Spring Mass Oscillator

Aim: To determine the spring constant k and mass of the given spring.

Apparatus: Spring mass oscillator, pointer, meter scale, slotted weights, stopwatch, hanger.

Diagram:

Formula: F = -kx , k is the spring constant, x is the displacement

PE = (1/2)kx^2,
Mass of the spring (Ms)= 3 * x-intercept.

Observations: Mass of scale pan , m0= 50gm

Mass added to the scale pan, m1= 150gm
Position of pointer,S0 = 16.7cm
Total mass added at S0, M=200gm
Acceleration due to gravity, g =980 cm/s^2

Observation table:
To determine extension and PE

Obs F = (m-M) Position of Extension x=

Total Mass (m) gm P.E. = 1/2kx^2
No g.wt Pointer S cm (S0-S)cm
1 M-150 =50 -150 1.1 15.6 1132
2 M-100=100 -100 5.8 10.9 553
3 M-50=150 -50 11 5.7 151
4 M=m0+m1=200 0 16.7 0 0
5 M+50=250 50 21.6 -4.9 111
6 M+100=300 100 26.6 -9.9 456
7 M+150=350 150 32.4 -15.7 1148
To determine the mass of the spring(Ms):-
LC of stopwatch = 0.5sec

Total
Mass
Obs Mass M=
added t1 sec t2 sec t3 sec mean t sec Period T= t/20 (sec) T^2 (sec^2)
No. (m0+m1)
(m) gm
gm

1 50 100 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.33 0.616 0.379

2 100 150 17 17.5 17 17.16 0.858 0.736

3 150 200 18.5 19 18 18.5 0.925 0.855

4 200 250 21 21 20.5 20.83 1.041 1.084

5 250 300 22 22.5 22 22.16 1.108 1.227

Graphs:
Calculations

1) Force Constant (k) from graph

k = slope = (AB * scale ) / (BC * scale) = (10 *25)/(13.4*2)
=9.32 gm.wt/cm
= 9.32 * 980 = 9141.32 dyne/cm
2) Mass of the given spring from the graph
Ms = 3 * X-intercept = 3 * 30 = 90 gm.
3) Potenial Energy = ½ kx^2

Obs No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

k 9.32 9.32 9.32 9.32 9.32 9.32 9.32

x 15.6 10.9 5.7 0 4.9 9.9 15.7

log k = A 0.9694 0.9694 0.9694 0 0.9694 0.9694 0.9694

log x =B 1.1933 1.0374 0.7559 0 0.6902 0.9956 1.1959

2B=C 2.3866 2.0748 1.5118 0 1.3804 1.9912 2.3918

A+C=D 3.356 3.0442 2.4812 0 2.3490 2.9606 3.3612

antilog D = E 2.270.14 1107.3 302.8 0 223.36 913.44 2297.28

E/2 = P.E. 1135.07 553.65 151.40 0 111.88 456.72 1148.64

Result :-
1) Force constant k = 9.32 gm.wt or 9142.32 dynes/cm
2) Mass of spring = 90 gm
3) Effective mass of spring =Ms/3= 30 gm
4) The Graph of PE v/s Extension (x) shows potential energy of the oscillator changes with
distance from equilibrium. The nature is Parabolic.
 Surface Tension
Aim : - To determine the surface tension of liquid (water) by the capillary rise method.

Apparatus:- Travelling Microscope , Water, Capillary tube, Pointer, stand.

Formulae:-

T= rhpg / 2cosθ ; T = surface tension , r = radius of the capillary

h = height of the water rise, g = acceleration due to gravity

= rhg/2 for water since p is 1 gm/cm^3 and θ is 0.

Diagram:-

Observations:-

1) Smallest division on main scale P = 0.05 cm

2)Total no. of Divisions on vernier scale N = 50 div
3) L.C. of travelling microscope = P/N = 0.001 cm

Observations Table:-

A) For the radius of the capillary tube.

 Diameter of
Obs 1) VSR (b) 1) TR (a+b) 2)MSR(a) 2) VSR (b) 2) TR (a+b) “ y Mean Radius r=
Reading 1) MSR (a) cm Capillary D = (x-y)
No. cm “x” cm cm cm ” cm Diameter D/2 cm
cm

vertical 1 6.85 0.038 6.888 6.95 0.038 6.987 0.101 0.103 0.0515

crosswires 2 6.49 0.005 6.495 6.5 0 6.500 0.105

horizontal 1 6.56 0.017 6.577 6.45 0.019 6.469 0.108 0.106 0.053

crosswires 2 6.50 0.053 6.553 6.42 0.029 6.449 0.104

mean Radius r = 0.52 cm

B) For the height of the water column.

Tip of
Water Height of
Obs No reference
meniscus column
pin

TR (a+b) X TR (a+b) Y
MSR (a) cm VSR (b) cm MSR (a) cm VSR (b) cm h = (X-Y) cm
cm cm

1 7.25 0.013 7.263 4.55 0.030 4.58 2.683

2 7.9 0.054 7.954 5.25 0.014 5.264 2.679

Mean Capillary rise h = 2.6805 cm

Calculations : -

T = rhg/2
= Antilog [ log r + log h +log 980]/2
=Antilog [ -1.2839+0.4282+2.9912]/2
=Antilog[2.1355]/2
=136.605/2
=68.3 dynes/cm
=0.0683 N/m

Result:-

Surface tension of water T = 68.3 dynes/cm = 0.0683 N/m.

 Newton’s Law of Cooling

Aim :- To study the relation between temp. of a hot body and time by plotting a cooling curve

Apparatus:- Calorimeter, thermometer, stopwatch, water, stand,etc

Formula:-

dT/dt = -k(Tt – Ts)

Tt = Temperature of the body at time t

Ts = Temperature of the surrounding
k = Positive constant that depends on the area and nature of the surface of the body
under consideration

Diagram:

Observations

1) LC of stopwatch = 0.5 sec

2)LC of thermometer = 1 degree celsius
3) Room temperature Ts = 20 degree celsius

For temp. Tt
Obs Time in min. Temperature deg C Obs Time in min. Temperature deg C
No. (t) (T) No. (t) (T)

1 0 65 21 10 38

2 0.5 62 22 10.5 38

3 1 60 23 11 36

4 1.5 58 24 11.5 36

5 2 56 25 12 35

6 2.5 56 26 12.5 35

7 3 53 27 13 34

8 3.5 53 28 13.5 34

9 4 50 29 14 33

10 4.5 49 30 14.5 33

11 5 48 31 15 33

12 5.5 48 32 15.5 33

13 6 45 33 16 32

14 6.5 45 34 16.5 32

15 7 43 35 17 31

16 7.5 41 36 17.5 31

17 8 40 37 18 28

18 8.5 40 38 18.5 27

19 9 39 39 19 26

20 9.5 39 40 19.5 26
B) For dT/dt (from cooling curve)

Obs No. T deg C (Tt – Ts) deg C dT/dt (deg C/min)

1 51 31 -2.85

2 48 28 -2.66

3 43 23 -2.22

4 39 19 -1.9

5 35 15 -1.12

Graphs
Calculations:-
For T = 43 deg C
dT/dt = 35-55/10.5-1.5 = -20/9 = -2.22 deg C/min

Result:

1) The nature of graph of temperature against time is a curve known as the Newtons Law of
Cooling. The cooling curve is Steep at first, but became less steep as temp comes to
temperature of the surrounding

2)The dT/dt vs (Tt-Ts) is a straight line passing through the origin the rate of cooling is
proportional to excess of temp of the surrounding. Verifying the Newtons Law of cooling

3) The Room temperature from the graph is 18 deg Celsius

 Sonometer 1 (Law of length)
Aim : - To study the relation between the frequency and the length of the given wire under a
constant tension using sonometer.

Apparatus:- Sonometer, hanger, meter-scale, wire, paper rider, tuning forks, rubber pad,
weights.

Formula:-

Diagram : -

Observation:-

1)Mass of the hanger M0= 500gm

2) Total mass attached = 2000gm

3) Tension applied = 2000 * 980 = 1960000 dynes

Observation table

Frequency ‘n’ Vibrating Vibrating

Obs Mean l cm 1/l cm^-1 nl hz-cm
Hz lenght 1 cm lenght 2 cm

1 426 15.8 16.2 16 0.0625 6816

2 384 17.5 17.9 17.7 0.0565 6796.8

3 320 21.3 21.7 21.5 0.0465 6880

4 288 23.5 23.8 23.65 0.0423 6811.2

5 Unknown n’ 19.9 20.1 l’ = 20 0.05 -

mean nl = 6826 Hz-cm

Calculations:

To find nl.

Obs No. 1 2 3 4

log n = A 2.6294 2.5843 2.5051 2.4594

log l = B 1.2041 1.248 1.3324 1.3738

A+B=C 3.8335 3.8323 3.8375 3.8332

Antilog C=nl 6816 6796.8 6880 6811.2

T = 1/ slope = BC scale / AB* scale = 3 * 40 / 3.5 * 0.005 = 6857.14 Hz-cm

Unknown Frequency n’ = Mean nl / l’ = Antilog [ log (mean nl) - log (l’)]

= Antilog[ 3.8342-1.3010]
= 341.3 Hz

Unknown Frequency from graph n’ = 345 Hz.

Graphs
Result:-

The Nature of graph of n vs 1/l is a straight line Verifying n is inversely proportional to l

Unknown frequency n’ = 341.3 Hz by calculation

Unknown frequency n’ = 345 Hz by graph

nl by calculation = 6826 Hz-cm

nl by graph = 6857.14 Hz-cm.

 Sonometer 2 (Law of tension)
Aim: - To study the relation between the length of the wire and tension for constant
frequency using a sonometer.

Apparatus:- Sonometer, weights, hanger, wire, tuning fork, rubber pad, paper rider.

Formula:-

Diagram

Observations

1) Mass per unit length of wire ,m = 0.01 gm,cm

2)Frequency of fork used , n = 288 Hz
3)Mass of the hanger M0 = 500 gm
4) acceleration due to gravity g= 980 cm/s^2

Observation Table:-
 Mass
Obs added to Total Mass Tension Vibrating lenght Vibrating lenght T/l^2
mean L l^2 (cm^2)
No. hanger M’ (g) M*980(dyne) L1(cm) L2(cm) (dyne/cm^2)
(g)

1 500 1000 980000 17.1 17.8 17.45 304.5 3218.3

2 1000 1500 1470000 20.1 20.4 20.25 410 3585.3

3 1500 2000 1960000 23.5 23.6 23.6 554.6 3534

4 2000 2500 2450000 25.9 25.8 25.85 668.22 3666.5

Total mass Unknown

5 unknown 27.3 27.5 27.4 750.76 -
(Mx) tension (Tx)

Mean T/l^2 = 3500.9 dyne/cm^2

Calculations : -

Obs No 1 2 3 4

log T=A 5.9912 6.1673 6.2923 6.3891

log l = B 1.2417 1.3064 1.3720 1.4125

2B = C 2.4836 2.6128 2.744 2.8249

A-C=D 3.5076 3.5545 3.5483 3.5642

Antilog D =
3218.3 3585.3 3534 3666.5
T/l^2

1/slope = T/l^2 = 3500 dynes/cm^2

Unknown Tension Tx = 2695000 dynes
Unknown Mass Mx = Tx / 980 = Antilog [ log Tx - log 980]
= Antilog [ 6.4306-2.9912]
= Antilog [3.4394]
= 2750.42 gm

mass per unit length of the wire, m = (1/4n^2)mean(T/l^2) = 0.01 gm/cm.

Graph:
Results :

The Quantity T/l^2 is a constant. T is proportional to l^2 . law of tension is verified, the graph
of l^2 vs T is a straight line.
Unknown Tension Tx = 2695000 dynes
unknown Mass Mx = 2750.42 gm
mass per unit length of the wire,m = 0.01 gm / cm
 Resonance Tube
Aim : - To determine the speed of the sound in the air at room temperature and to find out the
Unknown frequency of the tuning fork using the resonance tube.

Apparatus : - Resonance Tube setup , tuning forks , Jar filled with water, Meterscale, stand,
rubber pad, vernier caliper, metal rod,etc

Formulae: -

V = 4nL ; n is the frequency , L is the corrected length , V is the velocity of sound

V = 4 * slope

Unknown Frequency = n’ = (mean nL)/ L’

Diagram

Obesrvations: -

smallest division on the mainscale of vernier scale = 0.1 cm

total divisions on the vernier scale = 10cm
LC of vernier caliper = 0.01 cm
end correction e = 1.065 cm
room temperature = 20 deg Celcius

Table

For the diameter of the tube

 VSR c = (b * LC) Diameter d =( a + c )
Obs MSR ‘a’ cm VSD ‘b’ cm
cm cm

1 3.5 0 0 3.50

2 3.5 5 0.05 3.55

3 3.6 0 0 3.60

mean Diameter d = 3.55 cm

end correction e = 0.3 d = 0.3 * 3.55 = 1.065 cm

For resonating length

corrected
Frequency ‘n’ Resonating Resonating
Obs No. mean l cm lenght L= 1/L cm^-1 nL Hz-cm
Hz lenght 1 cm lenght 2 cm
(l+e) cm

1 512 16.1 15.7 15.9 16.965 0.0589 8686.08

2 480 16.8 17.2 17.0 18.065 0.0553 8671.12

3 426 19.6 19.5 19.55 20.615 0.0485 8781.99

4 384 21.5 21.1 21.3 22.365 0.0447 8588.16

5 Unknown 24.1 23.8 23.95 25.015 0.0399 -

mean nL 8680.38 Hz-cm

Graph
Calculations:-

Obs No. 1 2 3 4

log n = A 2.7093 2.6812 2.6294 2.5843

log L = B 1.2295 1.2568 1.3141 1.3495

A+B =C 3.9388 3.9380 3.9435 3.9338

Antilog C = nL 8685.60 8669.62 8780.11 8586.18

Slope = AB * scale / BC * Scale = 3 * 50/3.4*0.005 =8823.53

slope = nL = 8823.53 Hz-cm

Unknown Frequency , n’ = 345Hz by graph

Unknown frequency by calculations

n’ = mean (nL)/ L’ = Antilog[ log (mean nL) - log L’]
antilog[ 3.9385 - 1.3982]
antilog [2.5403] = 347 Hz
V = 4 * (mean nl)
= Antilog [ log (mean nL) + log 4]
= Antilog [ 3.9385 + 0.6020]
=Antilog[4.5405]
=34713.62 cm/s by Calculation

V = 4 Slope = 4 * 8823.53
= 35294.12 cm/s by graph

Results

Unknown Frequency , n’ = 345Hz by graph

Unknown frequency by calculations = 347 Hz
velocity of sound by calculation = 34713.62 cm/s = 347.13m/s
velocity of sound by graph = 35294.12 cm/s = 352.94 m/s.
 Current sensitivity of MCG
Aim: - To determine the current sensitivity of the moving coil galvanometer.

Apparatus: - Moving coil Galvanometer, Keys, Resistance Box, microammeter, Battery, wires,
etc

Formula: -
S = θ/ I g , I g = Current through Galvanometer
θ = Deflection shown by MCG
S = Current Sensitivity

Circuit: -

Observation: -

Resistance of galvanometer = 90 ohms

EMF of the cell E = 2 volts

Current
Obs Resistance R Current mean S
Deflection θ Sensitivity
No. ohms ( Ig * 10^-6) A (div/A)
S = θ / Ig

1 21000 150 11 73333 74128

2 18000 175 13 74267

3 15000 200 15 75006

4 13000 230 17 73909

Calculations: -
 obs no. 1 2 3 4

log θ = a 1.0414 1.1139 1.1761 1.2304

log Ig = b -3.8239 -3.7569 -3.699 -3.6383

a-b =c 4.8653 4.8708 4.8751 4.8687

Antilog c = S 73333 74267 75006 73909

Mean S = 74128 div / A

Slope = AB * scale / BC * scale = (3 * 2) / (4 * 20 * 10^(-6))

Current Sensitivity = slope = 75000 div / A

Graph: -
Result: -

current sensitivity of the MCG = S = 74128 div/ A by calculations

= S = 75000 div / A by the graph.

 Experiment 8 : Law of resistances using meter bridge

Aims : To determine unknown resistances and to verify the laws of

combination (series and parallel) of resistances using a meter bridge.

Apparatus : Wheatstone’s meter bridge, resistance box, two unknown

resistances, a galvanometer, a cell, a plug key, a jockey, connecting
wires, etc.

Formulae :
𝑋 𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑥
(1) = OR X=R.
𝑅 𝑙𝑟 𝑙𝑟

Where, 𝑙𝑥 = length of the bridge wire corresponding to X

𝑙𝑟 = length of the bridge wire corresponding to R
X = unknown resistance
R = known resistance from R.B.

(2) For series combination, 𝑋𝑠 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2

𝑋 𝑋
(3) For parallel combination, 𝑋𝑝 = 1 2
𝑋1 +𝑋2
Observations :
Resistance (𝑋1 ) = 10 
Resistance (𝑋2 ) = 20 

Observation Table :
Calculations :

30 + 30 + 30 + 30 + 30 + 30
Mean 𝑋𝑠 =
6
180
=
6
= 30  (experimental value)

2.5+6.665+12.85+2.5+6.665+12.85
Mean 𝑋𝑝 =
6
44.03
=
6
= 7.338  (experimental value)
 Resistance of Galvanometer by Kelvin’s Method
Experiment:

Aim :To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by Kelvin’s

method using Wheatstone’s meter bridge.

Apparatus :Wheatstone’s meter bridge, a rheostat, a cell, a galvanometer, a

resistance box, a jockey, connecting wires, a plug key, etc.

Formula:

G = R ×(lG÷lR)

where, l_{G} = length of the bridge wire corresponding to G.

I_{R} = length of the bridge wire corresponding to R.

G = resistance of galvanometer

R = resistance introduced in R.B.

Diagram
Observation Table:
(1) Galvanometer in left gap:
Obs.No. R ohm lG cm lR cm G = R Mean
(lG÷lR) ohm
G ohm
1. 70 56.3 43.7 90.18

2. 80 52.9 47.1 89.85 90.04

3. 90 50.1 49.9 90.35
4. 100 47.4 52.8 89.78

Mean G
=(G1+G2+G3+G4)÷4
=(90.18+89.5+90.35+89.78)÷4
=(360.16)÷4
=90.04 Ω
(2) Galvanometer in right gap:

Obs.No. R ohm Lg cm LR cm G = R Mean G

(lG÷lR) ohm
ohm
1. 70 56 43 91.16
2. 80 52.5 47.7 88.05 90.05
3. 90 51.2 48.9 94.23
4. 100 46 53 86.79

Mean G
= (G₁ + G2 + G3 + G4 )÷4
=(91.16+88.05+94.23+86.79)÷4
=90.05 Ω
Calculations:
G=R (lG÷lR)
(1) Galvanometer in left gap:
2) Galvanometer in right gap:

The resistance of the galvanometer

G
= [Mean G(of left gap)+Mean G(of right gap)]÷2
=(90.04 + 90.05)÷2
=90.045 ohm
Result:
The resistance of the galvanometer G
=90.045 ohms.
1
2
 Zener Diode Characteristics
Aim : - To study the Characteristics of a zener diode in reverse bias mode and find the break
down voltage.

Apparatus : - Zener Diode Characteristics apparatus, wires, power supply, etc

Circuit: -

Observations

LC of the Voltmeter = 0.25 v

LC of the milliammeter = 0.25mA
 I/p Voltage V Current I mA ZENER voltage

1 0 0.75

2 0 1.75

3 0 2.75

4 0 4

5 0 4.5

6 0 5.5

6.25 0.25 6

7 0.50 6.25

8 1.75 6.50

9 4 6.75

10 10 6.75

11 15 6.80

Graphs
Result

The Breakdown voltage Vb = 6.8 Volts

1
 Second's Pendulum

Aim: To determine the length of the seconds pendulum.

Apparatus: Metal spherical bob, on inextensible string, a retort-stand a meter scale, a stop
watch, a vernier callipers, etc.

Formula: LS/ T2S = LS/4 = (L/T2)mean

Diagram:

Observation: 1) Radius of the bob= r = 0.625

2) Length of the hook of a bob= h = 2.388
3) Period of seconds pendulum= TS = 2sec
Obervation Table:

Length of
Length the Time for 20 Oscillation
pendulum T= 2
Obs of L/T
t/20 2
no. string cm/s
sec
‘l’ cm L= (l+h+r) Mean
t1 sec t2 sec
cm ‘t’ sec

1 80 83.013 36 35.8 35.9 1.7 24.83

2 90 93.013 38 38 38 1.9 24.93
3 100 103.013 40 40 40 2 25

Result: Length of seconds pendulum, Ls = 99.68cm

Factors affecting the rate of loss
of heat of liquids
Aim : - To study the factors affecting the rate of loss of heat of a liquid.

Apparatus : - Two Caloriemeter A & B different areas of cross section , Thermometers, stands,
hot water, stopwatch, etc

Diagram: -

Observations: -

LC of the Thermometer = 0.5 deg C

LC of the stopwatch = 0.5 sec

Calorimeter A(Small Surface area) Calorimeter B (Large surface area)

 Temperature (deg Temperature (deg
Time (min) Time (min)
Celcius) Celcius)

0 72 0 72

1 71 1 69

2 70 2 67

3 69 3 66

4 68 4 64

5 67.5 5 63

6 66.5 6 62

7 66 7 60.5

8 64.5 8 59.5

9 64 9 59

10 63.5 10 58

11 63.5 11 57.5

12 63 12 57

13 62.5 13 56.5

14 62 14 56

Graphs
Conclusion : -

The Calorimeter having Greater surface area cools quickly as compared to the calorimeter
having smaller surface area
1
Household circuit
1
 Use of Multimeter
Aim : - Use the multimeter to check the working of various components.

Apparatus : - A digital multimeter , Transistors (pnp and npn), Diode, LED.

Diagram:-

Observations : -

Forward bias Reverse Bias

Transistor Types of Transistor
CB BE CB BE

BC 547 0.540 0.538 - - NPN

BC 557 - - 0.539 0.544 PNP

Result : -

1) Transistor 1 is NPN type

2) Transistor 2 is of PNP type
3) The Diode is a PN junction diode type.

Calculations : -

Base and the type of the transistors are identified

working of the PN junction diode is checked
 Light Dependent Resistor
Aim : - To study the effect of intensity of light on a LDR .

Apparatus : - An LDR, Multimeter , source of light (torch), scale.

Diagram

Obsservation
 Resistance Rl
Distance d cm d^2 (cm^2) 1/d^2 (cm^-2)
(kohms)

30 900 0.0011 3.76

27 729 0.0013 3.36

24 576 0.0017 3

21 441 0.0023 2.55

18 234 0.0031 2.06

15 225 0.0044 1.66

12 144 0.0069 1.35

9 81 0.0123 1

6 36 0.0277 0.71

3 9 0.1111 0.45

Graph
Conclusion

AS the distance between LDR and source of light increases the resistance of LDR increases

Resistance is inversely proportional to the distance squared, showing exponential decrease.