Experiment - 6

Date :
NON-UNIFORM BENDING – RELATION BETWEEN LOAD AND DEPRESSION-
AIM :
 To verify the relation between the load and depression using non-uniform bending of a
beam.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
 A long uniform beam (usually a metre scale), two knife – edges, mass hanger, slotted
masses, pin and vernier microscope.
FORMULA :
 From theory of non – uniform bending,
𝑴
= 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒔

where M → Load applied (mass) (kg)

s → depression produced in the beam for the applied load(m)
DIAGRAM :

PROCEDURE :
 Place the two knife – edges on the table.
 Place the uniform beam (metre scale) on top of the knife edges.
 Suspend the mass hanger at the centre. A pin is attached at the centre of the scale where
the hanger is hung.
 Place a vernier microscope in front of this arrangement
 Adjust the microscope to get a clear view of the pin
 Make the horizontal cross-wire on the microscope to coincide with the tip of the pin. (Here
mass hanger is the dead load M).
 Note the vertical scale reading of the vernier microscope
 Add the slotted masses to the mass hanger one by one in steps of 0.05 kg (50 g) and
corresponding readings are noted down.
 Repeat the experiment by removing masses one by one and note down the corresponding
readings.
 Subtract the mean reading of each load from dead load reading. This gives the depressions
for the corresponding load M.
TABULATION AND OBSERVATIONS :
𝑴
 To find 𝒔

Least count ; 𝑳𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝒄𝒎 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 ; 𝑻𝑹 = 𝑴𝑺𝑹 + (𝑽𝑺𝑪 × 𝑳𝑪)

Microscope readings ( × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎)
Load Depression s 𝑴
Increasing Load Decreasing Load For M kg 𝒔
(× 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 kg) Mean −𝟐
(× 𝟏𝟎 𝒎) (𝒌𝒈 𝒎−𝟏 )
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR
M 8.50 5 8.505 8.50 7 8.507 8.506 𝑥0
𝑀 + 50 8.40 6 8.406 8.40 4 8.404 8.405 𝑥1 𝒙𝟎 − 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏 49.504
𝑀 + 100 8.30 4 8.304 8.30 2 8.302 8.303 𝑥2 𝒙𝟎 − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟑 49.261
𝑀 + 150 8.20 4 8.204 8.20 4 8.204 8.204 𝑥3 𝒙𝟎 − 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟐 49.669
𝑀 + 200 8.10 6 8.106 8.10 4 8.104 8.105 𝑥4 𝒙𝟎 − 𝒙𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟏 49.751
𝑀 + 250 8.00 1 8.001 8.00 3 8.003 8.002 𝑥5 𝒙𝟎 − 𝒙𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟒 49.603
Mean 49.588

CALCULATION :
1. 𝑀 = 50 g = 50 × 10−3 kg ; s = 𝑥0 − 𝑥1 = 0.101𝑐𝑚 = 0.101 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑀 50 × 10−3
= = 495.04 × 10−1 = 49.504 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−1
𝑠 0.101 × 10−2
2. 𝑀 = 100 g = 100 × 10−3 kg ; s = 𝑥0 − 𝑥2 = 0.203 𝑐𝑚 = 0.203 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑀 100 × 10−3
= = 492.61 × 10−1 = 49.261 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−1
𝑠 0.203 × 10−2
3. 𝑀 = 150 g = 150 × 10−3 kg ; s = 𝑥0 − 𝑥3 = 0.302 𝑐𝑚 = 0.302 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑀 150 × 10−3
= = 496.69 × 10−1 = 49.669 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−1
𝑠 0.302 × 10−2
4. 𝑀 = 200 g = 200 × 10−3 kg ; s = 𝑥0 − 𝑥4 = 0.401 𝑐𝑚 = 0.401 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑀 200 × 10−3
= = 497.51 × 10−1 = 49.751 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−1
𝑠 0.401 × 10−2
5. 𝑀 = 250 g = 250 × 10−3 kg ; s = 𝑥0 − 𝑥5 = 0.504 𝑐𝑚 = 0.504 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑀 250 × 10−3
= = 496.03 × 10−1 = 49.603 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−1
𝑠 0.504 × 10−2
𝑀 49.504 + 49.261 + 49.669 + 49.751 + 49.603 247.788
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 ∶ = = = 49.588 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−1
𝑠 5 5
MODEL GRAPH :
GRAPH :

RESULT :
 The ratio between mass and depression for each load is calculated. This is found to be
constant.
 Thus the relation between load and depression is verified by the method of non-uniform
bending of a beam.
Experiment - 7
Date :
SURFACE TENSION BY CAPILLARY RISE METHOD-
AIM :
 To determine surface tension of a liquid by capillary rise method.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
 A beaker of Water, capillary tube, vernier microscope, double hole rubber stopper, a
knitting needle, a short rubber tubing and retort clamp.
FORMULA :
 The surface tension of the liquid
𝒉𝒓𝝆𝒈
𝑻=
𝟐
where h → height of the liquid in the capillary tube (m)
r → radius of the capillary tube (m)
𝜌 → Density of water (𝜌 = 1000 kg m–3)
g → Acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.8 m s–2)
DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE :
 A clean and dry capillary tube is taken and fixed in a stand
 A beaker containing water is placed on an adjustable platform and the capillary tube is
dipped inside the beaker so that a little amount of water is raised inside.
 Fix a needle near the capillary tube so that the needle touches the water surface
 A Vernier microscope is focused at the lower meniscus of the water and the corresponding
reading is taken after coinciding it with the horizontal line of the cross wire.
 Tip of the needle is focussed using vernier microscope after coinciding it with horizontal
line of the cross wire
 The difference between the two readings of the vertical scale gives the height (h) of the
liquid raised in the capillary tube.
 Now to find the radius of the tube, raise the capillary tube and remove the beaker.
 Carefully rotate the capillary tube so that the immersed lower end face towards you. Focus
the capillary tube using Vernier microscope to clearly see the inner walls of the tube.
 Let the vertical cross wire coincide with the left side inner walls of the tube. Note down
the reading (L1)
 Turn the microscope screws in horizontal direction to view the right side inner wall of the
tube. Note the reading (R1).
1
 Thus the radius of the tube can be calculated as 2 (𝐿1 − 𝑅1 )
 Finally calculate the surface tension using the given formula.
TABULATION AND OBSERVATIONS :
1. TO MEASURE HEIGHT OF THE LIQUID ‘h’
Least count ; 𝑳𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝒄𝒎 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 ; 𝑻𝑹 = 𝑴𝑺𝑹 + (𝑽𝑺𝑪 × 𝑳𝑪)
Microscope reading for the Microscope reading for the Height of
Trial position of Lower meniscus of position of Lower tip of the the liquid
No the liquid ( × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎) needle ( × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎) 𝒉=𝒂~𝒃
MSR VSC TR (𝒂) MSR VSC TR (𝒃) ( × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎)
1 8.40 36 8.436 2.55 14 2.564 5.872
2 8.40 38 8.438 2.55 12 2.562 5.876
3 8.40 40 8.440 2.55 10 2.560 5.880
Mean h 5.876
2. TO FIND THE RADIUS OF THE CAPILLARY TUBE ‘r’
Radius of
Microscope reading for the Microscope reading for the the capillary
Tube position 𝑳𝟏 ( × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎) position 𝑹𝟏 ( × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎) tube
𝟏
𝒓= [ 𝑳 ~𝑹 ]
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
MSR VSC TR (𝑳𝟏 ) MSR VSC TR (𝑹𝟏 ) ( × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎)

8.05 44 8.094 8.00 43 8.043 0.0255

CALCULATION :
 Height of the liquid,
1. 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑎 = 8.40 + (36 × 0.001) = 8.436 ; 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑏 = 2.55 + (14 × 0.001) = 2.564
ℎ = 𝑎 ~ 𝑏 = 8.436 − 2.564 = 5.872
2. 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑎 = 8.40 + (38 × 0.001) = 8.438 ; 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑏 = 2.55 + (12 × 0.001) = 2.562
ℎ = 𝑎 ~ 𝑏 = 8.438 − 2.562 = 5.876
3. 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑎 = 8.40 + (40 × 0.001) = 8.440 ; 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑏 = 2.55 + (10 × 0.001) = 2.560
ℎ = 𝑎 ~ 𝑏 = 8.440 − 2.560 = 5.880
5.872 + 5.876 + 5.880 17.628
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 ; ℎ = = = 5.876 𝑐𝑚 = 5.876 × 10−2 𝑚
3 3
 Radius of the capillary tube
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐿1 = 8.05 + (44 × 0.001) = 8.094 ; 𝑇𝑅 = 𝑅1 = 8.00 + (43 × 0.001) = 8.043
1 1 1
∴ 𝑟 = [ 𝐿1 ~𝑅2 ] = × [8.094 − 8.043] = × 0.051 = 0.0255 𝑐𝑚 = 0.0255 × 10−2 𝑚
2 2 2
 Here ,
Mean rise of the liquid in the capillary tube ; h = 5.876 × 10−2 𝑚
Diameter of the capillary tube ; 2r = 0.0551 × 10−2 𝑚
Radius of the capillary tube ; r = 0.0255 × 10−2 𝑚
Density of the liquid ; σ = 1000 kg m-3
Acceleration due to gravity ; g = 9.8 m s-2
Hence surface tension of water be,
ℎ 𝑟 𝜌 𝑔 5.876 × 10−2 × 0.0255 × 10−2 × 1000 × 9.8 1468.4 × 10−4
𝑇= = =
2 2 2
𝑇 = 734.2 × 10−4 𝑁𝑚−1 = 0.07342 𝑁𝑚−1

RESULT :
 Surface tension of the given liquid by capillary rise method ; T = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟒𝟐 𝑵𝒎−𝟏
Experiment - 8
Date :
VERIFICATION OF NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING USING CALORIMETER-
AIM :
 To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time by plotting a
cooling curve.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
 Copper calorimeter with stirrer, one holed rubber cork, thermometer, stop clock,
heater / burner, water, clamp and stand
FORMULA :
 Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of change of the temperature of an object is
proportional to the difference between its own temperature and the ambient
temperature. (i.e., the temperature of its surroundings)
𝒅𝑻
∝ [𝑻 − 𝑻𝑶 ]
𝒅𝒕
𝑑𝑇
where , → Rate of change of temperature (C 𝑠 −1 )
𝑑𝑡
T → Temperature of water (C)
T0 → Room Temperature (C)
DIAGRAM AND MODEL GRAPH

PROCEDURE :
 Note the room temperature as (T0) using the thermometer.
 Hot water about 90C is poured into the calorimeter.
 Close the calorimeter with one holed rubber cork.
 Insert the thermometer into calorimeter through the hole in rubber cork.
 Start the stop clock and observe the time for every 1C fall of temperature from 80C.
 Take sufficient amount of reading, say closer to room temperature
 The observations are tabulated
 Draw a graph by taking time along the x axis and excess temperature along y axis.
TABULATION AND OBSERVATIONS :
 Room temperature ; 𝑻𝑶 = 30C
Time Temperature of water T Excess temperature [𝑻 − 𝑻𝑶 ]
(s) (C) (C)
0 89 59
180 83 53
360 77 47
540 72.5 42.5
720 68.5 38.5
900 65 35
1080 61.5 31.5
1260 59 29
1440 56.5 26.5
1620 54 24
1800 52.5 22.5
1980 50 20
GRAPH :

RESULT :
 The cooling curve is plotted and thus Newton’s law of cooling is verified.