Russia

Russia is the largest country in the world, spanning Europe and Asia. It has a rich history of
monarchy, communism and modern governance.

- Its political structure has evolved through revolutions and reforms.

Political Development

15th Century: The Rise of the Russian State

- Russia is under the control of the Mongolians.

16th Century: Expansion and the First Tsar

- Ivan the Terrible, first emperor of Russia, Marked with Territorial Expansion. He used a
secret Police Force (Toric Mina) to eliminate the enemies, because they’ve experienced
wrong doings.

17th – 18th Century: Westernization and Modernization

- He tried to modernize Russia by using European Economic Reforms.

19th Century: Attempts at Reform but Continued Inequality

- Russia remained a Feudal state, with serves and peasants that is tied with their owners.
He tried to remove the peasants.

Early 20th Century: Revolutions of 1917 and The Fall of the Tsar

- 1905 (People Demanded for Reforms) People felt the need to have the reforms. But the
Tsar failed to revolutionize Russia and failed politically and economically.

1922-1991: Soviet Union (USSR) and Communism

- Under the leadership of Joseph Sallen

- USSR has strong influence, military expansion, but is highlighted with inequalities. But
has the fundamental reason of fall which is Economic stagnation and the Great
Depression.

1991-Present: The Russian Federation and Putin’s Era

- Vladimir Putin restored the stability and power of Russia. Though he has been criticized,
due to oppression, strong but controversial country.
Russia Today

- Strong Central Government. Major Global Influence. Economic and Political Changes.
Because whenever they tried to democratize, it could weaken the system and the
country. Western type of democracy is instable.

Political Culture

- Russia’s political culture remains influenced by its authoritarian past. Nostalgia for past-
leadership particularly Soviet-era governance.

Authoritarian Tradition

- Russia has a long history of authoritarian rule.

- Limited Democratic experiences post-1991. Where, Political power remains centralized
authority comes from experiences with strong state control.
- “Strong Leaders is needed to compose the country’s stability”

Closed Politics

- Russia lacks political transparency. Limited political opposition and media freedom.
Governance decisions are often made behind closed doors.
- No to Activism !!

The Collective Society

- Collectivism rather than Individualism

- - Russian society emphasizes this because they prioritize the community and the state
plays a major role in economic and social welfare.

Fear of Chaos

- Russian history is marked by instability and upheaval

- The public prefers strong governance to prevent disorder.
- Fear of political collapse influences support for authoritarianism.

Political System

- Russia used to have a one-party system under communist party.

- All real power was focused on the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), which
was run by an elite that made all policy. But the current is “Communist Party of the
Russian Federation” (CPRF)
- Mikhail Gorbachev tried to make the system of Russia to be more democratic and
efficient, but he lost control before completing these reforms.
 - He introduced policies of openness and restructuring aimed at democratizing the
political system and decentralizing the economy.

The Constitution

- The soviet union’s collapse left Russia with the 1978 constitution of the Russian
Republic.
- However, the constitution did not clearly define the relationship between the executive
and legislative creating tension and uncertainty about who held power in the
government
- In Dec 1993, Russia held elections for its newly reformed government where people
voted on a new constitution
- The new system created a Federal Government, in which power is shared between an
elected and powerful executive president, the Russian government, a bicameral federal
assembly, a complex high court system

The Executive (Super Presidency)

- The power to issue edicts, the power of appointment, the power to call elections, the
power to veto and Martial Law and a state of emergency.
- President (has power), Prime Minister (symbolic)

The Legislature (No real power)

- Presidium (appointed by the communist party to take account of the legislature)

The Supreme Soviet was replaced with a new system: CONGRESS OF PEOPLE’S DEPUTIES
(larger and has three chambers)

BUT THIS SYSTEM FAIL !!

- The president Yeltsin and the parliament constantly clashed. The system was unstable
and led to a constitutional crisis in 1993

Two chambers of the Russia’s new constitution

1. State Duma (Lower House)

- Elected by Russian citizens every five years.
- The state duma is the lower chamber of Russia’s federal assembly and the main
lawmaking bod of the country.

The duma must approve or reject key government appointments:

1. The president selects the prime minister, but the Duma must confirm the choice.
 2. The duma approves all ministers except for Defense, Foreign Affairs and Internal Affairs.
3. Yes

Federation Council (Upper House)

- The federation council is the upper chamber of Russia’s federal assembly.

Another change came in 2000

- Putin wanted to reduce the power of regional leaders, who had gained too much
influence.
- Instead, Full-time representatives were appointed by: Regional Legislatures. Regional
executives
- The President gained the power to appoint members of the Federation Council, subject
to approval by local legislatures.
- This gave Putin even more control over the upper chamber.

It represents:

1. Reviewing Laws from the State Duma

2. Confirming Presidential Appointments
3. Approving Presidential Emergency Power
4. Scheduling Presidential Elections
5. Impeaching the President

Judiciary

- The constitutional court of Russia is responsible for ensuring that laws and government
actions to comply with the constitution
- It resolves disputes between government bodies, interprets constitutional laws, and
ensures that both the legislative and executive branches follow legal principles.
- The court struggled to establish its authority due to the lack of a legitimate constitution,
especially during conflicts between Yeltsin and the legislature.

Russia (Election and Parties)

Soviet rule to a multi-party system

- The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 led to Russia’s transition to a formally democratic
system.
- Yeltsin’s government attempted to establish democracy, but the transition was unstable.
 - Vladimir Putin’s administration saw a shift toward Authoritarian control, limiting
opposition parties and centralizing power.

Significance of Elections in Russia’s Political Landscape

- Elections serve to maintain legitimacy, though they are often criticized for being
manipulated.
- Despite constitutional provisions for democracy, elections in Russia are not fully free and
fair, according to international observers.
- Political opposition is often suppressed through legal and administrative measures.

Electoral System

- Russia’s president is elected through a two-round system

- A candidate must secure an absolute majority in the first round to win outright.
- If no candidate receives a majority, the top two contenders proceed to a runoff
election.

Legislative elections

- The state duma consists of 450 deputies, elected every five years.
- 225 seats are filled through proportional representation (PR), while the remaining 225
seats are elected through a single-member district (SMD’s)

Changes and Impact

- The abolition and later reinstatement of gubernatorial elections allowed Putin to control
regional leaders.
- Opposition parties struggle to compete due to restrictive election laws.
- State control over media and campaign financing favors United Russia.

What are the systems used?

- Legislative – It uses a mixed system which is PR and single-member districts

- Lower House, State Duma (PR)
- Federation Council, Upper House (Not directly elected, appointed)

Proportional Representation (party voting)

- Close list and open list

- Open list – people decide who to elect (party-list system)
- Close list – allocated list already in order
The number of seats depends on the number of votes

Purpose: To indicate how much the overall population is in need of the representation. To
legitimize how much advocacy is in need of the people.

Single-member district

- Branched to the First-past-the-post, Winner-takes-all and is based on plurality

- If they lose in a single-member district, they might still win enough votes to be elected
under PR.
- Direct representation of the district

Political Parties

Left-wing Anti-reformist Parties

Communist Party of the Russian Federation (KPRF)

- Largest opposition party, appeals to older voters nostalgic for the Soviet era.
- Supports state control of the economy and opposes Pro-western policies.

Yabloko

- A pro-democracy, liberal party advocating human rights and free markets.

- Weak electoral performance due to media restrictions and vote-rigging.

United Russia (Ruling party)

- Founded in 2001, consistently wins majorities in elections.

- Heavily supported by state-controlled media and government resources
- Represents conservatism, nationalism and strong presidential power.

Russian Policymaking

Policy making under the USSR:

- The communist party (CPSU) held absolute power, dictating all policy decisions.
- A centralized, bureaucratic system implemented policies, emphasizing control from the
top.
- Rapid industrialization was a key policy goal, often at the expense of other sectors.

Soviet Economic Policies

- Gorbachev attempted reforms easing restrictions on businesses, promoting small private

enterprises, and initiating a 500-day plan to transition to a market economy. However,
 his reforms were too late and too limited, leading to economic hardships for citizens. His
reform became a catalyst for the downfall of the USSR.

Policy making in Post-Soviet Russia:

- After the collapse of the USSR, there was an internal power conflict between the
executive and legislative which under Yeltsin and Putin, the executive gained dominance,
one factor for this is the influence of the executive towards the lower house of the
legislative (state duma).

After the dismantling of the USSR, the first Russian president tried to accelerate economic
reforms through the “Shock Therapy”, which included lifting price controls, cutting military
spending and pushing privatization.

There were failures of the shock therapy led to the following problems:

- Inflation and Currency Crisis

- Decline in industrial output
- Challenge in making Russia more self-sufficient and competitive in the global market
- Dealing with decaying infrastructure
- Poverty and income gap
- Growing crime
- Corruption

Under USSR:

- During the Cold War, soviet foreign policy was dominated by competition with the
United States. Creating a buffer zone in eastern Europe and engaging in proxy conflicts in
Africa and Asia. The USSR maintained a large military and nuclear arsenal but suffered
from insecurity due to its vast and difficult-to-end geography.

Economic Alliance and Military Alliance

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968)

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (Salt I, 1972)

Salt II (Late 1970’s)

Gorbachev’s “New Thinking”

- Gorbachev’s “new thinking” in foreign policy sought to improve relations with the west.
- This involved reduction agreements and a less confrontational approach.
 - Gorbachev also renounced intervention in eastern Europe, leading to the collapse of
communist regimes.

Yeltsin’s “Russia First” Policy

- He prioritized domestic stability and economic reform. He sought foreign investment and
cooperation with the west
- Yeltsin frequently met with Clinton, seeking economic assistance and improved relations.
However, these interactions were primarily transactional, with Russia aiming to attract
foreign investment and aid.
- Russia retained the soviet seat on the un security council, giving it a voice in
international matters, but its foreign policy was more pragmatic and less ambitious.

Putin’s era: Reasserting Russia (Constitutional Authority)

- Under Putin, Russia began reasserting itself globally, expressing skepticism toward NATO
expansion into eastern Europe, but ultimately finding itself with limited influence to
prevent it. Relations with the west saw some improvement after 9/11, but tensions
remained.
- Putin also aimed to strengthen ties with Europe, his motivations are:
1. Counterterrorism: His own struggle with Islamic insurgents in Chechnya aligned with the
US Anti-terrorism agenda.
2. Economic strategy: A modern and stable Russia needed western investment and
support, prompting Putin to adopt a more cooperative approach.

Russian Politics in Transition:

From Empire to Nation State

- The Soviet Union was a superpower empire with 15 republics and a sphere of influence
extending through eastern Europe via the Warshaw pact.
- Its collapse left Russia as a much-reduced nation, both geographically and politically,
leading to a profound sense of lost prestige and national identity crisis.

From One-party rule to Liberal Democracy

From Command Economy to Free Market

Conclusion:

- Russia has followed a complex path from the Soviet Union to the Russian Federation
- Its political system exhibits a mix of authoritarianism, nationalism and selective
democracy
 - Russia remains a strategically important and often unpredictable actor on the world
stage.

Electoral College

- Heavily based on location and number of regions would vote for a specific candidate.

What is the difference between PR and SMD in Russia?

- The state duma (lower house of parliament) is elected using a mixed electoral system,
which includes both proportional representation and single-member district.

PR

- Political parties receive seats based on the percentage of votes they get nationwide.
- If a party gets 30% of the national vote, it gets roughly 30% of the seats.
- A 5% threshold exists, meaning only parties with at least 5% of the vote can enter the
duma.

Who voters choose? A political party

SMD’s

- Russia is divided into 225 electoral districts.

- In each district. Voters choose one candidate, and the candidate with the most votes
(plurality) wins.
- This is a “winner-takes-all” system.

Who voters choose? An individual candidate

So, PR is better for political diversity, while SMD favors dominant parties and regional control.