year terms by the General
Assembly and the Security Council voting independently.
• is the principal judicial organ of the UN.
• The Members of the Court do not represent their governments but are
independent magistrates.

The Trusteeship Council

• After 1975, it was composed of the five permanent members of the Security
Council—the United States, the sole remaining administering power, and the four
permanent non-administering powers.

The Secretariat

• The administrative arm of the organization.

It is headed by a Secretary-General appointed by the General Assembly upon
the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year, renewable term.

LESSON 3 – Global Citizenship

Global citizenship is the umbrella term for social, political, environmental, and
economic actions of globally minded individuals and communities on a worldwide scale
(United Nations, n.d).
UNICEF defines a global citizen as someone who understands interconnectedness,
respects and values diversity, can challenge injustice, and acts in personally meaningful
ways.

The global dimension of citizenship is Manifested in behavior that does justice to the
principles of mutual dependency in the world, the equality of human beings and the
shared responsibility for solving global issues.

A. Characteristics
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According to the International Development Education Association Scotland (IDEAS), a

global citizen possesses the following traits:
•Respect for other cultures and embrace of diversity.
•Awareness of social, cultural, political, environmental and economic issues, both on a
local and global scale.
•Active community participation in addressing societal issues for a more equitable and
sustainable world.
•Lack of tolerance for social injustice.
•Responsibility for their actions.

B. Rights and responsibilities

● The rights of global citizens are embedded in the Universal declaration of Human
Rights and are grounded in individual liberty, equality, and equity, but have also
evolved to include digital access rights, LGBTQ rights, and environmental rights.
● Modern global citizens have ethical, moral, political and economic
responsibilities, and have a desire to contribute to communities and the world at
large in a positive way in order to improve the lives of others.
○ The responsibility to understand one’s own perspective and the
perspectives of others on global issues
○ The responsibility to respect cultural diversity
○ The responsibility to build relationships with people from other countries
and cultures
○ The responsibility to understand the ways in which people and countries of
the world are interconnected and interdependent
○ The responsibility to understand global issues
○ The responsibility to advocate for greater international cooperation with
other nations
○ The responsibility for advocating for the implementation of international
agreements, conventions, and treaties related to global issues
○ The responsibility for advocating for more effective global equity and
justice in each of the value domains of the world community
Chapter 3- Globalization and the World Economy
Globalization as Economic Process
 Economic Globalization
-‘the increasing linkage of national economies through trade, financial flows, and
foreign direct investment by multinational firms’
 rapid development around the world
 rise in wages and increased social services
 international trade
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 IMF:
“a historical process, the result of human innovation and technological
progress. It refers to the increasing integration of economies around the
world, particularly through the movement of goods, services, and capital
across borders. The term sometimes also refers to the movement of
people (labor) and knowledge (technology) across international borders.”
 United Nations:
“the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of growing
scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of
international capital, and wide and rapid spread of technologies.”
Economic Globalization
 Economic globalization is characterized by the deepening economic relations and
interdependencies among countries.
 Production of goods and services is no longer confined within a single country.
Elements:
 the globalization of trade of goods and services
 the globalization of financial, capital, and labor markets
 the globalization of technology and communication
 the globalization of production process
Global Trade of Goods & Services
 Trade of goods and services allows economies to interact with other economies
which increases social relations among people.
 This allows flowing and sharing of ideas and practices across communities.
 Through international trade of goods and services, people from a particular country
can now consume goods and services that can only be produced by certain
countries.
Trade Protectionism: government intervention in foreign trade with the objective of
encouraging domestic production by reducing trade.
Trade restrictions are imposed:
 Tariff – tax on import
 Quota – limitations on the quantity of goods or the monetary values of the goods to
be imported
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 Domestic producers are favored over foreign competitors.

 International trade is regulated

Trade Liberalization: government intervention opposite to protectionism where trade

restrictions are removed/reduced to increase trade
 Under this policy, trade restrictions such as tariffs and quotas are reduced or
removed to allow goods and services to freely exit and enter a country.
 Free trade is a trade liberalization policy that does not restrict imports and exports.
 little to no government regulation that limits international trade.
 market forces alone drive the global demand and supply for goods and services
allows specialization among countries.
Economic Globalization & Global Trade
To maximize the benefits of free trade, countries engage in or create:
 bilateral agreement – agreement between two countries
 trade bloc - an intergovernmental agreement among a group of countries
Free trade and trade bloc makes outsourcing easier.
 Outsourcing is the transfer of labor from one country to another in order to
minimize the cost of productions.
 It increases job opportunities for developing countries.
 Free trade also allows the transfer of technological advances particularly on
production, transportation, and communication.
 Improvement of production implies growth in world economies.
 There is, however, unequal distribution of benefits.
 Some countries, especially the developed nations, have used economic
globalization as a mean to develop on their own by exploiting other countries and
their resources.
 Fair trade - concerns for the social, economic, and environmental well-being of
marginalized small producers.
Global Financial, Capital, & Labor Markets
 Increased interconnectedness among countries has also allowed to create global
markets for money, capital, and labor.
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 The inflow of tourists as well as the outflow of overseas workers have facilitated
financial flows.
 In theory, financial integration or openness enhances economic growth, especially
in developing countries.
 Particularly, financial flow augments domestic saving, consumption, and production.
 Physical capitals such as machineries are also imported or shared among countries
in order to improve efficiency and productivity among firms.
 Globalization and the advancement of technology that it has brought have shifted
the production process from labor-intensive to capital-intensive.
 This, in turn, has allowed expansion and innovation in the production of goods and
services.
 Globalization has also allowed for a smooth flow of people which includes labor
migration.
 People could go to other countries to work there.
 Examples of this are overseas Filipino workers who travel outside the Philippines for
work and Chinese nationals who come to the Philippines to work in Manila-based
Philippine Offshore Gaming Operators (POGOs).
Globalization of Technology & Communication
 Globalization has also allowed the transfer of technology and communications
across countries. In turn, they have also intensified globalization thru strengthening
social relations among people.
 Technology keeps improving and promoting innovations due to the global flows of
ideas brought about by the increased social relations among people.
 These technologies have been integrated in people’s everyday lives.
 Advancement in technology and communication has allowed efficiency and
improvement of production of goods and services.
Globalization of Production Process
 Production process has become globalized. Production of a particular product is no
longer confined within one single country but distributed to different parts of the
world.
 The driving force behind this is to lessen the cost of production, thereby, making
production more efficient.
 Firms from different countries engage in specialization by producing inputs that they
can manufacture more efficiently.
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 Technology is also advanced as firms are able to innovate more with specialization.
 The globalization of the production process also has drastic impacts on developing
countries as much of raw materials and primary inputs are supplied by these
countries.
GLOBAL ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS
Market Integration
 The economy is a social institution as it is composed of people who facilitate the
production, consumption and exchange of goods.
 Such economic activities vary among economic systems.
Sectors of every economy:
 Primary Sector – raw materials
 Secondary Sector – manufacturing
 Tertiary Sector – services
 With the help of the different international financial institutions and economic
organizations, economic globalization has brought closer together the world
economies creating market integration.
 The gains and crises of one country can affect the world economy and the
magnitude of such impacts depends on the strength of the country’s economic
power/influence.
The Bretton Wood System
 Gold Standard – countries redeems their currency with the values of their golds.
 Bretton Wood System – shift from gold standard to US Dollar standard of exchange.
 It paved the way for the creation of two financial institutions:
 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
 International Monetary Fund (IMF).
World Trade Organization (WTO)
 General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1947.
 served as a forum where representatives of member countries meet to engage in
multinational trade agreements.
 the World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in January 1995.
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 The WTO became the official organization to implement the trading system provided
by the GATT.
 oversees trade in services, nontariff-related barriers to trade, and other areas of
trade liberalization.
 neoliberal goal: reducing or eliminating barriers in order for all nations to benefit.
 The WTO oftentimes fails to counter the trade barriers in developed countries.
 The decision-making processes in the organization are heavily influenced by larger
trading powers.
 Green Room
 The WTO are also protested by certain International Non-Governmental
Organizations (INGOs) because it excludes these INGOs in its decision-processes.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) & World Bank
 IMF and World Bank are both global financial institutions/banks with the main
advocacy of promoting economic stability.
 established by the different countries
 financed and heavily influenced by rich powerful countries
 The IMF was established to help for the reconstruction after the war by lending to
countries whose economies or currencies collapsed.
 The World Bank had long term goals: eradication of global poverty especially in
poor countries by investing in education, health and other important sectors of each
country.
ILO- INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION
 The International Labor Organization is a tripartite organization that brings together
representatives of governments, employers and workers in its executive bodies.
 to set labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes promoting decent
work for all women and men.
OPE-Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
 The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an intergovernmental
organization established in 1960 by Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, and
Venezuela.
 to coordinate and unify petroleum policies among member states.
OEC-Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
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 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is an

organization composed of the world’s richest and economically powerful countries.
 to impose economic reforms which greatly influence the globe.
Regional Blocs
 To preserve economic, political, and cultural stability, the states have responded
through regionalization or forming regional blocs.
Factors affecting countries’ decision to form a regional bloc:
 Security
 Culture
 Political Factors
 Economic Factors
European Union
 The EU is an economic and political unit composed of 27 European countries.
 The main goal of the EU was to foster economic cooperation and interdependence
among member countries to promote economic growth among them. The EU
established a single market and a single currency, the Euro, to be used among its
members.
 Through free trade and its single market, the EU has liberalized world trade and has
become the biggest trade block in the world.
 It has also used its economic power to exert political and economic influence on
other countries around the world,
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
 The ASEAN was established in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Singapore, and Thailand.
 ASEAN aims to accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural
development in the region and to promote regional peace and stability in adherence
to the principles of the UN.
 The realization of ASEAN’s end goal of economic integration is the ASEAN
Economic Community. It envisioned ASEAN as a single market and product base, a
highly competitive region, with equitable economic development, and fully integrated
into the global economy
. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
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 The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a trade agreement by the
United States, Canada, and Mexico which was created on January 01, 1994.
 Many tariffs on trades among the three were eliminated and phased out which
created a huge free trade zone in North America.
 In 2018, the NAFTA was replaced by the US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)
under the Trump Administration.
Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR)
 MERCOSUR is an economic and political bloc initially established by Argentina,
Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, and subsequently joined by Venezuela and Bolivia.
 It aims to promote a common market and spur development by generating business
and investment opportunities.
 It also aims for the competitive integration of the members’ national economies into
the international market.
Global Corporations
 Global corporations are also called multinational corporations (MNCs) or
transnational corporations (TNCs).
 They are considered multinational or transnational because their facilities and
assets are located in different countries to take advantage of the opportunities in
manufacturing, distribution, exchange and sell their products outside their home
countries.
 Hence, for a particular product from a multinational corporation, the different stages
of production may be operated at many different countries where the material or the
labor is least expensive.
MNCs and Global Market Integration
 In the present, global corporations play an important role in the global economy as
they are seen as the drivers of economic globalization by making the countries
around the world more interdependent.
 They tend to influence the different countries’ economy and politics.
 They affect the supply in the market.
 They also may lobby their interests to politicians and the policy making process by
donating to their political campaigns.
 They can also influence the global trade laws and other economic decisions of the
different international regulatory institutions.
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 To minimize the costs of productions and maximize their profit, MNCs locate their
factories in countries especially among developing nations where there are lesser
costs in terms of regulatory fees, labor, and raw materials.
 Outsourcing or transfer of production to developing countries will create job
opportunities and transfer of ideas and innovations which can help improve the
economic growth of these countries.
 As a result, as well, of minimizing the costs of production, the output increases, and
their prices are lowered.
 Resources are also allocated efficiently as corporations aims to produce the most
output using least inputs.

 However, some viewed global corporations as exploiters of both the workers and
the natural resources in the developing countries.
 They take advantage of the cheap labor in these countries, pay workers the
minimum wage, and give them poor working environment.
The Global Divide: Global North & Global South
 Economic globalization is widely attributed to rapid development across the
world. However, such development lacks equitable distribution among countries.
 Some countries have developed while others' development has remained gradual..
This is manifested in the prevalence of global inequality between developed and
developing countries.
The Global Divide
 Global inequality is exhibited in the Global North-South Divide.
 This Global Divide is a socio-economic and political division of Earth popularized in
the late 20th century and early 21st century.
 The two groups are often defined in terms of their differing levels of wealth,
economic development, income inequality, democracy, and political and economic
freedom.
 The idea of global divide is much associated with the First World-Third World
classifications.
 During the Cold War, countries were categorized as First World (for the capitalist
west) and Second World (for the socialist east).
 The classification was rooted to the differences of political and economic ideologies
among countries.
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 The rest of the world were classified as Third World for their neutrality during the
Cold War.
 As they are founded on political and economic ideologies, the first-third worlds
classifications have become inaccurate in characterizing global inequality across
countries.
 Hence, the Global North-South Divide
 Hence, the Global North-South Divide was created to truly reflect the disparity of
wealth and development across countries.
 It is a result of the Brandt Line from the Brandt Report in 1983 which showed that
countries above the line were fairly wealthy and developed compared to those in the
south.

Characteristics of the Global North and Global South

 Countries that are generally seen as part of the Global North tend to be wealthier,
less unequal and considered more democratic and to be developed countries who
export technologically advanced manufactured products.
 The Global North includes the United States , Canada , almost all the European
countries, Israel, Cyprus, Japan , Singapore, South Korea , Taiwan, Australia , and
New Zealand.
 Countries that are generally seen as part of the Global South are generally poorer
developing countries with younger, more fragile democracies heavily dependent on
primary sector exports and frequently share a history of past colonialism by
Northern states.
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 The Global South is made up of Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Pacific
Islands, and the developing countries in Asia, including the Middle East (i.e. Brazil,
India and China , which, along with Indonesia and Mexico, are the largest Southern
states in terms of land area and population).
Sources of Global Income Inequality
Industrial Revolution
 While some developed countries took advantage of the increase in the
manufacturing sector, some countries remained stagnant in small production.

Economic Globalization
 Through trade and market integration, the poor countries have gained and
developed but the rich countries have gained and developed more.
Access to Technology
 Developed countries have always had greater access which means higher
technological efficiency in production which, in turn, means higher growth and
productivity.
Economic Globalization & Global Poverty
 To lift people out of poverty, there is a need for them to be integrated and to
participate in the economy by providing them with employment and investment
opportunities.
 With the increasing interconnectedness among world economies into a global
economy, it will further help reduce and/or eradicate poverty as more opportunities
are created.
 Some argued, however, that economic globalization helps provide income for
workers in developing countries, thereby reducing economic gaps.
 Economic globalization may contribute greatly to global poverty and inequality but it
could also contribute to addressing these global issues.