Mathematics Subject Area Teaching Methods II

Credit hour: 4

i
Unit I: The Personality of Effective Mathematics Teachers

Unit Learning Outcomes:

On successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

o Identify individual and professional qualities of effective mathematics teacher.
o Analyze the areas of teachers‟ professional development.
o Adopt the roles of effective professional mathematics teacher.

1.1 Qualities and Characteristics of Effective Mathematics Teachers

Activity 1.1 Please regroup yourselves into groups of five students and discuss
the following (Take about10 minutes):
 What do you think are the qualities and characteristics of a mathematics
teacher? Please write at least ten of the characteristics.
 Compare your ideas with those of other students in a whole class discussion.
 Extract the characteristics that are mentioned by most of students in the class.

Feedback for Activity 1.1 Some of the qualities of mathematics teachers are:
Accuracy: The ability to be careful and to be consistent in drawing diagrams,
using mathematical instruments and avoiding mistakes.
Alertness: The ability to understand instructions and meet changing conditions.
Courtesy: The ability to be polite and considerate and to cooperate with others.
Empathy: The ability to be aware of and understand other‟s feelings.
Flexibility: The ability to adjust to meet new needs or changing situations.
Friendliness: The ability to display a warm and outgoing attitude toward others.
Honesty: The ability to show fairness and straightforwardness in conduct.
Initiative: The ability to be a self-starter rather than waiting to be told what to do.
Kindness: The ability to give respect and consideration to others.
Loyalty: The ability to display faith and confidence in another person.
Patience: The ability to bear provocation, annoyance, misfortune, and disagreement
without complaint, loss of temper, or irritation.
Responsibility: The ability to accept obligations, to answer for one‟s conduct and
actions, and to deserve the trust or confidence of others.
Stability: The ability to understand pressure and remain calm during crises.
Tactfulness: The ability to do and say the right thing at the right time.
Tolerance: The ability to have a fair and objective attitude toward individuals whose
opinions, practices, race, religion, or nationality differ from one‟s own.
Punctuality: The ability to manage time properly.

2
 1.1.1 Individual, Professional and Social Qualities

Activity 1.2
Please students be in pair and write down the individual qualities of an effective
mathematics teacher. (You can discuss for six minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 1.2 The personal qualities of an effective mathematics

teacher include:
 A role model who demonstrates not only multiple paths to a solution but also the false
starts and higher-order thinking skills that lead to the solutions of problems.
 A consultant who helps individuals, small groups, or the whole class to decide if their
work is keeping „on track‟ and making reasonable progress.
 A moderator who poses questions to consider but leaves much of the decision making
to the class.
 An interlocutor who supports students during class presentations, encouraging them to
reflect on their activities and to explore mathematics on their own.
 A questioner who challenges students to make sure that what they are doing is reasonable and
purposeful and who ensures that students can defend their conclusions.
 An orator who have good command of language and good communication skills to convince
learners while proving and give mathematical justifications.

Hints for Activity 1.3 Some of the professional qualities of an effective

mathematics teacher may include:
 Demonstrating acceptance of students’ divergent ideas: The teacher challenges
students to think deeply about the problems they are solving, reaching beyond the
solutions and algorithms required to solve the problem. This ensures that students are
explaining both how they found their solution and why they chose a particular method of
solution.
 Influencing learning by posing challenging and interesting questions: The teacher
poses questions that do not only stimulate students‟ innate curiosity, but also encourages
them to investigate further.
 Projecting a positive attitude about mathematics and about students’ ability to do
mathematics: Teachers constantly build students‟ sense of efficacy and instills in their
students a belief that not only is the goal of “doing mathematics” that is attainable, but
also the ways that students become capable of reaching that goal personally.
Mathematics is not presented as something magical or mysterious.

Further, the professional qualities of an effective mathematics teacher include:

 Knowledge of learners.
 Teaching methodology
 Curriculum knowledge
 General pedagogical knowledge
 Knowledge of contexts
 Knowledge of “self”

Activity 1.4
Individually, 3
List down the social qualities of an effective mathematics teacher. (Spend five
minutes.)
 Feedback for Activity 1.4

Effective mathematics teachers should be in a position to approach the subject being taught
with specific questions of specific social norms related to the subject, the subject's relationship
to social issues and its value in everyday life. They should also be in a position to diagnose
misinterpretations of the knowledge offered by the students and fully comprehend the
procedures required for the acquisition of the knowledge and skills connected to the subject
being taught. An extra requirement for teachers would be knowledge on every subject in the
curriculum of the grades they taught, as this allows them to adopt an interdisciplinary
approach to the material, i.e., using pictures, analogies and knowledge acquired by students
through other subjects. Finally, knowledge of the subject taught is related to teachers' beliefs.
Research has shown that teachers‟ effectiveness is strongly influenced by the opinion that
teachers have on the subject they taught. Moreover, teachers with a more “holistic” outlook on
the subject they taught tend to be more effective.

1.2 Role of an Effective Mathematics Teacher in Improving the Image of a School

Activity 1.5
Be in groups of three and write down the roles of effective mathematics teachers in
improving the image of a school. (Discuss for about 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 1.5 The roles of effective mathematics teachers in

improving the image of a school may include:
 The variation of teachers' effectiveness from one year to another in terms of pupils'
outcomes.
 The effective use of biography, culture and professional development by teachers.
 The influence of the schools and departments to teachers‟ practice and
effectiveness.
 The fair treatment of teachers for different pupil groups, for instance, gender,
religion, color or socio-economic status, etc.
 Connect their lessons with out of class realties.

1.3 Preparation of Effective Mathematics Teachers before going to the Class

Feedback for Activity 1.6 To assure teacher preparation before going to class, you
have to answer the following questions (or use them as a checklist).
1. Is there an ideal structure of mathematics in the teacher preparation program?
2. How is pedagogical content knowledge best delivered?
3. How important are out-of-classroom experiences for teacher candidates?
4. How can connections across education and disciplinary departments be
strengthened?
5. How do programs address state and district demand for broad-field mathematics
teacher certification?

4
1.4 Professional Growth of Effective Mathematics Teachers
The Professional Development of teachers has to focus mainly on the knowledge, attitudes and
skills necessary for teaching inside the classroom.

Activity 1.7
Please students, be in groups of five and identify the areas that would help teachers
of mathematics develop their profession. (Use 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 1.7 These are some of the areas for professional
development of mathematics teachers
 Focuses on a well-articulated mission or purpose anchored in student learning
of core disciplines and skills,
 Derives from analysis of student learning of specific mathematical content in
a specific setting,
 Focuses on specific issues of curriculum and pedagogy,
 Derived from research and exemplary practice,
 Connected with specific issues of instruction and student learning of academic
disciplines and skills in the context of actual classrooms,
 Embodies a clearly articulated theory or model of adult learning,
 Develops, reinforces and sustains group work,
 Encourages collaborative practice within schools,
 Networks across schools,
 Involves active participation of school leaders and staff,
 Sustains focus over time continuous improvement,
 Models of effective practice,
 Uses assessment and evaluation,
 Facilitates active monitoring of student learning,
 Supports feedback process on teacher learning and practice.

1.5 Who is an effective mathematics teacher?

The qualifications considered essential by teaching professionals to be effective in pedagogical and
didactic work are put together based on the results of a national survey carried out in Greece, to which
secondary education teachers of all subjects contributed.

Activity 1.8
Individually, please sort out the qualities and attitudes that contribute to teachers'
effectiveness. (You can use 10 minutes)

Feedback for Activity 1.8

The analysis revealed that teachers attribute their effectiveness to their own
personality traits and special skills, such as: love of children and love for the profession,
personal drive to be effective, consistency, conscientiousness, imagination, creativity,
sense of humor, determination, tenacity and enthusiasm. An indicative statement follows:
"An effective teacher someone who combines virtues such as patience, persistence,
imagination, sense of humor, democracy, creativity." 5
 Activity 1.9
Please students be in pairs and discuss what knowledge and skills contribute to
teachers' effectiveness. (Take seven minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 1.9

Teachers find that “pedagogical and teaching skills” in terms of monitoring behavior are
also essential if they are to be effective in their jobs. In their opinion, the skills that
contribute to their effectiveness as revealed in the open-ended questions are the following:
a) Knowledge/Teaching Models: timely preparation and planning of teaching, use of
appropriate forms, methods and teaching aids, use of appropriate examples, posing
appropriate questions to students and encouraging discussion, experience-based
approach, group teaching, individual teaching, planning of outdoor activities, use of the
Internet, differentiation of techniques and evaluation criteria for students
b) Curriculum and school textbooks: use of extra-curricular teaching material
c) Understanding learners: Understanding learners' needs and adjusting teaching
accordingly, providing information on and recording, in detail, the environment of the
students, their experiences, motivating and encouraging mobilization.
d) Pedagogical content knowledge: interdisciplinary approach to a subject, adapting a
subject to students‟ needs and emphasizing its connection to real life.
e) The context where the pedagogical and teaching procedures take place: cooperation
with colleagues and students‟ parents, problem solving and ensuring a happy classroom
environment.

Activity 1.10 Be in group of five and discuss on the following.

What knowledge and skills do mathematics teachers employ in order to improve
their pedagogical and didactic work? (Take about 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 1.10

At times, teachers‟ needs are “discernible” and can be expressed, i.e., the teachers
themselves are in a position to identify the qualities deemed necessary for their success as
teachers, whilst at other times they cannot be discerned or when they are discerned, they
cannot be expressed.
a) the aims and demands stemming from school;
b) the knowledge, skills and attitudes required as a result of their professional role; and
c) an analysis of the way the professionals perform their duties along with the qualities
they possess.

Every highly effective teacher of mathematics must have adequate knowledge of the teaching
and learning of mathematics, as well as, the scope and sequence of content and curriculum.

Activity 1.11
Be in groups of thee and discuss on the qualities that a highly effective
mathematics teacher possesses. (Spend about 10 minutes.)
6
 Feedback for Activity 1.11 No doubts that you have listed some qualities. But, a
highly effective mathematics teacher may
 possess a strong content knowledge of mathematics,
 understand how students learn mathematics,
 utilize multiple approaches, representations, and insights to meet the needs of every
student at all levels of achievement, and
 carefully study and evaluate current mathematics education research and
incorporate relevant findings into their teaching when appropriate.

Unit II: Teaching Arithmetic and Algebra

2.1 Teaching of Arithmetic
How do you teach Arithmetic?

Activity 2.1
1. Dear students, please form a group of four or five depending on the size of
your class. Then discuss how to teach the definition of Arithmetic.
2. Report your selected methods to the class and discuss how to teach arithmetic
to secondary school students. (Spend 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.1

I do believe that you have listed some possible methods of teaching of the
definition of arithmetic. But it is also important to agree on what the definition of
arithmetic is. As you well know, arithmetic is the science of calculations that uses
numbers as main tools.

2.2 Values of Teaching Arithmetic

Activity 2.2: For duration of 10 minutes, please regroup yourselves into 4-6
students and then select appropriate methods on how you can teach some of the
values of teaching Arithmetic.

Feedback for Activity 2.2 I hope you have various methods but you can also
use questioning and answering method to list the values of arithmetic. Some of
the values of arithmetic are:
 To teach computational skills necessary for student's daily life.
 To prepare students for the real mathematics world.
 To develop the students' ability to compute mentally.
 To teach speed and accuracy.
 To reason out numerically.

7
2.3 Aims of Teaching Arithmetic

Activity 2.3
Dear students, please be in group of three and list down some of aims of the
teaching of Arithmetic. (Use 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.3

The following are the aims of teaching of Arithmetic:
 To develop Mathematical thinking in the students.
 To arouse interest in the quantitative side of the world.
 To give knowledge of the practical utility of Arithmetic in everyday life.
 To prepare students for study of higher Mathematics.

2.4 Methods of Teaching Arithmetic

The following four approaches are generally used in the teaching of Arithmetic:
1. Incidental Approach. This approach is opposed to the traditional or drill approach. In this
approach, the teaching is done in a rational and incidental manner.
2. Drill Approach. In this approach, the teacher continues to repeat a thing before the
students till it gets fixed in the mind of the students. The students must be given a good
drill to make the teaching of Arithmetic effective and successful. Drill enables them to
have the repetition of the knowledge that ultimately strengthens their experiences. Drill is
nothing but exercise. However a careful and systematic planning of the exercise
and the work is needed. Attempts should be made to correlate the drill of the exercises
with the facts of life. Such a correlation will have permanent and long lasting effect.
Following points be kept in mind about the exercises and drill:
 It should be clear and vivid.
 It should have association with the past and attempts association in future.
 There should be the element of motivation.
 There should be no scope for guess work.
3. Social Approach. In this method, the experiences of the children occupy an important
place. The teaching of Arithmetic is done in such a way that it is linked with the
experiences of the children in their daily life.
4. Meaningful Approach. In this approach, the whole program of the teaching work is
systematically worked out.
8
 Feedback for Activity 2.4
No doubt that you have come with some possible answers. That is right. Please
Activity 2.4answer
share your Please to
bethe
in groups of five
whole class andandtrydiscuss on the following
to get additional information both
1. other
from Which of the and
students methods given above
the facilitator. It isisclear
better for their
from teaching arithmetic?
description that all
2. Compare and contrast the above four methods. (Take 15 minutes.)
are methods of teaching arithmetic and the difference is as indicated above. You
can say social approach is better as it takes the experience of learners in to
account though all are important for the purpose.

2.5 Some Points to be kept in Mind while Teaching Arithmetic

Activity 2.5
Please be in groups of three and discuss on the following question.
When do you think that the teaching of arithmetic should start? (Use 10
minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.5 The teaching of Arithmetic should start at the pre-
primary stage or infant stage. An infant should be made to learn things about
Arithmetic through playing. In other words, it means that teaching of Arithmetic
should start in the beginning of education.

Activity 2.6
Please individually, try to answer "What will happen if the teaching of
Arithmetic doesn‟t start at the beginning of early Education?" (Spend five minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.6 If the teaching of arithmetic does not start at the
beginning of early education of the child, the consequence is that the values and
aims of arithmetic that are discussed above will not be attained in the desired
way. As a result, the thinking capacity of the child will not be developed and the
end result is that the child will not be successful.

2.6 Designing lessons and teaching different topics of Arithmetic

2.6.1 Revision on the set of rational Numbers

2.6.1.1 Natural numbers, integers, prime and composite numbers, and place value

Activity 2.9 Dear students, in groups of four and discuss on what you know about
natural numbers, whole numbers and integers giving more emphasis on the meaning
of prime and composite numbers and place value? (Take 10 minutes.)

9
 Feedback for Activity 2.9 You may summarize the discussion as follows:
We first learn about mathematics through counting, so the first set of numbers
encountered is the set of counting numbers or natural numbers {1, 2, 3,...}.
Later, our knowledge is extended to whole numbers, integers, rational numbers, real
numbers and complex numbers. A formal definition of the natural number system
requires careful thought, and one was given in 1889 by the Italian mathematician
Giuseppe Peano. It is assumed that you are familiar with various number systems. The
following definitions ensure a common language with which to present problems and
their solutions. We use ℤ to denote the set of integers {..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,...} and ℤ + to
signify the set of positive integers {1, 2, 3,...}. We shall use the term natural number to
mean a positive integer (Mathematicians do not always agree on matters of terminology
and notation. Some use the term counting number to mean a nonnegative integer.) If a
and b are integers, we say that a divides b, in symbols "a|b", and "b is a multiple of a" if
there is an integer c such that b = ac. Then a is a divisor, or factor of b. A natural number
p > 1 is said to be prime if 1 and p are its only positive divisors. The list of prime
numbers begins 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,... and has no end. A natural number n > 1 that is not
prime is said to be composite.
In the Hindu-Arabic system, the symbols for single digits are also used to form other
symbols or numerals, to represent greater numbers. To represent numbers greater than
9, the Hindu-Arabic system relies on the following for development of numerals.
a) All numerals are constructed from the ten basic digits {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
b) Place value is based on repeated groupings of 10, the number base of the system.
Because the Hindu-Arabic system is based on powers of 10, the system is sometimes
called a base-ten, or a decimal system. Place value is the concept that allows the value
of a symbol to depend on its placement in a number. To find the value of a whole
number, we multiply the place value of the digit times its face value, where the face
value is a cardinal number. For example, in the numeral 5984, the five has place value
"thousands," the 9 has place value "hundreds," the 8 has place value "tens," the 4 has
place value "units". The expanded form of 5984 is given by 51000+9100+810+41.

Addition of Whole Numbers

Dear students, one way of teaching arithmetic is using a "Magic Square." This method is
effective to teach arithmetic and arouse student interest as well.

Throughout the history of humanity, people have studied different sets of numbers. Some groups
have even attributed magical powers to certain numbers (“lucky seven”) or groups of numbers
because of some special properties. We investigate here the notion of a “magic square.” Magic
squares are arrangements of the numbers 1–4, or 1–9, or 1–16, or 1–25, or 1–any natural number
squared. These numbers are written in square arrays that are 2 by2, or 3 by 3, or 4 by 4, and so
on. The numbers are placed so that the sum of each row and of each column and of each diagonal

10
is the same. Figure 1 shows an example of a 3 by 3 magic square, which uses the numbers from 1
to 9 (32).

Table 2.1 A three by three magic square

2 9 4
7 5 3
6 1 8

Row 1 2+9+4=15 Column1 2+7+6 =15

Row 2 7+5+3=15 Column2 9+5+1 =15
Row 3 6+1+8=15 Column3 4+3+8 =15
Diagonal 2+5+8=15 Diagonal 4+5+6 =15

In medieval times, some people wore magic squares and used them as talismans1. The talisman
wearers considered them powerful enough to provide protection from evil spirits.

Benjamin Franklin was a big fan of magic squares. As clerk to the Pennsylvania Assembly, he
admitted to creating them when he was bored with the proceedings. He created more and more
complex squares as time passed. He even experimented with magic circles. Table 2 shows an
eight by eight magic square, using the numbers from 1 to 64 (82) that Franklin created. This
square has several interesting features.

2.6.1.2 Methods of teaching Common factors and Common multiples

Prime and Multiples

The structure of the counting of numbers or their basic building blocks is similar in
nature to the concept of all molecules being made up of atoms of the basic elements.
As a molecule of water is formed from two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen, H2O, so the number 12 is made up of two factors of 2 and one factor of 3,
that is, 12= 2x2x3.

Divisibility
The concepts of even and odd are commonly used terminologies. For example, during water
shortages in the summer in some parts of the country, houses with addresses ending with even
numbers can get water on even-numbered days of the month and houses with addresses ending
with odd numbers can get water on odd-numbered days. An even number is a number that is
divisible by 2. An odd number is a number that is not divisible by 2. The even digits are 0, 2, 4,
6, and 8.The odd digits are 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9.

11
A whole number is divisible by another whole number if the quotient of these numbers is a
natural number and the remainder is 0. The second number is said to be a divisor of the first.
Thus, 7 is a divisor of 42, because 42 7= 6. We also say 42 is divisible by 7.

Activity 2.13
Please regroup your selves into four students and select appropriate
methods that can help you teach when a whole number is divided by 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11? (Take 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.13 Distribute the division to different groups and the groups
will discuss and present to the whole class resulting in the following Test for
Divisibility.
a) If the ones-place digit of the number is even (0, 2, 4, 6, or 8), the number is divisible by 2.
b) If the sum of the digits of the number is divisible by 3, then the number is divisible by 3.
c) If the last two digit numeral is divisible by 4, then the whole number is divisible by 4.
d) If the ones place digit of the number is 0 or 5, the number is divisible by 5.
e) If the number is divisible by both 2 and 3, then the number is divisible by 6.
f) If the sum of the digits of the number is divisible by 9, then the number is divisible by 9.
g) If the ones-place digit of the number is 0, then the number is divisible by 10.
h) An integer is divisible by 11 if and only if the sum of digits in the places that are even
powers of 10 minus the sum of digits in the places that are odd powers of 10 is divisible by
11. and composite Numbers
Prime

When we divide b by a, we say that a is a divisor of b or a divides b, symbolically written as “ ”.

Activity 2.14 Individually, select appropriate methods for teaching factorization.

(Spend five minutes.)

Hint for Activity 2.14 One method (sometimes called “the candy bar method”)
used in elementary schools to determine the divisors of a number is to use
squares of paper and represent the number as a rectangle.
Such a rectangle resembles a candy bar formed with small squares. The
dimensions of the rectangle are divisors of the number. The fact that 12 is
divisible by 2 can be stated in the following equivalent statements in the left-
hand column as shown in Figure 2.1 below.

12

2
3
12
6

Figure 2.1 Candy bar method

As in Figure 2.1, the number 12 has six divisors: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. If rectangles were used to
find the divisors of 7, then we would find only 17 rectangles.
Any positive integer with exactly two distinct, positive divisors is a prime number, or a prime.
Any integer greater than 1 that has a positive factor other than 1 and itself is a composite
number, or a composite. For example, 4, 6 and 16 are composite numbers.

Greatest Common Factor (GCF) and Least Common Multiple (LCM)

How do you teach GCF and LCM? Try to design a strategy of your own.

The GCF of two integers (a, b) is the greatest integer that divides both a and b.
The LCM of two positive integers is the least positive multiple that the two numbers
have in common.

Activity 2.15 Please students regroup yourselves into size of three students
and then select methods that enable you to teach GCF and LCM. (Discuss for
10 minutes.)

We leave the first three methods for students to use for teaching of GCF and LCM of whole
numbers by their own. Now, let‟s use the fourth method to find GCF and LCM.

GCF
The theme that physical devices illustrating mathematical concepts enhance students'
understanding of those concepts is an old one. Attempting to integrate various branches of
mathematics is a current trend in mathematics education. For these reasons, I am particularly
interested in somewhat unexpected appearance on geoboard of the greatest common factor
(GCF) of two numbers.
Consider the lattice of points in the Euclidean plane, each of which has two integral coordinates,
and using a geoboard as a model of a part of this lattice. The greatest common factor appears in
the following way. Given two positive integers, m and n, choose any point as origin. From the
origin, mark the lattice point m units to the right, and from there, mark the lattice point n units
up. Thus, three vertices of a right triangle have been determined. Now, consider the hypotenuse
of this triangle. If its two endpoints are the only lattice points contained in it, then clearly, it is
separated by the lattice points into only one part (Figure 2.2).

13
 Figure 4: GCF(3,2) Figure 5: GCF(4, 2)

Figure 2.2 GCF(2, 3) Figure 2.3 GCF(2, 4)

If there are other lattice points contained in the hypotenuse, it is not difficult to show that they
separate it into parts of equal length. If there are k+1 lattice points (including the vertices)
contained in the hypotenuse, then it is divided into k equal parts. From Figures 2.3 and 2.4, it is
easy to see that the projections of each of these lattice points onto the other two sides (legs) of
the right triangle fall on other lattice points, which separate each of the legs of the triangle into k
parts of equal length. This means that k is a factor of both m and n.

Is there another factor of m and n greater than k? Suppose there is a factor of both m and n that
is greater than k: call it h. Then, there are lattice points on each leg of the triangle that separate
each leg of the triangle into h parts of equal length. This implies that there are lattice points
contained in the hypotenuse that separate it into h parts of equal length, which means that there
are h+1 lattice points contained in the hypotenuse. This is a contradiction since there are only
k+1 lattice points contained in the hypotenuse. The proof that the greatest common factor of m
and n is the number of parts into which the hypotenuse of the triangle is separated by lattice
points is very similar. Thus, one can give students a very nice concrete representation of the
notion of greatest common factor: make a right triangle with legs of lengths m and n. The
14
greatest common factor of m and n, GCF(m, n), is just the number of parts into which lattice
points separate the hypotenuse, k in this case.

Activity 2.16 Please form a group of five students and then select an
appropriate methodology that enables you to find the GCF of any two
composite numbers. (Spend five minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.16

Making use of Geoboard method, you can easily handle the GCF of any two
composite numbers.

LCM
Further, the geoboard can also be used to find the least common multiple of two numbers, m and
n, LCM (m, n). Choose the origin at any point of the lattice. Mark the lattice points m, 2m,
3m,...units to the right of the origin and those n, 2n, 3n...units up from the origin. This time,
consider the isosceles right triangles with their legs pointing to the right and up from the origin
(Figure 2.5). Find the smallest one that has base angles located at previously marked lattice
points. The length of the horizontal leg of this triangle is a multiple of m; the length of the
vertical leg is a multiple of n. Since the legs are equal in length, that length is a common
multiple of m and n. Since this is the smallest such triangle, that length is the least common
multiple of m and n. Figures 2.6 and 2.7 show other examples.

Figure 2.5 LCM(2, 3) Figure 2.6 LCM(2,4)

15
 Figure 2.7 LCM(3,4)

Activity 2.17
Please form a group of four students and then select an appropriate methodology
that enable you to find the of LCM any two composite numbers. (Use five minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.17 Making use of Geoboard method you can easily
handle the LCM of any two composite numbers as you did for GCF in Feedback
for Activity 2.16.

Decimals

Activity 2.18 Please be in pairs and then select an appropriate methodology

that enables you to teach decimals. (Take five minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.18 We first introduces the concept of a decimal fraction.
A decimal fraction is a fraction whose denominator is a power of 10. The
following are examples of decimal fractions.
is read as “three-tenths”

is read as “seven-hundredths”

is read as “nine-thousandths”
We now want to write these fractions in decimal notation. This means that we will 16
write the numbers by using place values. The place value for decimals can be
illustrated as shown below.
 Ten-thousandths
Ten-thousands

Thousandths
Hundredths
Thousands

Hundreds

Tenths
Ones
Tens


10000 1000 100 10 1

Whole-Number place values Decimal Point Fractional place values

Figure 2.8 Decimal Place Value

From Figure 2.8, we see that the decimal point separates the whole-number part from the
fractional part. The place values for decimal fractions are located to the right of the decimal
point. Their place value names are similar to those for whole numbers, but end in ths. Notice the
correspondence between the tens place and the tenths place. Similarly, notice the hundreds place
and the hundredths place. Each place value on the left has a corresponding place value on the
right, with the exception of the ones place. There is no “oneths” place.

2.7 Teaching What Algebra is

Algebra is a method of calculation by using letters and signs with numbers, for instance, 4a, 3b,
6ab, 5c, etc.

Feedback for Activity 2.21 No doubt that you have written the purpose of
algebra.
You may also explain that algebra helps in solving many difficult and complicated
problems of other branches of mathematics. With the passage of time, it has assumed
new dimensions and new concepts. It represents a radical, new and different approach
to the study of quantitative relationship, characterized by new symbolism, new
concept, and a new language. A much higher degree of generalization and abstraction
than has been encountered previously. In contrast to Arithmetic, Algebra is more
concerned with the conscious examination and study of processes than with particular
answers to particular problems, and by the essential dissociation of many of its parts
form institution and concrete experience. Sometimes algebra is referred to as
17
Generalized Arithmetic.
 Activity 2.22 Dear students, be in group of three or four and discuss on how
you can teach the application of algebra. (You may spend 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.22 After the group discussion, make students report their
findings to the class so as to share their experiences. So, some of the methods of
teaching the application of algebra is group discussion, application, etc methods.

2.8 Why is Algebra Taught?

Activity 2.23
Dear students, be in group of five and discuss why algebra is taught in schools?
(Take 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.23 I hope, you have listed some reasons why algebra is
taught in schools. You may also refer to the following:
 It creates a concrete interest in the pupils.
 It induces students to study certain mathematical concepts.
 It provides the students with better opportunities to study certain topics.
2.9 Aims of Teaching Algebra
Activity 1.24 Please be in group of three students and discuss appropriate
methods of teaching the aims of teaching algebra? (Spend 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 1.24 No doubt that you have listed some methods. For
your reference, the aims of teaching algebra include:
1. Removal of ambiguity and deficiencies of language: In teaching of algebra, an
effort is made to provide the student the numbers and figures in a method that is
free from ambiguity and deficiency of language.
2. It helps to solve difficult problems of arithmetic: Various formulae of algebra are
quite useful to the students in solving even difficult problems of arithmetic. Such
methods also save time and labor.
3. Simplification of calculations: Algebraic methods help in simplifications of
calculations and save time and labor.
4. In algebra we present abstract relationships in new language and new symbols:
In algebra certain abstract relationships are presented in a new language and new
symbols which is more concrete and understandable.
5. Practical value: The knowledge of algebra has of practical value in various aspects
of life. It provides such a mental training that may be used and applied in various
life situations.
6. Checking of results: Algebraic knowledge can be used to check the results in a
satisfactory and simple manner.
7. Use of inductive method: Teaching of algebra emphasizes inductive method which
is more concrete and helpful.
18
2.10 How Algebra should be taught
As indicated earlier, algebra is essential for our daily life. To exhaustively exploit the benefits of
algebra, it is important to know and employ the methods of teaching algebra.

Activity 1.25 Please be in pair and write down the methods for teaching
algebra? (You may spend 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.25 I hope you have listed a number of methods. But,
some of the methods for teaching of Algebra are:
a) Formal method,
b) Equation and problem solving method, and
c) The use of literal numbers of quantities.

The methods may be described as follows.

a) Formal Method of Teaching of Algebra
In this method, you simply teach four basic arithmetical operations (i.e. addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division). Instead of numbers here we use letters.

b) Equation and Problem Solving Method of Teaching of Algebra

These two methods are difficult to distinguish in teaching of Algebra. Because, most of the
time, equations and problems appear simultaneously.
c) The use of Literal Numbers of Quantities
In Algebra, you use letters or literal numbers instead of numbers. Here lies the difference
between algebra and arithmetic.

2.11 Designing lessons and teaching different topics of Algebra

Use of operations in Algebra

In beginning algebra, you learn to simplify expressions such as 4y + 5y by combining like terms.
When dealing with 4y + 5y, you get 9y, just as you would get 9 pencils if you were combining 4
pencils and 5 pencils. Think of two groups of identical blocks where one group contains four
blocks and the other five blocks.

Which problem is algebra? Which problem is arithmetic? Is there really a

difference?

19
As you learn to simplify more complicated expressions, you begin to realize that you cannot
combine unlike terms. Please use the following question while teaching.

Activity 2.26 Individually, please design a method of teaching to teach

addition of algebraic expressions such as combining three apples and four
peaches. (Use 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.26

I hope you have chosen your own method of teaching. You may also use the
formal method to teach addition. Regarding the addition you could say you have
seven pieces of fruit, but the kind of fruit is lost. If you want to know what kind of
fruit, then you have to stay with the three apples and four peaches. You could
write an expression, 3a + 4p, where a stands for apple and p stands for peach, but
you can't simplify the situation farther.

You can also use the following activity to teach adding expressions.

Activity 2.27
Suppose you have three squares and four triangles and a friend has five
squares and two triangles. If you combine the sets of figures and arrange the
shapes into like groups, how many would be in each group? (Use 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 2.27 By writing the expression, you have moved from the
concrete situation to a symbolic representation of the problem. Combining like
figures will give 8 squares + 6 triangles, which is as far as you can go.
That is, much like simplifying 3x + 4y + 5x + 2y to 8x + 6y by combining like terms.
Rather than doing the exercise as shown, we could use expanded notation and write
the factors as 10 + 4 and 10 + 2. The problem would still be done the same way but
the formatting would be different.

Algebraic Expressions
A very useful tool for solving applied problem is algebra. Here, we need to invest algebraic
thinking on how to solve equations and inequalities, use algebraic skills to solve word problems,
graph and find equations of straight lines, and solve systems of equations. In addition, we need
to discuss ratio and proportion and introduce the concepts of percent and interest. Throughout
this unit, the strategy of writing an equation is utilized. You may try to teach these topics by
selecting appropriate methods.

20
Algebraic thinking
We encountered problems involving algebraic thinking generalizing a pattern, writing an
expression for a function rule, and defining subtraction in terms of addition or division in terms
of multiplication are examples of activities involving algebraic thinking.

Activity 2.27
Please form a group of five and select an appropriate methodology of teaching
1. The rules relating two variables.
2. How to express subtraction in terms of addition and division in terms of
multiplication. (Take 10 minutes.)

Hint for Activity 2.27 I hope you have a variety of methods.

1. The average price p of one “Quintal of Teff” 8 years ago.
2. For variables p, q, p-q = p+(-)q and pq= p 1/q.

Developing Algebraic skills

To apply algebra in solving problems, you frequently need to translate the given information into
a symbolic expression involving quantities designated by letters. In all such examples, you may
name the variables by letters of your choice and the frequently used letters are x, y, z, etc.

Activity 2.30 Regroup your selves into a group of three students and discuss on
appropriate methods as to how to translate the given information into a symbolic
expression:
a) One weekend, a music store sold twice as many CDs as cassettes and 25 fewer
records than CDs. If the music store sold c cassettes, how many records and CDs
did it sell?
b) Suppose that “Beso” has about 12 calories/kg. “Chiko” has about 600 calories/kg;
Aster is on a diet of 2000 calories per day. If she ate b kg “Beso” and one kg
“Chiko,” how many more claries can she consume that day?
c) First class postage in 1995 is 32cents for the first ounce and 23cents for each
additional ounce. At this rate, what is the cost of mailing a letter that weights z
ounce?

21
 Feedback for Activity 2.30
a) Because c cassettes were sold, twice as many CDs as cassettes imply 2c
CDs. Thus 25 fewer records than CDs imply 2c-25 records.
b) First, find how many calories Aster consumed eating b kg “Beso” and one kg
“Chiko.” Then, to find how many more calories she can consume, subtract this
expression from 2000.
1 kg “Beso” 12 calories
b kg “Beso” 12b calories
Therefore, the number of calories in b kg “Beso” and one kg “Chiko” is
600+12b.
The number of claries left for the day is 2000-(600+12b), or 2000-600-12b,
or 1400-12b.
c) If a letter weights z grams, the first ounce costs 32c and the remaining (z-1)
ounce cost 23c each. The cost of the (z-1) ounce, therefore, is 23(z-1) cents.
Then, we have the following:
Cost of mailing a z-ounce letter = cost of first ounce + cost of next (z-1) ounce.
That is, z = 32+23(z-1) cents = (9-23z) cents.

Equations
An equation is a sentence that expresses the equality of two algebraic expressions. To solve
equations, you need several properties of equality. Students can discover many of these by using
a balance scale. For example, consider two weights of amounts a and b on the balances, as in the
Figure 10. If the balance is level (balanced), then a = b.

Activity 2.31 What happened to the balance when you add

a) an equal amount of weight c to both sides?
b) unequal amount c to the left hand side and d to the right where c <d ?

Feedback for Activity 2.31

a) The balance is still level as shown in Figure 2.10 (b).
b) The weight in right hand side of the balance is more as shown in Figure 2.10 (c).

a b a c b c

(a) a =b (b) a +c=b+c

a c
b d
22

a +c<b+d
(c)
 a) Properties of Equality

The addition property of equality: For any three real numbers a, b and c, if a=b, then a+c = b+c.
The multiplication property of equality: For any three real numbers a, b and c, if a=b, then ac =
bc.

b) Cancellation Property of Equality:

1. For any thee real numbers a, b and c, if a+c = b+c, then a = b.

2. For any three real numbers a, b and c with c≠0, if ac=bc, then a=b.

When in-balance happens as shown in Figure 12 (c), the appropriate mathematical term is
inequality.

Properties of Inequality

For any real numbers a and b, a is greater than b, written a>b, if and only if there exists a real
number k such that a = b+k. Also b is less than a, written b<a if and only if a>b.

Table 2.5 Properties of operation over the set of real numbers

Properties Equality Inequality

Reflexive If a=b, then b=a
Transitivity a = b and b =c implies a=c a > b and b > c implies a > c
Addition a=b implies a+c = b+c a > b implies a+c > b+c
a>b and c>0 implies ac>bc
Multiplication a=b, implies ac=bc
a>b and c<0 implies ac<bc
Cancellation for addition a+c=b+c implies a=b a+c>b+c implies a>b
ac>bc and c>0 implies a>b
Cancellation for multiplication ac=bc implies a=b if c≠0
ac<bc and c<0 implies a>b
Lastly, you can give for your students some activities such as below to understand the difference
between arithmetic and algebra.

Activity 2.33 You ask your students the following.

List the difference between arithmetic and algebra.

23
 Feedback for Activity 2.33

Table 2.6 shows the summary of the difference between arithmetic and algebra.

Table 2.6: Comparison of arithmetic and algebra

Arithmetic Algebra
General aim: to find a numerical General aim: to generalize and symbolize
solution methods of problem solving
Generalization of specific number Generalization of relations between
situations numbers, reduction to uniformity
Table as a calculation tool Table as a problem solving tool
Manipulation of fixed numbers Manipulation of variables
Letters are measurement labels or Letters are variables or unknowns
abbreviations of an object
Symbolic expressions represent Symbolic expressions are seen as products
processes and processes
Operations refer to actions Operations are autonomic objects
Equal-sign announces a result Equal-sign represents equivalence
Reasoning with known quantities Reasoning with unknowns
Unknowns as end-point Unknowns as starting-point
Linear problems in one unknown Problems with multiple unknowns: systems
of equations

Unit III: Teaching of Geometry (18 hours)

Unit Learning Outcomes:

Upon successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

o Design effective methods in teaching the definitions of different concepts in geometry.
o Prepare instructional materials to teach geometry.
o Employ appropriate teaching methods for teaching plane geometry.
o Practice deductive method for teaching geometry.
o Illustrate using models how to teach solid geometry.
o Select practical examples in teaching transformation geometry.
o Use effective methods in teaching coordinate geometry including conic sections.
o Evaluate how to apply axioms and definitions to prove theorems.
o Use visual aids in teaching construction.

3.1 Teaching Geometry

Activity 3.1 Be in group of five and take ten minutes to discuss the methods for
teaching what geometry is. (Spent 15 minutes.)
24
 Hints for Activity 3.1 In teaching geometry, you may ask the meaning of geometry
using questioning and answering method. Then, students may respond as:
The word „geometry‟ comes from two ancient Greek words, one meaning 'earth' and the
other meaning 'to measure'. These Greek words, as well as the word „geometry‟, may
themselves be derived from the Sanskrit word „Jyamiti‟ (in Sanskrit, „Jy a‟ means an arc or
curve and „Miti‟ means correct perception or measurement). The origins of geometry are
very ancient (it is probably the oldest branch of mathematics) with several ancient cultures
(including Indian, Babylonian, Egyptian, and Chinese, as well as Greek) developing a form
of geometry suited to the relationships between lengths, areas, and volumes of physical
objects. In these ancient times, geometry was used in the measure of land (or, as we would
say today, surveying) and in the construction of religious and cultural artefacts. Examples
include the Hindu Vedas, thought to have been composed between 4000 BC to 3100 BC,
the ancient Egyptian pyramids, Celtic knots, and many more examples.

Activity 3.2
What do you think are the aims of teaching geometry? (Take 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 3.2

The aims of teaching geometry can be summarized as follows:

 To develop spatial awareness, geometrical intuition and the ability to visualize;
 To provide a breadth of geometrical experiences in 2 and 3 dimensions;
 To develop knowledge and understanding of and the ability to use geometrical
properties and theorems;
 To encourage the development and use of conjecture, deductive reasoning and proof;
 To develop skills of applying geometry through modeling and problem solving in real
world contexts;
 To develop useful ICT skills in specifically geometrical contexts;
 To engender a positive attitude towards mathematics; and
 To develop an awareness of the historical and cultural heritage of geometry in society,
and of the contemporary applications of geometry.

3.2 Teaching Classification of Geometry

Geometry has several classifications. To answer this, please try to answer the following activity.

Activity 3.3 Be in group five students and discuss on the methods that enable you to
teach the classification of geometry. (Take five four minutes)

Feedback for Activity 3.3 There is several divisions of geometry. But, for our
purpose we only refer to the divisions such as plane geometry (Euclidean
geometry), analytic (coordinate) geometry, solid (space) geometry and
transformation geometry. You will discuss only the first two in this unit. The
methods used to teach these types of geometry will be discussed in section 3.6 of
this unit. 25
3.3 Why Teaching Geometry?
Activity 3.4 Please be in group of four students and discuss on the following.
What do you think are the reasons for including geometry in the school mathematics
curriculum? (Spend 15 minutes)

Feedback for Activity 3.4

Some of the reasons why geometry is included in the school curricula are:
 It contributes to helping students develop the skills of visualization, critical thinking,
intuition, perspective, problem-solving, conjecturing, deductive reasoning, logical
argument and proof.
 Geometric representations can be used to help students make sense of other areas of
mathematics: fractions and multiplication in arithmetic, the relationships between the
graphs of functions, and graphical representations of data in statistics.
 Spatial reasoning is important in other curriculum areas such as science, geography, art,
design and technology.
 Geometry provides a culturally and historically rich context within which to do
mathematics.
 The contribution of mathematics to student‟s spiritual, moral, social and cultural
development can be effectively realized through geometry.

3.4 Different Stages of Teaching Geometry

Activity 3.5
What are the stages of teaching geometry? What do you think are the basis for these
divisions of stages of teaching? (Take five minutes)

Feedback for Activity 3.5

(i) Experimental stages of teaching of geometry

This stage begins from class V and goes up to class VII. In this period, the child is taught
to recognize figures, draw simple figures and measure them. An effort is made to link the
teaching of geometry with everyday life of the child. These stages should stop at the age

26
of 12 or 13 years. At this stage an all-out effort be made to provide knowledge to the
students through observations, recognition, inspection, etc. At this stage, an attempt is
made to lay demonstrative geometry at the deductive stage.

(ii) Deductive stage of teaching of geometry

This stage should start from class VIII and should end by class IX. After the age of 15,
geometry should not be taught by the methods that suit this stage of education.

At this stage, various theorems, that is, fit from psychological point of view for the
learners are taught.

The function of middle school geometry is to systematize the information received by the
pupils at the pre-school and primary school stage from nature and practical arts, which
are permanent sources of geometry learning. At this stage, the emphasis is on the
understanding of fundamental concepts and techniques such as the meaning, drawing and
use of lines, angles, triangles and some other polygons. The primary objective is not to
teach the pupils the geometry but to lead them to think of geometry. The practical side of
geometry will thus dominate at the middle school stage.

Activity 3.6 Please students be in group of three and then discuss on appropriate
methods of teaching the functions of geometry at middle school stage. (You may take
10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 3.6 You can teach students as, t

(iii) Systematic stage of geometry

This is the higher secondary stage of teaching of geometry. At this stage, geometry
teaching should be done in a systematic and logical manner. Students be trained in proper
reasoning and thinking and they should be given proper practice in logical reasoning. In
this stage, which may continue till the child attains the age of 17, the major part of
teaching of geometry is done.

The major purpose at this stage will be to inculcate in pupils an appreciation for logical
demonstration, to acquaint them with effective methods of clear and impartial thinking;
critical evaluation and intelligent generalization to train them in the discovery of youth;
27
and to introduce them the meaning of geometrical vigor and precision.

Activity 3.7 Please students be in group of five and then discuss on the methods that
enable you to teach the functions of geometry at high school stage. (You may take 10
minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 3.7 You can teach students as, t

3.5 Levels of geometric thinking

A husband and wife team of Dutch educators, Pierre van Hiele and Dina van Hiele-Geldof,
noticed the difficulties that their students had in learning geometry. These observations led them
to develop a theory involving levels of thinking in geometry that students pass through as they
progress from merely recognizing a figure to being able to write a formal geometric proof. Their
theory explains why many students encounter difficulties in their geometry course, especially
with formal proofs. Van Hieles believed that writing proofs requires thinking at a comparatively
high level, and that many students need to have more experiences in thinking at lower levels
before learning formal geometric concepts.

Activity 3.8
List the Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking and discuss on how you teach these
levels? (Take ten minutes)

Feedback for Activity 3.8

Level 1: Visualization, Level 2: Analysis, Level 3: Abstraction, Level 4:
Deduction and Level 5: Rigor.
For detail description of these levels, see the explanation below.

Level 1: Visualization
Students recognize figures by appearance alone, often by comparing them to a known prototype. The
properties of a figure are not perceived. At this level, students make decisions based on perception, not
reasoning. For example, they may say that the shape on the left below is a square and the shape
on the right is a diamond ...." because it looks like a...." (see Figure 3.1)

28
Level 2: Analysis
Students regard figures as collections of properties. They can recognize and name properties of geometric
figures, but they do not see relationships between these properties. When describing an object, a student
operating at this level might list all the properties the student knows, but not discern which properties are
necessary and which are sufficient to describe the object. For example, students will describe figures
such as given in Figure 3.1 above as squares because they both have 4 sides, 4 right angles,
opposite sides equal and as many other properties as they know about squares.

Level 3: Abstraction
Students perceive relationships between properties and figures. At this level, students can create
meaningful definitions and give informal arguments to justify their reasoning. Logical implications and
class inclusions, such as squares being a type of rectangle, are understood. The role and significance of
formal deduction, however, is not understood. For example, a student at this level may define a
square as a rectangle with consecutive sides congruent. Or students at this level may argue that
the sum of the measures of the interior angles of a pentagon is 3 times the sum of the measures of
the angles in a triangle and 4 times the sum of the measures of a triangle for a hexagon by using
a picture and reasoning why the angles of the triangles account for all the angles of both figures
(Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2: Polygons

Level 4: Deduction
Students establish theorems within an axiomatic system. They recognize the difference between
undefined terms, definitions, axioms, and theorems. They are capable of constructing original
proofs. Students know the meaning of necessary and sufficient conditions. At this level, students should
be able to construct proofs such as those typically found in secondary school geometry class.

Level 5: Rigor
Students at this level understand the formal aspects of deduction, such as establishing and comparing
mathematical systems. Students at this level can understand the use of indirect proof and proof by
contrapositive. Students understand the relationship between various systems of geometry. They
are able to describe the effect of adding or deleting an axiom on a given geometric system. These
students can compare, analyze, and create proofs under different geometric systems.

Please students, be in groups of three and take back your thought to your
school period. Then, do you think that the above levels fit with your levels of
learning the subject? Do the above levels follow the deductive or inductive
method of reasoning?
29
3.6 Method of Teaching Geometry:

3.6.1 Designing and teaching lessons from plane geometry

These fundamental undefined terms in geometry are point, line, plane and space. These words do
not have formal definitions, but there is agreement about what they mean.

Activity 3.10 Please students, be in groups of five and then describe the undefined
terms point, line and plane and discuss how to teach these terms. (Take 12
minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 3.10 The ideas of point, line and plane are suggested by
physical objects. If you make a dot on a piece of paper, with a pencil, you will get a
reasonably good picture of a point. The sharper your pencil is the better your picture
will be.
The picture will always be only approximate, because the dot will always cover some area,
where as a point covers no area at all. But if you think of smaller and smaller dots, made by
sharper and sharper pencils, you will get a good idea of what we mean, in geometry by the
word, a point. When we use the term line, we shall always have in mind the idea of a straight
line. A straight line extends infinitely far in both directions. Usually we shall indicate this in
our illustrations by putting arrow heads at the end of the part of the line we draw:

Figure 3.3: Example of a line

The arrow heads are meant to remind us that the line doesn‟t stop at the points where the
picture of it stops. In fact, a line can be described as a set of points arranged in straight
manner without a beginning or an end. Depending on undefined terms, we may define the
term, segment, for a figure like this:

Figure 3.4: Line segment

A segment can be defined as the set of points in a line that has two fixed end points. A thin,
tightly stretched string is a good approximation of a segment. A thin piano wire stretched at
high tension is a better approximation.
If you think of a perfectly flat surface, extending infinitely far in every direction, you will
have a good idea of what a plane is supposed to be. A plane is described as the set of points
with infinite in extent.

30
a) Strategies to Teach Plane Figures

Activity 3.11 Please regroup your selves into size of four students and select the
methods that enable you to teach plane geometry/plane figures. (Take five minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 3.11

The following strategies have been used effectively to teach plane figures to
secondary school students. Research has shown that when teachers incorporate the
following four strategies in their instruction, retention is increased (Marzano et al.,
2001). These strategies include:
• Manipulative such as geo-strips or fasteners and tag board.
• Cooperative learning using the jigsaw method.
• Similarities and differences using Venn diagrams.
• Vocabulary enhancement using a manipulative and group activity.

1. Manipulative
When parallelograms are first introduced to the class, it is helpful for the students to have a
manipulative to explore. Geo-strips, which can be made of varying size strips of tag board and
brat fasteners, help students discover the properties of parallelograms.

2. Cooperative Learning using Jigsaw Method

Once students have been introduced to parallelograms and their basic properties, the jigsaw
method may be used to further explore special types of quadrilaterals. Teachers can follow these
steps to employ cooperative learning:
(i) Divide the class into groups of four. Within each group, assign a student to be (for
instance; a rectangle, square, rhombus, or trapezoid). Call individual students an expert.
(ii) The “expert” from each group will leave their home group and meet together with the
experts from the other teams (for example, all the rectangles will meet in one corner, the
rhombi in another, and so on).
(iii) Provide each group with a guided activity that will allow members to explore the shape
and learn its properties. The group members must come to a consensus on the properties
and feel confident that they can teach these properties to their home teams.
(iv) The “expert” group for each figure should prepare examples, diagrams, properties, and
three quiz questions to share with their home teams.
(v) After the allotted time, students return to their home teams to share their knowledge with
their respective groups.
You can use this method to teach any topic in plane geometry.

3.Venn Diagrams

31
As students further study the properties of different types of parallelograms/quadrilaterals, they
need to learn how to compare and contrast the properties of these shapes. Venn diagrams are
excellent method for displaying the shared as well as unique properties of each type of
parallelogram/quadrilateral (Marzano et al., 2001).

Figure 3.7 Venn diagram comparing quadrilaterals

4. Vocabulary Enhancement
To reinforce new vocabulary explored in the unit, students can participate in a group game that
focuses on the properties of each quadrilateral. The teacher can do the following:
(i) Divide the class into groups of four students.
(ii) Provide each group with a “construction bag” containing items such as straws, toothpicks,
tiles to show right angles, and play dough.
(iii) Provide each student with a card that contains the description of one of the quadrilaterals
studied.
(iv) Each student must use the items in the bag to construct the quadrilateral on his or her card,
making it identifiable to others in his or her group.
(v) Using their definitions, students must justify the construction of the figures (NCTM,
2000).

Activity 3.12
Please students, be in groups of four and compare and contrast on the methods for
teaching plane figures. (Spend five minutes.)

Hint for Activity 3.12

The methods for teaching plane geometry have their own advantages and
disadvantages. For a specific topic, you may say this method is better than the other
but for plane geometry they are all useful depending on the topic chosen.
32
b) Strategies to Teach Perimeter and Area
Middle school students need concrete experiences with the concepts of perimeter and area as a
foundation for future study of these topics in secondary school geometry. Beginning with
manipulatives, moving to pictures, and ending with the formulas enables students to comprehend
the meaning of perimeter and area and the differences between the two (Malloy, 1999). Teachers
can use the following tasks to help students gain a full understanding of these topics:
• Area and perimeter using manipulatives
• Index cards to show relationships between formulas

1. Manipulative
As the Van Hiele research indicates (Crowley, 1987), it is necessary to know students‟
developmental levels in order to design appropriate instruction. When working with perimeter
and area, the first experience students should have is solving problems to gain information
(Malloy, 1999). Teachers should provide students with the following information:
• Definitions of perimeter and area, but not formulas
• Rectangles and squares on dot paper that can be used to determine the perimeter and area
• Triangles on dot paper to determine perimeter and area
• Irregular shapes such as those shown below to find perimeter and area

Figure 3.8 A plane figure on dot paper.

Next, take your time to interact with the information. Using tiles in the formation of the figure
below, students may be asked to add tiles to create a perimeter of 18 units.

33
 Figure 3.9 A tile of rectangles

Allow students to start out by working independently writing down their process. Ask questions
such as the ones in the following:

a) Is there more than one possible answer?

b) What is the least number of tiles that can be added? The greatest?
c) What are some strategies that were used to arrive at a solution?

a) What is the area of the original figure?

b) What is the area of each new figure with a perimeter of 18 units?
c) Are all the answers in Question b) the same? Why or why not?
d) Construct as many different rectangles as you can with an area of 24
square units. Do they all have the same perimeter?
e) Construct as many different rectangles as you can with a perimeter of 16
units. Do they all have the same area?
f) What are the connections between area and perimeter?
2. Index Cards
Once students have a conceptual understanding of the differences between area and perimeter, it
may be necessary to provide an additional visual to support the differences in area formulas from
one figure to the next (NCTM, 2000). The following illustrates how index cards may be used for
this purpose.
Activity 3.13
How do you use Index Cards to teach plane geometry? (You may spent 15 minutes)

Table 3.1: Illustration of the use of index cards

Hint for activity 3.13

34
1. Use an index card to represent a
rectangle. Color the base b edge gray and
label it base. Color the height h edge
light gray and label it height. Write the
formula: Area = Base×Height, i.e., A=
b×h

2. Take a second index card and shade

the sides the same color as in Step 1.

3. Now cut the triangle in half as shown.

Throw away the piece with no color

Discuss the formula for the area of a

triangle.
Area = (base x height) ÷ 2.
1
Or A  b h
2

4. On a third card, make a cut as shown

and tape the two pieces together to form
a parallelogram.

5. Cut the parallelogram in half and

discuss the area of this triangle.

35
Distance Concept
Activity 3.15
How do you teach to deriving the distance formula? (You can use five minutes)

Feedback for Activity 3.15

First, teach how students find the distance between two different places or points in
their locality. Then, give coordinate points to these different points and try to find
their distance using the coordinates. This way, you will be able to derive the
distance formula.

Midpoint
Play the song “Meet in the Middle” while the students complete the following summarizing
activity. This activity could be used to form cooperative groups of four students. For example, in
a class of 28, you will need 7 different midpoints. Hang the Midpoints from the ceiling or as an
alternative method the students can write their midpoint on their card and see if any other
students have the same midpoint. Each student will be given two ordered pairs representing the
endpoints of a line segment. Students will determine the midpoint of the segment. If the
midpoints are hanging from the ceiling, the students will go stand under their midpoint. Once
again students will derive midpoint formula.

Designing and teaching lessons from solid geometry

c) Strategies to Teach Geometric Solids

Activity 3.16
List some of the methods for teaching solid geometry. (Use six minutes)

Feedback for Activity 3.16

Some of the methods used for teaching solid geometry are:
• Inquiry/information
• Directed Orientation
• Explication
• Free Orientation
• Integration

36
Inquiry/information
The purpose at this stage is to assess students‟ prior knowledge to guide the instruction of the
unit of study (Crowley, 1987). To begin this phase, the teacher can ask the following types of
questions:
• What is a cube?
• What is a cone?
• What is a prism?
• What is a sphere?
• How are they alike and how are they differ?

Directed Orientation
During the directed orientation stage, the teacher can lead guided explorations of the solids.
Activities may include the following:
 Gather different household items that resemble a cone, cube, sphere, cylinder, pyramid,
and prism. Encourage students to sort them by different teacher described attributes.
 Have students trace each side of the solid to determine its net (a two-dimensional figure
that when folded forms the surface of a three dimensional object) (Boyd et al., 1998).
Students could then construct the object from the net.
 Using a flashlight, cast a shadow of each face of the solid onto the wall to help determine
its net.
 Have the students use a Venn diagram and pictures of different solids to analyze
similarities and differences between them.
 Create a line plot by looking at each solid and determining the number of edges, surfaces,
or points for each.

Explication
In the third phase, students write and discuss the observations from the second phase. Students
express their ideas about the solids (Crowley, 1987). Example activities include:
 Write a paragraph describing each of the solids; include diagrams with important parts
labeled.
 Create a graphic organizer showing the relationship between the different types of solids.
 Discuss the similarities and differences of the solids.

Free Orientation
At the next phase, free orientation, students learn about the solids by performing more complex
tasks. These tasks will be multi-step and will require a higher level of thinking than in directed
orientation.
Examples include:
 Fill solids with rice, sand, or water and explore properties of volume.
 Cut apart cardboard solids such as cereal boxes to explore the surface area of solids.

Integration
In the final phase, students do not learn any new material. Instead, they review and summarize
the work done in this unit through activities such as the following:
 Create a poster describing the properties of the solids.

37
  Demonstrate understanding of the solids through a brochure developed to teach their
peers (Crowley, 1987).

3.7 Teaching Axioms/Postulates

Axioms/Postulates are statements that are assumed to be true without proof.

3.8 When and How Definitions should be taught?

Activity 3.18: Please do on the following question individually.

Develop a method that enable you teach definitions and starting point of teaching
definitions? (Yan can use 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 3.18

The method used to teach definitions may be direct orientation method by giving
the meaning of a definition as: Definition is precise and unambiguous description
of the meaning of a mathematical term. It characterizes the meaning of a word by
giving all the properties and only those properties that must be true.
According to Van Hiele, teaching of definitions starts in the third level (Abstraction) of
geometric thinking. You may refer to section 3.5 for the methods of teaching definitions.

3.9 Propositions and Proofs

proof means all the ways in which confidence in the truth or falsity of a proposition is acquired.
Hence, proof is similar to justification. Proof is a social transaction involving the person (the
prover) an audience (the person or persons to be convinced), and an argument (the means the
prover uses to convince the audience).

The existence of uncertainty or doubt is necessary to make proof significant, something other
than a game.

Kinds of proofs

Activity 3.20
Please form a group of four students and then select an appropriate methodology
that enable you teach the different kinds of proofs. (Use 10 minutes.)

There are four ways by which one could gain the assurance.

Feedback for Activity 3.20

The kinds of proof are personal experience, accepting the judgment of an
authority, induction, and deduction. Some of the methods employed to teach
these kinds of proof are Modes Ponens, the deduction theorem, counter
example, the contrapositive, indirect proof, and mathematical induction.

38
Personal experience: If a student states that there is a car accident near a known store in the
town and someone asks "How do you know?", the student‟s statement that she/he have just
walked beside the store and seen the crashed car is considered proof of the existence of the
accident. A questioner who has doubts can either drive or walk past the store and verify the
report. Such observations would prove the assertion true or false.

Accepting the judgment of an authority: Students are willing to consider and accept
statements given in a textbook to be true, because they believe that the author is an expertise in
the subject matter and would not knowingly state false propositions.

Induction: If all the investigated instances of a generalization are true, then we are reasonably
confident that the generalization is true. But if we could find a single counterexample then we
know that the generalization does not hold for the given universe, if we find some
counterexamples but not many, we may accept the generalization while indicating its logic by
using quantifiers such as “generally speaking”, “in most cases”, “with some exceptions”, or
“probably.”
Before students learn how to prove a statement by a deductive argument, proof or justification by
instances is more convincing.
Deduction: The assurance of the truth of statement is obtained by valid deductive argument. If it
can be shown that a statement follows necessarily by using accepted laws of logic from other
statements known to be true, our confidence in the truth of the statement is enhanced. One should
realize that this latter kind of proof predominates in mathematics, thus, a proof in the context of
mathematics is an argument if and only if it satisfies the following two conditions:
(i) All the premises or reasons are true and
(ii) The argument is valid.

Teaching Strategies of proofs

Let alone in doing proofs, there always exists individual difference in the teaching-learning
process. Therefore, a teacher could help slow learning by pointing out various strategies
available for proving a statement. Thus, once the students are given the opportunity to practice
these strategies, they would become more resourceful. Some of the strategies that could be used
in proving statements are given below.

a) Modus ponens
Suppose a student asserts that there are no real roots of the equation x2-4x+5 = 0 while another
student challenges this statement. One strategy would be to solve the equation and examine the
roots, but a more elegant strategy is to cite the theorem if the value of the discriminate (b2-4ac) is
less than zero. The roots are not real numbers and then show that the value of the discriminate of
x2-4x+5=0 is less than zero. Therefore, it follows necessarily that the roots are not real numbers.
The form of this argument can be determined by replacing the particular statements in the
reasons and conclusion by variables, thereby, obtaining: If p, then q.

pq Theorem
p Premises
q Conclusion 39
This valid form of argument is frequently used to prove an assertion. It is known as modus
ponens. Since the premises (or reasons) in the particular argument about the nature of the roots
of x2-4x+5 = 0 are true and the argument is valid, the conclusion is true and the assertion is
proved.
To use modus ponens as a strategy for proving an assertion, one tries to find a true conditional
statement whose conclusion is the assertion to be proved.

b) The deduction theorem

The proof of a conditional statement using the strategy described above is based on the deduction
theorem of symbolic logic. The deduction theorem may be stated as follows: If from one or more
true statements and an assumption p, it is possible to deduce q, then it is possible to deduce pq
from the true statement alone.
Consider as an example of the application of the deduction method for the proof of the theorem:
If two angles of a triangle are congruent to two angles of another triangle, then the third angles
are congruent? This is a conditional of the form pq, where p is the hypothesis “two angles of a
triangle are congruent to two angles of another triangle” and q is the conclusion “the third angles
are congruent.” The proof proceeds by assuming the hypothesis. In the conventional language of
secondary school textbooks, this is characterized as “given.” From this and the relevant theorems
and postulates, the conclusion (the third angles are congruent) is deduced. The deduction
theorem then allows the conditional that was the object of proof to be deduced.

c) Counter example
It is useful for disproving a generalization. For example, let p(x) be a generalization supposing
to hold over a set A that is the domain of x. Hence for some aA, p(a) is singular statement
obtained by replacing the variable x by the constant a in the generalization. When we consider a
generalization of the form (x) p(x), we may also consider (x)(p(x)). It may be possible to
find a specific individual aA so that p(a) is true. If so, we have shown the negation of our
generalization is true and hence that the generalization is false.

Let us illustrate the use of this strategy of counter example:

Suppose a student asserts that every parabola is the graph of a function. Another student can
display a parabola whose axis is parallel to the x-axis is not the graph of a function. Hence, the
generalization stated by the first student is false.

d) The Contrapositive
A general strategy for proving a contrapositive is to prove an equivalent proposition. Two
propositions are equivalent if and only if each implies the other. In other words, p and q are
equivalent if and only if pq and qp.
Every conditional proposition pq has contrapositive qp. Thus the contrapositive of “If
two points in a plane have the same x-coordinate, then they lie on the same perpendicular line to

40
the x-axis is "If two points do not lie on the same line perpendicular to the x-axis, they do not
have the same x-coordinate." A proposition and its contra positive are equivalent. Hence, a
student who experiences difficulty in proving a given proposition may be able to prove its contra
positive. Then, since the two propositions are equivalent, the given proposition follows
necessarily from its contra positive.

e) Indirect proof
It is a powerful strategy and it can be used to prove any proposition. Unfortunately, the reasoning
for it is subtle and hence not easily understood by students. Students sometimes say, “How come
you will let me assume that the proposition is false, but you will not let me assume that it is
true?” Students learn how to use indirect proof by imitation and practice, but some are not
convinced that it is sound reasoning. One reason why indirect proof is difficult for some students
is that teachers treat this topic only casually.

f) Proof by cases
Suppose one has the problem of proving that if a and b are real numbers, then |a+b| | a|+|b| . One
way of doing this is to consider cases as:
Case 1: a  0 and b  0

Case 2: a < 0 and b > 0

Case 3: a > 0 and b < 0

Case 4: a < 0 and b < 0

This is a partition of the set of real numbers. Hence when each of these cases has been proved,
the proposition has been proved for the given domain.

g) Mathematical induction
Suppose that a student thinks that a property holds for every positive integer n. If the student can
prove that the property holds for n=1 and prove that whenever it holds for n>1, it also holds for
n+1, it follows that it holds for every positive integer n.

Compare and contrast the above strategies of proof.

3.10 Constructions

Activity 3.21 Please be in groups of four students and develop a strategy that enable
you teach construction. What instruments do you think are needed for teaching
construction? (You can spend 10 minutes for the discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 3.21

Construction is one of the topics that can encourage student hands-on activity in
teaching. So, we may use hands-on activities to encourage individual student
activities. The instruments that are required for teaching construction include 41
straightedge and compass.
 Activity 3.22
Please be in pairs and design a method that enable you teach the construction of
a) A congruent segment to a given segment.
b) A congruent angle to a given angle. (Use 20 minutes)

Feedback for Activity 3.22(a) No doubt that you have listed a number of
methods.
1. Construct a congruent segment.
Given: AB
Construct: X Y such that A B=XY
(i) Construct a line with X a point on the line.
(ii) Construct a circle with center at X and radius of AB . Let Y be the point of
intersection of the circle and the line.
(iii)Then A B =XY.

Figure 3.12 Copying

of a line segment

Feedback for Activity 3.22(b)

2. Construct a congruent angle. Given: ∠ ABC
Construct: ∠ XYZ such that m(∠ ABC) = m(∠ XYZ)
(i) Construct a line with Y on the line.
(ii) Construct a circle with center at Y and radius of AB. Let the intersection of the line
and the circle be X.
(iii)Construct a circle with center at A and radius AB. Let D be the point of intersection
of ray BC and this circle. Construct AD.
(iv)Construct a circle with center at X and radius of AD. Let Z be the point of
intersection of the two circles.
(v) Construct ray Y Z.
(vi)Then, m(∠ ABC)= m(∠ XYZ).

Figure 3.13 Copying an angle

42
Unit IV: Teaching of Trigonometry

Unit Learning Outcomes:

Upon successful completion of this unit, students will be able to:

o Choose effective teaching methodologies for teaching trigonometry

o Use appropriate visual aids for teaching trigonometry
o Give examples to elaborate trigonometric functions
o Plan how to teach applications of trigonometry

4.1 Methods of teaching Trigonometry

How do you teach trigonometry?

Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that solves problems relating to plane and spherical
triangles. Its principles are based on the fixed proportions of sides for a particular angle in a
right-angled triangle, the simplest of which are known as the sine, cosine, and tangent (so-called
trigonometric ratios). Trigonometry is of practical importance in navigation, surveying, and
simple harmonic motion in physics.

The model of trigonometric understanding presented in this unit is based on developing coherent
connections among three different contexts of trigonometry: right triangle trigonometry (RTT),
unit circle trigonometry (UCT), and trigonometric function graphs (TFG) (see Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1 Three contexts of trigonometry

Activity 4.1 Please form a group of four students and then select appropriate
43
methods of teaching to teach the three trigonometric contexts. (You may take 15
minutes.)
 Feedback for Activity 4.1 No doubt that you have selected teaching methodologies
to teach the contexts. But you can explain them as follows.
 In the first context, trigonometric concepts are defined as ratios in right triangles. The
important idea is that trigonometric ratios are useful in setting relationships between
angles and side lengths. These ratios can be defined as trigonometric values of angles
since they are constant in all triangles with the same angles because of the similarity of
triangles. In this context, trigonometry is limited to angles in degrees smaller than 90o.
 In the second context, trigonometric concepts are defined as coordinates. This context
expands trigonometry to any angle and it does both in degrees and radians, and both for
negative and positive angles. Unit circle definitions are important in enabling one to
define trigonometric functions.
 The third context is derived from the second one. Trigonometric graphs illustrate
trigonometric functions in the domain of real numbers as well as their periodic nature.

A Model of Trigonometric Understanding

The trigonometric understanding model presented here is fundamental to the research that
provides a framework for both the instructional design and assessment of students‟
understanding. The model is based on a conceptual analysis of mathematical ideas within and
among three contexts of trigonometry. Figure 2 shows this trigonometric understanding model.
(UCT)Trigonometric
Fu

Ratio definition and applications

of sine and cosine only for acute
angles

 Coordinate definitions on unit circle

 Angle measure  Graphs of sine and cosine
 Connections between arcs and  Function concept Domain and
subtending angles Range
 Radians  Periodicity

(TFG)

Figure 4.2 A model of trigonometric understanding

The contexts TT, UCT, and TFG represent three contexts in which trigonometry can be partially
understood, while the central point U in the model represents the desired trigonometric
understanding of students. The numbered line segments represent that trigonometric
understanding should entail aspects in the three trigonometric contexts and the connections
among them. It is important to keep in mind that point U should not be considered static. It may
have different places in between the three contexts with respect to the quality of different
students‟ understanding. In this regard, the areas bounded by the line segments are the spaces
where students‟ understanding can be attained. In addition, these areas represent the space where
students‟ understanding can be flexibly placed by a researcher or a teacher during students‟ task
44
solving or designing lesson materials because different tasks may require different aspects of
trigonometric understanding.

4.2 Why Teaching Trigonometry?

Activity 4.4
Please regroup yourselves into a group of four to five students and discuss on how
you can teach the need for including trigonometry in school curricula? (Use six
minutes for discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 4.4 You can say that trigonometry is the study of triangles
and angles. It is true that triangles are one of the simplest geometrical figures, yet
they have varied applications. The primary application of trigonometry is found in
scientific studies where precise distances need to be measured. The techniques in
trigonometry are used for finding relevance in navigation particularly satellite
systems and astronomy, naval and aviation industries, oceanography, land surveying,
and in cartography (creation of maps). Now, these are the scientific applications of
the concepts in trigonometry. So, trigonometry is relevant for our day to day
activities. This course provides knowledge that is necessary for students who wish to
pursue a career in the technical areas including engineering. This is the reason why
trigonometry is being taught in schools.

4.3 What Parts of Trigonometry should be taught?

Further, the parts of trigonometry that should be taught are:

 The measurement of angles, all including the centesimal and radian measures of angles,
some including the centesimal measure,
 The quadrants of various angles and negative angles,
 Complements and supplements of angles,
 Definitions of the trigonometric ratios,
 Pythagorean identities,
 Reciprocal identities of the trigonometric functions,
 The trigonometric functions of special angles 300, 450, and 600,
 Reference angles,
 Sum and difference formulas, double angle formulas, half-angle formulas, and multiple
angle formulas,
 The solution of right and oblique triangles,
 Real-life applications of the solution of triangles, and
 Trigonometric formulas for the area of a triangle.
4.4 How Trigonometry be taught?

Activity 4.6 Please regroup yourselves into a size of six students and select
an appropriate method of teaching on how you can teach trigonometry?
45
(Please spend 10 minutes.)
 Feedback for Activity 4.6:
The methods used to teach trigonometry may include:
 Begin with concrete ideas before introducing abstractions.
 Keep the calculations simple.
 Introduce ideas by level of complexity, not by topic.
 Return to each skill several times in different contexts.
 Make conceptual relationships clear.
 Attend explicitly to connections between ideas.
 Allow students to wrestle with ideas.
 Avoid reducing conceptual problems to procedural problems.

4.5 Designing and teaching lesson from trigonometry topics

Right Triangle Trigonometry (RTT)

Activity 4.7
Please regroup yourselves into a size of four students and select an appropriate
method of teaching on how you can teach trigonometric ratios of an angle? (Please
spend 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 4.7:

Start by drawing a right angled triangle ABC with right angle at B. Then ask your
students about the trigonometric ratios of the acute angles to conclude that the ratios are
the same as the following ratios.

Figure 4.3: Right angled triangle

Please students, discuss on how to teach the remaining three trigonometric ratios?

Pythagorean Identities

46
 Activity 4.8
Please students be in pairs and select a method on how you can teach
Pythagorean identities? (Please take 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 4.8 Dear students, I hope you have discussed the methods.
You may also teach the content as: When you teach Pythagorean identities, you
encourage students to start from the Pythagorean relation of the sides of a right
triangle. Let the lengths of sides of ABC above be AB=c, BC=a and AC=b.
Then, the Pythagorean relation is a2+c2 = b2 and hence dividing both sides by b2
gives sin2A +cos2A=1. Similarly, you can find the other two relations by
dividing both sides of the equation by a2 and c2, respectively.

Unit Circle Trigonometry (UCT)

Activity 4.9
Please students be in pair and select a method on how you can teach the
similarity and difference of RTT and UCT? (Please take 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 4.9 You may list various methods. You may first ask
your students to describe: A Unit Circle is the circle centered at the origin with
radius 1 unit (hence, “unit circle"). The equation of this circle is x2 + y2 =1. A
diagram of the unit circle is shown in Figure 4 below.

Figure 4.4 Unit circle

We have previously applied trigonometry to triangles that were drawn with no reference
to any coordinate system. Because the radius of the unit circle is 1, we will see that it
provides a convenient framework within which we can apply trigonometry to the
coordinate plane. 47
Teaching Angles in Standard Position

Activity 4.10 Please individually, develop an appropriate strategy on how

you can teach angles in standard position? (Please use eight minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 4.10 No doubt that you can find a lot of methods
that help you teach angles in standard position. You may also do as follows:
You will first recall how angles are drawn within the coordinate plane. An
angle is said to be in standard position if the vertex of the angle is at the
origin and the initial side of the angle lies along the positive x-axis. If the
angle measure is positive, then the angle has been created by a
counterclockwise rotation from the initial to the terminal side. If the angle
measure is negative, then the angle has been created by a clockwise rotation
from the initial to the terminal side.

Figure 4.5: Angles in standard position

Method of teaching Labeling Special Angles on the Unit Circle

First give your students the opportunity to deal primarily with special angles around the unit
circle, namely, the multiples of 30o, 45 o, 60o, and 90o. All angles throughout this topic will be
drawn in standard position. First, you will draw a unit circle and label the angles that are
multiples of 90o. These angles, known as quadrantal angles, have their terminal side on either the
x-axis or the y-axis. (We have limited our diagram to the quadrantal angles from 0o to 360o.)

x
48
Next, we will repeat the same process for multiples of 30o, 45o, and 60o. (Notice that there is a
great deal of overlap between the diagrams.)

Please discuss on how to teach special angles (multiple of 30o, 45o, and 60o).

Putting it all together, we obtain the following unit circle with all special angles labeled:

Figure 4.7 Special angles

Methods of Teaching Trigonometric Functions

Recall the meaning of a function and discuss how trigonometric functions can be
taught?

You will see how to apply the coordinates of the unit circle to find trigonometric functions, but
you want to preface this discussion with a more general definition of the six trigonometric
functions.

Activity 4.11
Using the unit circle discussed above, design a method that help you teach
deriving trigonometric functions. (Use 15 minutes.)
49
 Feedback for Activity 4.11 In doing so, first try to see the reflections of your students.
Then you can give the following explanation.Let  be an angle drawn in standard position,
and let P(x, y) represent the point where the terminal side of the angle intersects the circle
x2+y2 = r2. The six trigonometric functions are defined as follows:

(y≠0)

(x≠0)

(y≠0)

Figure 4.8 A right triangle

Activity 4.12 Please be in groups of five students and then design an

appropriate method of teaching for finding trigonometric functions of
special angles. (You may use 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 4.12 You can see that the unit circle assists us greatly in
finding trigonometric functions of special angles. But, what if we do not have a diagram
of the unit circle, and we do not wish to draw one? It is assumed that the quadrantal
angles (multiples of 90o on the axes) are fairly easy to visualize without a diagram. One
option is to understand the coordinates of the special angles in the first quadrant of the
unit circle (30o, 45o and 60o), and use those values to find the trigonometric functions of
angles in other quadrants. Let us discuss a few ways of finding the basic trigonometric
functions of 30o, 45o and 60o (other than memorizing the coordinates of these special
angles in the first quadrant of the unit circle.) One method is to use a basic 45o-45o-90o
triangle and a 30o-60o-90o triangle to derive the trigonometric functions of 30o, 45o, and
60o. From your earlier knowledge, you know that the trigonometric functions are
constant for any given angle, for example, sin(30o) is always regardless of the size of

the radius of the circle or the size of the triangle drawn. So, we can choose any 45o-45o-
90o triangle and 30o-60o-90o triangle to work from. For simplicity, let us choose both
triangles to have a shorter leg of length 1, as shown below:

50
Note that you can inform the students that the reciprocal trigonometric ratios cosecant, secant,
and cotangent can be obtained by simply taking the reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent
ratios given in the feedback above, respectively.

Another method of remembering the trigonometric functions of 30o, 45o, and 60o, along with 0o
and 90o, is shown below. (This is more of a „trick‟ for remembering the ratios, so no
mathematical justification is given.) Students will do this as an activity as follows:

Activity 4.13 Please be in pairs and select an appropriate method of teaching so that
you do the following by using the instruction given (You may spend 10 minutes.)
Step 1
Create a table with three rows and six columns. Label the last five columns at the top
of the table for all of the special angles between 0o up to 90o in ascending order. Also
label the last two rows with the words “sine” and “cosine.”
Step 2 This chart is not yet complete!
Write the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 in the “sine” row, and the numbers 4, 3, 2, 1, 0 in the
“cosine” row, starting from 0o column.
Step 3 This chart is correct, but not yet simplified
For each of the numbers in the “sine” and “cosine” rows, take the square root of
each number and then divide each by 2. Then simplify and see the output.

Feedback for Activity 4.13

From the three steps in the activity, you will get the following. But still you need to
simplify the values.

Table 4.1: Values of special angles

Now, as a group assignment, design a strategy on how to teach finding

trigonometric functions of other angles.
51
Methods of Teaching Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions

In this section, you will learn how to sketch the graph of sine and cosine functions. To do this,
you will once again use the coordinates of the special angles from the unit circle. We will first
make a table of values for y  f ( x)  sin x , where x represents the degree measure of the angle.
In the column for the y values, the exact value has also been written as a decimal, rounded to the
nearest hundredth for graphing purposes.
Table4.2: Table of values for

We now plot the above x and y values on the coordinate plane, as shown in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11: Plot of 52

Drawing a smooth curve through the points which we have plotted, we obtain the following
graph of y  f ( x)  sin x .

Figure 4.12 Plot of by smooth curve

Since 360o is coterminal with 0o, their y-values are the same. This is the case with any coterminal
angles; 450o is coterminal with 90o, 540o is coterminal with 180o, etc. For this reason, the above
graph will repeat itself over and over again, as shown below:

53
Figure 4.13 Graph of
By a similar procedure, learners can find a table of values for f ( x)  cos x and sketch its graph.
You may get a graph same as Figure 4.14.

Figure 4.14 Graph of

Methods of Teaching Applications of Trigonometry

Activity 4.14 Individually, select an appropriate method of teaching for

identifying areas where trigonometry is applicable. (Spent 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 4.14 You may have listed some possible areas. Some of
these are given below.
Trigonometry has a number of applications in day today life. For example, the height of a
tower, mountain, building or tree, distance of a ship from a light house, width of a river,
etc. can be determined by using the knowledge of trigonometry. You would explain these
applications to your students through some additional examples.

Before you teach how to solve such problems, it is necessary to explain the following basic
terms.

Activity 4.15 Please be in pairs and then select appropriate methods of teaching
that enable you to teach defining the terms Line of sight, Angles of elevation and
depression and ask your students to give examples of their own.(Spent 10
minutes.)

54
 Feedback for Activity 4.15 I hope you have selected appropriate methods of
teaching to teach defining the terms. In addition, you can give the following.
Line of sight: Suppose we are viewing an object clearly, the line of sight (or line of
vision) to the object is the line from eye to the object we are viewing.
Angle of elevation: If the object is above the horizontal level of the eyes (i.e., if it above
the eye level), we have to turn our head upwards to view the object. In this process, our
eyes move through an angle called the angle of elevation of the object from our eyes.
Angle of depression: Suppose a girl, sitting on the balcony of a house, observes an object
(ball) lying on the ground at some distance from the building. In this case, she has to move
her head downwards to view it. In this process, her eyes again move through an angle.
Such an angle is called the angle of depression of the object. Further, Figure 4.15 describes
the concepts well.

Figure 4.15 Angles of Observation

Now, let us consider some problems involving heights and distances and the students will look
for other additional examples.

Activity 4.16
Please students be in pairs and design a method of teaching the following
problem. (You may use 15 minutes.)
A person standing on the ground is observing the top of a tree at a distance 12m from
the foot of the tree. If an angle of elevation of the top of the tree is 30°, find the height
of the tree.

55
 Feedback for Activity 4.16
In the right angled triangle ABC; AB = 12m and m(CAB) = 30°. We have to
find BC in order to find height of the tree. Let BC = h meters. We put

. So, .

Hence, the height of the tree is meters.

Figure 4.16 Illustrative diagram

Unit V: Teaching of Relations and Functions (13 hours)

Unit Learning Outcomes:

On successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

o Analyze the content of relation and functions in teaching.

o Devise effective teaching strategies in teaching polynomial and rational functions.
o Select proper teaching aids for teaching relation and functions.
o Plan to connect exponential and logarithmic functions to real life situations in
teaching.

5.1 Teaching of the Concepts of Relation and Function

Relations

Activity 5.1 Please be in groups of five students and select appropriate methods
of teaching the concept of a relation? (Take 10 minutes.)

56
 Feedback for Activity 5.1 I hope you have selected a variety of methods for teaching
relation. As an alternative, you can also use questioning and answering method by
making students give specific examples of relation in our surrounding. Some of them
might be, in our daily life, we come across many patterns that characterize relations
such as brother and sister, teacher and student, etc. Similarly, in mathematics, you
come across different relations such as a number a is less than a number b, angle A is
greater than angle B, set A is subset of set B, and so on. In all these cases, we find that
a relation involves pairs of objects in some specific order. Many everyday
phenomena involve two quantities that are related to each other by some rule of
correspondence. The mathematical term for such a rule of correspondence is a
relation.

For describing a relation, let us start from two sets A and B which are related by some rule.
Then, the cross product of A and B denoted by AB is the set of all ordered pairs in such a way
that the first element is taken from the first set and the second element is taken from the second
set, i.e., AB = {(a, b): a A and bB}.
Then, we may define a relation as any set of ordered pairs. That is, a relation is a
correspondence between two sets, say A and B. If a is an element of A and b is an element of B
and if a relation exists between a and b, then we say that a corresponds to b. We may write a
corresponds to b as the ordered pair (a, b).

Activity 5.2
Please students be in pairs and develop a strategy for teaching different examples
of a relation. (You may take 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.2 It is possible to use varied methods of teaching but you may
try using demonstrating method by asking students to demonstrate the examples they
identified using words, diagrams or graphs. For instance, you can apply the method in
the following examples.
1. Correspondence between each student in a school and their weight in kilogram. The relation
may be called “weighs.” An example of an ordered pair for this relation would be (Nahom,
76) which means Nahom “weighs” 76kgs.
2. Correspondence between a woman and her child. The relation may be called “mother of.”
An example of an ordered pair for this relation would be (Hirut, Yonas) which means that
Hirut is the “mother of” Yonas.
3. The set containing the ordered pairs: {(-4, 5), (-3, -4), (-3, -3), (-2, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2,-4)}.

Domain and Range

You may ask your students to recall the meanings of the domain and range of a relation from
their previous knowledge.

Activity 5.3 Please regroup yourselves into groups of five students and devise a
strategy for teaching domain and range of a relation. (Spend 15 minutes.)

57
 Feedback for Activity 5.3: Once again, you can choose a variety of methods but
you may start by asking questions to collect the first elements of the relations given
above.
The corresponding set is a domain for each relation. Similarly, students may be asked to
list the second elements of each relation. This set is called the range of the relation. For
instance, the domain of the relation in number 1 of feedback of activity 5.2 is the set
containing names of students of the school such as {Nahom, Rahel, Dinkinesh, Elsa,
Gemechu, Ojulu, ...} and its range is the set consisting of the corresponding weights of
these students in kgs such as{76, 63, 67, 70, 72, 80,...}. This way you may find the domain
and range of other relations also.

Inverse Relations:
Two relations are inverse relations of each other if and only if whenever one relation contains the
element (a, b), the other relation contains the element (b, a).

Activity 5.4 Please students be in groups of three students and design appropriate
methods of teaching inverse of a relation. (Use 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.4 No doubt that you have selected your own method of
teaching. But you may also try to illustrate using examples.
If you begin with the relation {(-4, 5), (-3, -4), (-3, -3), (-2, 0),(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, -4)}
and want to create the inverse relation, you interchange the first and second components of
the ordered pairs to get {(5, -4), (-4, -3), (-3, -3), (0, -2), (1, 1), (2, 1), (-4, 2)}. In tabular
format, you interchange the left and right columns.
Table 5.1: Tabular presentation of a relation and its inverse

You can find the inverse relation of the above examples and compare the domain and range of
the relation with the domain and range of the inverse relation. Graphically, the example can be
sketched as:

58
 Figure 5.1: Graphical presentation of a relation and its inverse.

Activity 5.5
Please students, be in groups of four and discuss on how you can teach sketching
the graphs of relations involving inequalities. (You may use 20 minutes.).

Feedback for Activity 5.5 I hope you may list several methods of sketching
relations. But the methods you use most are given as follows:
1. Draw the graph of curve (s) involved in the relation on the xy-coordinate system.
2. If the relating inequality is  or , use a solid line; if it is < or >, use a broken line.
3. Then take arbitrary ordered pairs represented by points, from opposite sides of the
line(s), and determine which of the pairs satisfy the relation.
4. The region that contains this point representing the ordered pair satisfying the relation
will be the graph of the relation.

As an example, the graph of the relation R = {(x, y): y > x, where x and y are real numbers} is
given as follows.

59
Functions

Definition of Function

Activity 5.6
Please students individually write definition of functions, different examples of a
function and not a function and discuss on how you can teach those definitions
and examples. (You can take 10 minutes.)

Feedback Activity 5.6 No doubt that you have defined a function, given some
examples of functions and their corresponding teaching method as well.
You can define a function as: A function is a relation in which no two different
elements of the relation have the same first coordinate. That is, a relation R is a
function if and only if (x, y)R and (x, z)R, then y = z. Also, please see the
following examples and justify why the following are examples of a function.
1. Correspondence between a company with its taxpayer identification number (TIN).
The function may be called “TIN of.”
2. Correspondence between students in a classroom and their mothers. The function
may be called “child of.”
3. Correspondence between a number and its square. The function may be called
“square of.”
4. The set consisting of ordered pairs:{(-4,5), (-3,-4), (-2,1), (0,0), (2,1), (3, 4), (4, 5)}.
5. The correspondence between teachers and their students in certain secondary
school, is not a function.

Classification of Functions

Activity 5.7 Please students regroup yourselves into groups of three students
and design an appropriate strategy for teaching classification of functions (into,
one-to-one, onto, etc.) (You may spend 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.7

You can use cooperative learning by assigning each classification of functions to
group members of a group consisting of three students. Then regroup the students with the
same type of classification to form new specialization groups and discuss on the properties
of the type of functions assigned to each group. Then students join to their home group
back to share what they have brought from the groups. This is one method of teaching the
content. You can also use a variety of methods.

60
Let f be a function from A to B. If every element of the set B is the image of at least one element
of the set A, i.e., if there is no unpaired element in the set B, then we say that the function f maps
the set A onto the set B. Otherwise, we say that the function maps the set A into the set B.
Functions for which each element of the set A is mapped to a different element of the set B are
said to be one-to-one.
a f 1

b 2

c 3

d 4

Figure 5.3: Diagram of a 1-1 function.

Combinations of Functions

Activity 5.8
Please students be in groups of five and discuss on the methods of teaching
combination of functions. (You can use 12 minutes for discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 5.8

I hope you have the methods used to teach combination of functions. One of the
methods of teaching combination of functions is discussion method. In this method,
every student should fairly participate in the discussion. You may assign the functions
combined by one algebraic operation to each group and conduct a whole class discussion
so that students gain additional information of the content.

Composition of Functions

Activity 5.9
Please students be in pairs and devise an appropriate method of teaching that
helps you teach composition of functions. (You may take 10 minutes.)

61
 Feedback for Activity 5.9
One of the methods to teach composition of functions is to show where it can be
applicable (application method). Suppose you wanted to calculate how much it costs
to heat a house on a particular day of the year. The cost to heat a house will depend
on the average daily temperature, and the average daily temperature depends on the
particular day of the year. Notice how you have just defined two relationships: The
temperature depends on the day, and the cost depends on the temperature. Using
descriptive variables, you can note these two functions as follows.
The first function, C(T), gives the cost C of heating a house when the average daily
temperature is T degrees Celsius, and the second, T(d), gives the average daily
temperature of a particular city on day d of the year. If you wanted to determine the cost
of heating the house on the 5th day of the year, you could do this by linking the two
functions together, an idea called composition of functions. Using the function T(d),
you could evaluate T(5) to determine the average daily temperature on the 5th day of the
year. You could then use that temperature as the input to the C(T) function to find the
cost to heat the house on the 5th day of the year, C(T(5)). You may encourage your
students to explore other applications as well.

When the output of one function is used as the input of another function, we call the entire
operation composition of functions. We write f(g(x)), and read this as “f of g of x” or “f
composed with g at x”.
An alternate notation for composition uses the composition operator: 
( f  g )( x) is read “f of g of x” or “f composed with g at x”, just like f(g(x)).

Graphs of real valued functions

Let us see how to sketch the graph of a quadratic function: f(x)=ax2+bx+c where a, b, cR and
a ≠ 0. The given function is in standard form of a quadratic function.

Activity 5.10
Please students be in groups of four and discuss on how to teach sketching
the graph of the quadratic function. (Use 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.10 You have a number of options to teach sketching
graphs of functions. For this particular case, you can use the following.
To sketch the graph of f(x)=ax2+bx+c, you first transform the quadratic function
into f(x)=a(x-h)2+ k. The vertex of the quadratic function is located at (h, k), where h
and k are the numbers in the transformation form of the function. Because the vertex
appears in the transformation form, it is often called the vertex form. From the
standard form of the equation, it is possible to calculate h and k in terms of a, b and c,
i.e., and . Then the graph becomes either parabola upward
(a>0) or parabola downward (a<0). Further, f(0) = c is the y-intercept and the point(s)
where ax2+bx+c = 0 are x-intercepts of the graph of the function. Using this62
information, it is now possible to sketch the graph of any quadratic function.
5.2 Teaching of Polynomial Functions

Activity 5.11
Please students be in groups of five and discuss on different methods of teaching
of polynomials. (Spend 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.11 You may use characterization method as follows. A
polynomial is a function that can be written as f(x)=a0+a1x+...+anxn. Each of the
constants ai are called coefficients and are real numbers.
A term of the polynomial is any piece of the sum, i.e., any aixi.
The degree of the polynomial is the exponent of the term with highest power of the
variable that occurs in the polynomial. The leading term is the term with the highest
degree. The leading coefficient is the coefficient of the leading term. Because of the
definition of the “leading” term, polynomials are rearranged so that the powers are
descending as f(x)= anxn +an-1xn-1+...+ a1x +a0.

5.3 Teaching of Rational Functions

Recall that a rational function is the ratio of two polynomials the denominator being non zero.

Activity 5.12
Regroup yourselves into groups of size four students and select an appropriate
methodology that enable you teach rational functions. (Take 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.12

You may use questioning and answering method. Introduce this topic by asking
students what a rational function is.
You may explain that a rational function is a ratio of two polynomials with the one in the
denominator non-zero. Distribute the Rational Functions activity sheet and direct the
students to explore any five rational functions to each group. Students should note every
property of rational functions. Also, if the group has questions about any of the functions,
they should write on the sheet as well. Remind the students to discuss everyone‟s ideas in
the group before deciding what should be written. While the students are discussing these
functions, circulate and listen to the groups' reports to determine what points do the students
understand and what areas do they have difficulty with. Guide students by asking leading
questions when appropriate. After this, you may give the definition. A rational function is a
function of the form r (x) =P (x)/Q(x) where P and Q are polynomials and Q(x)≠0.

Graph of a rational function

63
 Activity 5.13
Dear students! Individually, please design methods of teaching graphs of rational
functions. (Please spend 20 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.13 You can use project method and give sketching the
graph of rational function as a project to students. In the project, the important points
of teaching the graph of a rational function are teaching the different properties.
To this end, let p(x) and q(x) be polynomials with no common factors other than one. The
graph of the rational function with p(x) = amxm +am-1xm-1 +...+a1x+a0 and

q(x) = bnxn +bn-1xn-1 +...+b1x+b0 has the following characteristics.

1. The x-intercepts of the graph of r are the real zeros of p(x).
2. The graph of r has vertical asymptotes at each real zero of q(x).
3. The graph of r has at most one horizontal asymptote.
a) If m < n, then the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
b) If m = n, then the line is a horizontal asymptote.

4. If m> n, then the graph r has oblique asymptote of the form y = ax+b.
You may practice these properties to sketch the graph of a real valued rational function.

Making use of the properties in feedback for activity 5.13 to sketch the graph of a rational
function, let us see the following activity

Activity 5.14 Please students form a group of three and develop a strategy that enables you to
teach sketching the graph of
Feedback for Activity 5.14 To sketch the graph of the rational function, you can use
demonstration, questioning and answering, and graphing methods, etc.
 The domain of f is {x : x ≠ 4, x ∈ R }.
 The x-intercepts are 0 and 3. The y-intercept is 0. (The graph passes through the origin.)
 The line x = 4 is a vertical asymptote.
 The graph has no horizontal asymptote as the degree of the numerator is greater than the
degree of the denominator. Hence, the graph of the function has an oblique asymptote.
By long division, . That implies the line is an oblique
asymptote. Using this information, the graph of f is given in Figure 5.4.

64
 y

f(x)

4
Oblique asymptote y = x+1
2

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2

-4
Vertical asymptote x=4

Figure 5.4: Graph of f(x)

Activity 5.15 Please students form groups of five and select an appropriate
teaching methodology that enables you to teach application of rational functions
given below. Suppose that the percentage of people using a new computer model t

years after its introduction to the market is modeled by , where p

is the percentage of people and is expressed as a percent. After how long does the
growth rate in the percentage of people stop increasing and begin to decrease?
Why might the answer to this question be useful to the company that markets the
new computer model? (You may take 25 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.15 To answer the questions, you may require to sketch the
graph of the given rational function. To sketch the graph, you may use several
methods of teaching such as demonstration, questioning and answering, and
graphing method, etc.
 Since t represents time, the domain of the function is the set of non-negative real
numbers.
 The x-intercept is 0. The y-intercept is also 0. (The graph passes through the origin.)
 There are no vertical and oblique asymptotes.
 The graph has horizontal asymptote y =100. This makes sense since p(t) represents a
percent. Now you should draw the graph to answer the first question.
 The answer for the second question can be, the company that makes the new computer
model may need to adjust production levels as the market declines. The company should
also develop new products to make and sell to keep their plants busy.

65
5.4 Teaching of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Law of exponents
In the expression, 25 (called power), 2 is the base, 5 is the exponent, and 32 is the value.

Activity 5.16
Please students be in pairs and develop a strategy that enable you to teach laws of
exponents. (Use 10 minutes for discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 5.16 No doubt that you have developed a strategy that
enables you to teach laws of exponents. You can also use informal lecture, pair
discussion, etc. for teaching the following laws of exponents along with their
corresponding examples.
, Examples:

, ,

, ,

, ,

Exponential Functions
Exponential functions are functions where the variable appears as an exponent.

Activity 5.17
Regroup yourselves into groups of size four students and discuss on how you can
teach exponential functions. (Use 10 minutes for discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 5.17 Exponential functions can be taught by a variety of

approaches. To mention some, you may use question and answering, Inquiry,
cooperative learning methods, etc. You can start by asking the students to define an
exponential function. Then, you may use problem solving method to solve equations
and inequalities involving exponents. Exponential functions and their applications
can also be taught using application method. Finally, demonstration method is used
to teach graphs of exponential functions including their properties by giving real life
applications. 66
Consider a function of the form f(x) = a x, where a > 0. Such a function is called an exponential
function. We can take three different cases, when a = 1, 0 < a < 1 and a > 1. If a = 1, then f(x)
= 1x = 1, which is the constant function f(x) = 1.

Activity 5.18
Please be in groups of size five students and discuss on how you can teach the
exponential function f(x) = a x for the cases a > 1 and 0 < a < 1. (Use 10 minutes
for discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 5.18 Exponential functions can be taught by a variety of

approaches.
In this case, you can demonstrate the cases using tables and graphs by taking a particular
value for a. Let for the case a > 1 and for the case 0 < a < 1 and assign
different values for x.
Table 5.2 Tabular presentation of the cases
For a=2
For 0<a<1

The graphical illustration is given in Figure 5.5 below.

67
Figure 5.5 Graphs of f(x) = a x for the two cases

Activity 5.19
Please students, individually think of how you can teach the effect of varying a in
the function f(x) = a x. (Use eight minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.19: The effect of varying a>0 in the function f(x) = a x can
once again be taught using graphical method. Let us take a = 2, 5 and 10. The graph
is then given as follows. Encourage your students to make generalizations.

Figure 5.6 Graph of different exponential functions

1
The function f(x) = ex is often called the natural exponential function. Since e > 1 and < 1,
e
you can sketch the graphs of the exponential functions f(x) = ex and f(x) = e−x = (1/e)x as follows.

68
 Activity 5.20 Please students be in pairs and then select an appropriate methods of
teaching that enable you to teach the properties of exponential functions. (Spend
seven minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.20 I hope you have selected your own methods to teach the
properties. You can also use questioning and answering by allowing each pair to give
one property. The properties can be summarized as follows:
 The function f(x) = ax for a > 1 has a graph which is close to the x-axis for negative x and
increases rapidly for positive x.
 The function f(x) = ax for 0 < a < 1 has a graph which is close to the x-axis for positive x
and increases rapidly for decreasing negative x.
 For any value of a, the graph always passes through the point (0, 1). The graph of
f(x)=(1/a)x = a−x is a reflection image of the graph of f(x) = ax about the vertical axis.

Let us now see how to teach the following application problem.

Activity 5.21 Please be in pairs and then select appropriate methods of teaching
the application of exponential functions like the following:
Suppose Ethiopia has a population of 80 million and it is estimated that the population
grows every year at an average growth rate of 3%. If the population growth continues at
the same rate,
a) What will be the population after (i) 10 years? (ii) 20 years?
b) How many years will it take for the population to double?
c) What will the graph of the number of people plotted against time look like?
It is hoped that after studying the concepts discussed in this subunit, you will be able to
solve problems like the one given here. (Use 20 minutes.)

Logarithms
Let us again see how logarithms are derived and then you will see how logarithms are taught.

Activity 5.22
Please students form a group of five students and develop an appropriate method
of teaching logarithmic functions. (You may take 15 minutes.)

69
 Feedback for Activity 5.22 You may explain that logarithmic functions are derived
from exponential functions. As you are aware of, exponential functions are functions
whose independent variable is in the exponent.
One of the problems you may ask could be to solve y = 3(1.75)x when x = 2. But what
about having a value for y and then finding the matching value for x? This is actually quite
a bit tougher. To solve the problem, let us find the matching value for x in y =7(2)x when
y=112. Let us now get x out of the exponent. As it turns out, adding, subtracting,
multiplying, or dividing both sides of the equation won‟t work. Neither will taking a root or
raising both sides to a power. But students can still solve the equation, though. The way to
find this missing exponent is to use logarithms. A logarithm, or “log” for short, is really
just a fancy name for an exponent that goes on a base to get a certain answer. For instance,
the logarithm of 100 is the exponent that goes on 10 to get 100. Since 102= 100, then log of
100 equals 2. Similarly, the log of 1,000 is the exponent that goes on 10 to get 1,000. Since
103= 1,000, then log of 1000 equals 3. In the old days, to find logs you had to use a table of
logarithms, which was just a page filled with numbers showing lots of different exponents.
Today, logarithms can be found really fast with a scientific calculator.
Starting with this, you may discuss how to teach laws of logarithms, equations involving
logarithms, logarithmic functions and graph of logarithmic functions and application of
logarithms.
Law of Logarithms
Still the base for exponents serves as the base for the logarithm.

Activity 5.23
Please students be in groups of three and devise an effective methodology that
enable you to teach laws of logarithms. (Use 15 minutes for discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 5.23 No doubt that you have selected a methodology that
enables you to teach laws of logarithms. You can also use inquiry, discussion, etc.
methods for teaching the laws of logarithms. Giving examples is left for you. For b
and c positive numbers and a>0, a≠1:

, for any d

70
Logarithmic Functions
We shall now look at logarithm functions. These are functions of the form f ( x)  log a x where
a > 0. We do not consider the case a = 1, as this will not give us a valid function.

Activity 5.24
Please be in groups of size four students and discuss on how you can teach the
logarithmic function for the cases a > 1 and 0 < a < 1. (Use 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.24 Logarithmic functions can be taught by a variety of

approaches as we did for the case of exponential functions.
In this case, you can demonstrate the cases using tables and graphs by taking a particular
value for a. Let for the case a > 1 and for the case 0 < a < 1 and assign
different values for x.
Table 5.3 Tabular presentation of the cases
For a=2 For 0<a<1

71
 Activity 5.25
Please students be in groups of five and discuss on the methods of teaching that
enable you to teach the effect of varying a in the function . (Use 15
minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.25: The effect of varying a>0 in the function
can be taught using graphical method along with other teaching methods.
You take a = 2, e, and 5. The graph is then given as follows. For the special case when a=e,
we write instead of loge x. This function is called the natural logarithmic function.

Figure 5.9 Graph of different logarithmic functions

Activity 5.26 Please students be in pairs and then select appropriate methods of
teaching that enable you to teach the properties of graphs of logarithmic functions.
(Spend 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.26 No doubt that you have selected your own methods to
teach the properties of graphs of logarithmic functions. You can also use questioning
and answering method by allowing each pair to give one property. The properties
can be summarized as follows:
 The function f(x) = loga x for a > 1 has a graph which is close to the negative y-axis for
x< 1 and increases slowly for positive x.
 The function f(x) = loga x for 0 < a < 1 has a graph which is close to the positive y-axis
for x < 1 and decreases slowly for positive x.
 For any value of a, the graph always passes through the point (1, 0). The graph of
is a reflection image of the graph of about the horizontal

axis.

72
The relationship between exponential and logarithm functions
The relationship between natural exponential and logarithmic functions is given as follows.

Activity 5.27 Please students be in groups of three and then discuss on how you
can teach the relationship between natural exponential and logarithmic functions.
(Use 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 5.27 I hope you have chosen your method of teaching to
explain the relationship between natural exponential and logarithmic functions.
Generally, the relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions is that they are
inverses of each other. You can observe this by sketching the graphs of the two functions
in one coordinate plane.

Figure 5.10 Graph showing that relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions
You can see that the logarithmic function is a reflection of the exponential function in the
line represented by y=x.

Unit VI: Teaching of Probability and Statistics (8 hours)

Unit Introduction
The word 'statistics' is derived from the Italian word 'statista' which means 'state-men'. The word
was first used in Europe and the development of statistics generally has three stages.
(i) The Empirical Stage (before 1600): During this time numerical facts were utilized by
the rulers.
(ii) The Comparative Stage (1600-1800): Statistics and probability was mainly used for
making comparisons between nations.

73
 (iii)The Modern Stage (1800 up to date): Statistics and probability is a field of study that
deals with data collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation.

Unit Learning Outcomes:

On successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

 Analyze the contents in teaching probability and statistics,
 Devise effective teaching strategy to teach probability and statistics,
 Use proper teaching aids for teaching probability and statistics, and
 Arrange to give a number of practical examples of probability and statistics.

6.1 Teaching of Statistics

In the past decades, the teaching and learning of probability and statistics has been receiving
increased attention by the mathematical community.

6.1.1 Teaching the meaning of statistics

Activity 6.1 Please regroup yourselves into groups of size five students and then
discuss on how to select appropriate methodologies that enable you to teach the
historical development of statistics and probability and the uses it had in the
different stages of its development. (You may take about 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 6.1 You can use different methods such as question and
answering, discussion, group and individual presentation, etc methods to teach the
historical development of statistics and probability. Of course, some of the
historical developments of statistics are discussed in the introduction. In addition,
some of the uses are also given. But, what you may add is the use of statistics that
are not discussed above. Some of the uses of statistics and probability include:
 To present facts in a definite form,
 Statistics facilitates comparisons,
 It gives guidance in the formulation of suitable policies, and
 It is very important for prediction.

Activity 6.3 Please be in pairs and then discuss on how you can teach some of the
basic terminologies of statistics. (You may take about 20 minutes.)

74
 Feedback for Activity 6.3 No doubt that you have selected your own methods of
teaching the terminologies. But, in order your students to learn statistics; they have to
be able to speak the language of statistics. Some of the basic terminologies that you
can teach them are:
1. Population: The complete collection of individuals, objects or measurements.
2. Sample: A representative part of a population.
3. Census: Complete enumeration.
4. Sample survey: Process of collecting data from a sample.
5. Statistic: Measures obtained from a sample.
6. Parametric: Measures obtained from a population.
7. Data: Related set of observations that enable us to reach at a conclusion.
8. Variable: Characteristic whose value varies.
9. Sample frame: List of the entire population from which a sample is to be selected.
10. Discrete data: Data that are obtained by counting.
11. Continuous data: Data that are obtained by measuring.
You can also define discrete variable, continuous variable, piece of data, attributes, etc.

Activity 6.4 Please regroup yourselves into a size of five students and then discuss
on how you can select appropriate methods of teaching the word statistics in its
plural and singular senses. (You may take about 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 6.4 You can teach using questioning and answering method.
The origin of the word is well discussed. But, you may also tell your students that the
word statistics is both plural and singular.
In its plural sense, statistics are data, facts or numerical information.
In its singular sense, statistics is a science that deals with the five steps namely data
collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation.

6.1.2 Teaching the Classification of Statistics

Basically, statistics is a procedural process performing five logical steps on numerical data.
These are: data collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of results.

Activity 6.5 Please be in groups of size three and then discuss on how you can
select appropriate methods of teaching the branches of statistics. (Spend 15
minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 6.5 You can use demonstration and discussion methods. You
have already discussed that statistics is a field of study that deals with five stages.
These are data collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation.
You tell your students that the first four parts are called descriptive statistics and
the last part is called inferential statistics.

75
6.1.3 Teaching the stages in statistical investigation

Activity 6.6 Please be in groups of size five and then select appropriate methods
of teaching what data collection is all about and the methods one can use in the
data collection process. You can ask your students to collect the data “age of
students in years” of their class. (Take 10 minutes for discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 6.6 It is possible to approach this activity in various ways.
One possibility is that data collection is the process of obtaining measurements or
counts from which conclusions can be drawn. Some of the possible methods of data
collection are: Physical observation, methods of enumeration, interview, and
questionnaire. Suppose that there are 30 students in one of the sections of grade 9.
The using enumeration method your students can collect the ages of students in the
class as: five students 14, eight students 15, eleven students 16, and six students 17
years old.

Activity 6.7 Please be in groups of three students and then select appropriate
methods of teaching data organization and ask your students to organize the data
collected in activity 6.6. (Spend 12 minutes for discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 6.7 You may explain that collected data have to be organized
in a suitable form so that one can have a general understanding of the information
gathered. Such a process includes data editing, classification and tabulation, which
is called data organization. Your students can organize the data using a table as
follows.
Table 6.1 Age of students in a class
Number of students(frequency) 5 8 11 6
Age in years 14 15 16 17

Activity 6.8 Please be in groups of five students and then select appropriate
methods of teaching data presentation and you may again ask your students to
present the data collected in activity 6.6. (Take 15 minutes for discussion.)

76
 Feedback for Activity 6.8 You can state that after data have been collected and
organized, they have to be presented in a suitable form. The main purpose of data
presentation is to facilitate statistical analysis. This may be done by arranging the
data using tables, graphs and diagrams. Bar charts, histograms and pie charts can be
used in data presentation. The following is the presentation using bar graph of the
data collected in activity 6.6.

Activity 6.9 Please regroup yourselves into a size of three students and then
select appropriate methods of teaching what data analysis is all about and what
the methods of analyzing data are and ask your students to analyze the data
collected in activity 6.6. (Take 15 minutes for discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 6.9 You can teach Data analysis is the extraction of
summarized and comprehensible numerical descriptions of the data where the
measures will in turn give a far better understanding of the nature of these data.
Generally, we have two main methods of data analysis: measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion.
 The measures of central tendency try to pin-point the central values and include median,
mode and the mean.
 The measures of dispersion try to measure how the data are dispersed and may include
the range, quartiles, deciles, percentiles, the standard deviation and variance. You can
give further explanation on each of these. Your students may analyze the data about age
Activityas follows.
of students 6.10 Please do the following two activities individually and
Meanindependently:
age=15.6, median=16 and mode=
What appropriate 16. Similarly,
methods the can
of teaching range
youisuse
3 and so on.what
to teach The
students may continue
interpretation to find
of data is quartiles,
all about?deciles,
Ask yourpercentiles,
students variance and the
to interpret standard
data
deviation.
collected in activity 6.6. (Take 15 minutes for discussion.)
77
 Feedback for Activity 6.10 You may explain that the interpretation of data involves
decision making about a large collection of objects (population) from a small
collection of similar objects (sample). Your students may draw conclusion about the
age of grade 9 students as: The average age of the grade is about 15.6 or the age of
56.7% of grade 9 students is above the average, etc.

6.2 Teaching of probability

Activity 6.11 Please regroup yourselves into a size of five students and then
discuss on how to teach the historical development of the idea of probability.
(Spend 15 minutes for discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 6.11 No doubt that you have selected your method of
teaching the concept. But, you can use informal lecture or question and answering
methods. Probability theory is an essential part of statistical inference and measures
the degree of uncertainty. Probability theory was first successfully applied at the
gambling tables and then in business. Then, after a time, insurance companies
started making use of it (in about the 19th century). Nowadays it is applicable in all
fields.

Activity 6.12 Please be in groups of five students and then discuss on how you
can effectively teach what the counting principles are. (Take 10 minutes for
discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 6.12 We cannot make intelligent prediction unless we know
what is possible. In order to know the possibilities, the counting principle plays a
great role and this includes:
 The principle of multiplication: States that if a choice can be made in m ways and for
each of those the reward can be made in n ways then the whole choice can be made in
mn ways.
 Permutation: Arrangement of objects with attention given to the order of arrangements.
 Combination: A selection of objects considered without regard to the order of
arrangements.

Activity 6.13 Please be in groups of three students and then discuss on how you
can teach the basic terminologies that are used in probability. (Take 15 minutes
for discussion.)

78
 Feedback for Activity 6.13 Some of the basic terms that you may explain are:
1. An experiment: It is something we plan to do whose outcome (or result) is not
certain.
2. Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.
3. Sample point: Elements of a sample space.
4. Event: A subset of a sample space.
You may also explain what sample event, impossible event, component of an event and
compound events are. Also, try to give practical examples from your experience.

Activity 6.14 Please regroup yourselves into a size of four students and then
discuss on how to effectively teach the definition of probability and the three
approaches to the definition of probability. (Spend 10 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 6.14 A probability is a number between 0 and 1 inclusive

and measures one's belief that a particular event will occur. Three approaches to the
definition of probability include:
1. Mathematical definition of probability
Sates that if an experiment has N possible outcomes and if n of this outcomes are favorable
to an event A, then . You may give examples on this.
2. Statistical definition of probability

3. Subjective probability: is a method of assigning probability which is based on the

filling or insights of the persons determining the probability.

Activity 6.15 Please be in groups of five students and then discuss on how you
can effectively teach events and their relationships. (Take 15 minutes for
discussion.)

Feedbacks for Activity 6.15 We already have seen that events are subsets of a
sample space. For any two events A and B, p(AB) = p(A)+p(B)-p(AB) and this is
called addition law.
Any two events which cannot occur as the same time are called mutually exclusive
events. Hence, if A and B are mutually exclusive, AB =.
Therefore, for any two mutually exclusive events, p(AB) = p(A)+p(B). In your teaching
these concepts, give your students the opportunity to produce practical examples of their
own.

79
 Feedback for Activity 6.16 Given any two events A and B, if the occurrence or
nonoccurrence of one event does not affect the probability of the other, then they are
called independent. Otherwise, they are dependent events.
Hence, if A and B are independent, then p(AB) = p(A)p(B). In your teaching these
concepts, give your students the opportunity to produce practical examples of their own.

Activity 6.16 Please be in groups of four students and then discuss on how you
can teach dependent and independent events. (Take eight minutes.)

Activity 6.17 Please be in pairs and then discuss on how you can teach the basic
rules of probability and ask your students to give an example of when a
probability becomes 1 or 0. (Take 15 minutes for discussion.)

Feedback for Activity 6.17 I hope you have selected an appropriate method for
teaching the rules. The basic rules of probability are:
1. p(S) =1.
2. p() = 0.
3. 0  p(A ) 1.
4.p(AB) = p(A)+p(B)-p(AB).
5. For any two events A and B that are mutually exclusive, p(AB) = p(A)+p(B).
6. p(A)+p(A')=1, where A' is the complement of A. Encourage your students to
relate these rules with their knowledge of set theory. Suppose you have five black, four red
and six blue balls in a jar. Then the probability of getting any colored ball from the jar is 1
and the probability of getting white ball from the jar is 0. The probability of getting black
ball from the jar is 1/3.

6.3 Why Teaching Probability and Statistics?

The teaching of probability and statistics in secondary schools has concrete reasons based on the
usefulness of the subject that can be expressed as the feedback for the following activity.

Activity 6.18
Please students be in pairs and discuss why probability and statistics is included in
the school curricula? (You can use 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 6.18 Much is said in the introduction. The reasons why
probability and statistics is part of the mathematics curricula for primary and secondary
schools in many countries have been repeatedly highlighted over the past 20 years.
Further, the usefulness of statistics and probability for daily life, its instrumental role in other
disciplines, the need for a basic stochastic knowledge in many professions and its role in
developing a critical reasoning are the main ones. Probability and statistics is useful to us in
many ways. Knowing the likelihood of an event happening is important information in
decision making that is used in nearly every field. For example, research studies use
probability in determining whether or not a new drug is worth putting on the market. Does
the effectiveness of the drug outweigh the harm it causes to a patient's body? Probability can
help us to decide on such questions.

80
6.4 How should Probability and Statistics be taught?
A better prior training for teachers as well as a permanent support to these teachers from training
institutes and research groups is an urgent necessity. In this subunit, we will discuss what types
of teaching methods are employed to teach statistics and probability.

Activity 6.19
Please students be in groups of four and discuss on the methodologies that enable
you to teach probability and statistics. (Spend eight minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 6.19 Keeping in line with new instructional roles in the
teaching of mathematics, a variety of instructional methods will be encouraged.
Incorporating magic tricks into the probability and statistics classroom can enhance
instruction in several ways.
In the teaching of statistics and probability, you may adapt problem-solving methods and
reasoning standards used in mathematics. Further, you can use group discussion,
cooperative learning, questioning and answering, group or individual presentation,
project, demonstration, Inquiry, etc. methods to teach probability and statistics and to
make students follow lessons actively.

6.5 What Parts of Probability and Statistics should be taught?

Activity 6.20
Please regroup yourselves into groups of size three students and discuss on what
contents of probability and statistics should be taught in secondary schools. (You
may spend 15 minutes.)

Feedback for Activity 6.20 I hope you have listed several topics that the secondary
school curricula cover. Most importantly, the contents for secondary school
probability and statistics include contents such as statistical data, collection and
tabulation of statistical data, frequency distributions, histogram, measures of
location (mean, median and mode), measures of dispersion for ungrouped data,
probability, probability of an event (experimental and theoretical approach).

6.6 Designing and Teaching Lessons from Probability and Statistics

It is, generally, recognized that there are a number of shortcomings in the traditional lecture
approach to the teaching of mathematics (and similarly other theoretical sciences such as
probability and statistics). Let us now design lessons that encourage these methods in teaching
probability and statistics.

81
 Activity 6.21 (FOOD COSTS) Please students do the following activity. (You
may take 15 minutes.)
With food costs being a common topic of discussion, their use as a basis for a graphing
activity is ideal. Divide your class into groups of four to six students and give each group
a list of foods. Now, design a method to teach sketching a graph of the given data.
Members of the group are responsible for getting weekly prices in Birr on the foods on
their list. It doesn't matter where the students obtain the prices provided. They may use
the same source each week.
Table 6.2: Food items by group

Group 1 Group 2
Canned-goods Fresh Fruits
Tomatoes Apples
Beans Avocado
Strawberry Mango
Carrots Bananas
Dates Oranges

Feedback for Activity 6.21 You may choose group discussion followed by
presentation along with graphical demonstration as methodologies for teaching the
given activity. Each week the individual group found the total cost of the items on their
list and records the figure on a graph.

Costs in
Birr/Kg
Cost
in
Birr/k

Number
Figure 6.2 One group's graph of food Number of weeks
of Weeks
costs
Some groups may want to make graphs of the prices of individual items; learners should
also be given the opportunity to make up their own lists of foods.

Once they have accumulated a record of prices or total costs for a period of several weeks, students can be
asked to predict the next week‟s figures.

82
Quantifying Chance
You use the concepts of random selection and sample size to make honest predictions on a daily
basis as you interpret the constant stream of information. Consider the following statements in
the following activity.

Activity 6.22 Please students be in groups of five and discuss on how to teach the
interpretations of the following statistical statements. (Take 15 minutes.)
 Of all the people who died of lung cancer in 1977, 70% had smoked cigarettes
sometime during their lives.
 Four out of five dentists interviewed recommend sugarless gum for their patients
who chew gum.

Feedback for Activity 6.22 No doubt that you have decided on what type of
teaching methodology you will use to teach the interpretation of the given
statements. You can teach statistics by raising "controversial issues" and asking for
suggestion. To understand these statements, an intuitive knowledge of certain
probability concepts is required on the part of the learner.
 In the first statement, there seems to imply a high correlation between smoking tobacco
and lung cancer. What it fails to point out is that of those who died of lung cancer, 90
percent also drank milk and 100 percent breathed air. Should you then conclude that
these are also cancer-causing agents? A statement of this type is meaningless unless
some comparison is made to the percentage of smokers in the total population. For
example, if 45% of the total population smoked cigarettes whereas 70% of lung cancer
victims smoked cigarettes, we would have some reason to consider tobacco as a health
hazard.
 The chewing-gum ad presents and equally sticky dilemma. The intent of the statement is
to have the reader generalize its conclusion to the entire population of dentists, yet no
mention is made as to how many dentists were interviewed or how they were chosen. It
is just as reasonable to assume that only five dentists were interviewed and all but one sat
on the board of directors of the sugarless gum manufacturing company.

Tossing a coin experiment

The typical problem of probability usually involves tossing a coin. The possible outcomes of the
experiment of tossing a coin once are a head, H, or a tail, T. The outcome set could simply be
listed as {H, T}. If the coin were tossed a large number of times, the proportion of heads
appearing should approach 1/2. For this reason, you assign to each outcome the probability 1/2.
Assume that the two outcomes are equally likely and the coin is fair; let your students do the
following three experiments.

Activity 6.23
Please students make a group of five and develop appropriate methods of teaching
to teach the following experiments. (Take 20 minutes for discussion.)
Toss a coin (a) once, (b) twice and (c) four times separately. Demonstrate the experiment
using diagrams and determine the probability of H, HH, HHHH, respectively.

83
 Feedback for Activity 6.23(a) I hope that each member of the groups has identified
his/her own teaching methodology to teach the experiment. In this experiment, you
may use multiple teaching methods such as question and answering method,
demonstration, group discussion, etc.
Figure 6.2 illustrates the experiment of tossing fair coin once. This diagram of the outcome
of the experiment will hereafter be referred to as a tree diagram, each branch corresponds
to an element in the outcome set {H, T} with its appropriate probability labeled as
. Also, notice that the sum of the probabilities of all the outcomes in the set is
equal to 1.

Figure 6.2 Tree diagram of tossing a coin once

Feedback for Activity 6.23(b) The methods are the same as the ones used in
Feedback for Activity 6.23(a). But the experiment is tossing a coin twice.
Suppose a coin is tossed twice. The possible outcomes of the experiment are a head
followed by a head, HH; a tail followed by a tail, TT; a head followed by a tail, HT; or a
tail followed by a head, TH. Most students will have very little trouble listing these
possible outcomes in a set, {HH, HT, TH, TT}. After much experimenting and discussion,
the students will notice that the probability 1/4 can be assigned to each of these outcomes;
Figure 6.3 shows a tree diagram of the experiment.

Figure 6.3 Tree diagram of tossing a coin twice

Notice that the probability assignment to each element in the outcome set is simply the
product of all probabilities along the branches of the path. For example, p(HH) is 1/21/2,
or 1/4, which shows that the H and T are independent events.

84
 Feedback for Activity 6.23(c) Once again, the methods are the same as the ones used
in Feedback for Activity 6.23(a). But, the experiment here is tossing a coin four times.
The tree diagram of the experiment of tossing a coin four times is shown in Figure 6.4.
Determining p(HHHH) is left as an exercise.

A teaching method that involves problem solving approach is illustrated in the following self
assessment exercise.

Figure 6.4 Tree diagram of tossing a coin four times

Self Assessment Exercise 1

Please students, individually discuss how to teach the problem solving
strategy for solving the following problem.
Eden placed three letters in envelops while she was having telephone
conversation. She addressed the envelopes and sealed them without checking if
each letter was in the correct envelope. What is the probability that each of the
letters was inserted correctly?

This self assessment exercise is designed to teach students the strategy of solving problems. The
steps to solve a problem such as this one are:
 Understanding the problem,
 Devising a plan,
 Carrying out the plan, and
 Looking back.

85