ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER
SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Tanish Paruchuri for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from

left to right
1. Data Representation Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4
+ 2 = 238
1.1. Number Systems
Converting Denary to Binary
Binary System
Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a
Base 2 number system
table like follows:
It has two possible values only (0 and 1)
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON
2 142
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the
2 71 Remainder: 0
MSB (Most Significant Bit)
2 35 Remainder: 1
Denary System 2 17 Remainder: 1
2 8 Remainder: 1
Base 10 number system
2 4 Remainder: 0
Has values from 0 to 9
2 2 Remainder: 0
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 2 1 Remainder: 0
0 Remainder: 1
Base 16 number system
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, which divided by the previous value of the current number and 1
is F is added to the remainder column for that specific
number
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value
When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
0000 0 0 bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case, it
0001 1 1 is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0010 2 2
0011 3 3 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
0100 4 4 Separate each value from each other and convert them to
0101 5 5 denary
0110 6 6 Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
0111 7 7 All the binary values to be merged together
e.g.
1000 8 8
1001 9 9 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
1010 A 10 Denary : 2 1 15 13
1011 B 11 Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101

1100 C 12
Final Answer: 0010000111111101
1101 D 13
1110 E 14 Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
1111 F 15
Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
1.2. Number Conversions until it reaches 4
For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
Converting Binary to Denary and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the power A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
of the number of values from the right starting from 0.
After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table like this: order to get the final answer

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101

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(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is

After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101 overflow.

After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13 iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD Logical Shifts

The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left

Converting Hexadecimal to Denary
or the right
Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit being
convert the final answer to denary emptied is going to become 0

Converting Denary to Hexadecimal Explanation with Example

Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
hexadecimal as explained above 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
1.3. Binary Calculations have been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
Binary values are not added the way denary values are
direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two
in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
because it doesn’t exist in binary.
marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)

Points to Note: Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)

0+0=0
Two’s complement is a method used to represent
1+0/0+1=1
negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry)
range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127

Overflow Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement

When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit
Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one from
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the
the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at the
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is
third position from the right.
called overflow.
Now, switch every value to the left of the first one located
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough
above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in our
space to store the answer to the addition done in the
example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
previous part.
complement of itself.

Steps to add Two Values (With Example) Converting negative values to two complement
The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the
Convert the binary value to two’s complement
left-hand side to match them).
Make the MSB 1, if not already
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
2. Add the values as follows with the points given
Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
above
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted
Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8 e.g.,
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 for 1011101,0 we do the:
Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
OVERFLOW -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values, we -128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70
use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System

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Examples: The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.

Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) multiple languages and more data.
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that To represent text in binary, a computer uses a character
uniquely identifies a device on a network) set, a collection of characters and the corresponding
Assembly languages and machine code binary codes that represent them.
Memory Dumps
Debugging (method to find errors in a program) Sound
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory
location of the error) Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses form, it is sampled
The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
Memory Dumps
where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
when trying to trace errors.
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output How is Sound Recorded
to a printer or monitor.
The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at set
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages) time intervals
The value is converted to digital form
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and series of binary digits
less error-prone than binary. A series of readings gives an approximate representation
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in of the sound wave
values and is prone to errors.
Sampling Resolution:
1.5. Text, Sound and Images
The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
resolution (aka bit depth)
ASCII
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the accuracy
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit of the sampled sound as more detail is stored about the
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters amplitude of the sound.
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
codes memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII store the data.
values
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1. Sampling Rate
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)
The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
follows:
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound
as fewer estimations will be done between samples.
0 is at 48
A is at 65 Images
a is at 97
Bitmap Images
ASCII uses one byte to store the value
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to Bitmap images are made up of pixels
binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a binary numbers
character, and the rest remains the same. e.g.
Colour Depth

The number of bits representing each colour is called the

colour depth.
Unicode An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one of
256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256)
ASCII does not contain all of the international languages A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one
thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done as

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the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1 being The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
black) (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file when seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would then
storing an image. multiply the result by two.)

Image Resolution 1.7. File Types

Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that make
Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
up an image; for example, an image could contain 4096 ×
3072 pixels. Storage of music files
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail than A communications protocol that allows electronic musical
those with a higher resolution. instruments to interact with each other
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having a Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known as Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
being pixelated. Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as The first byte is the status byte – which informs the
compared to low-resolution ones. MIDI device what function to perform
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
1.6. Measurement of the Size of (operates on 16 different channels)
Examples of MIDI commands:
Computer Memories Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT (loudness of music)
8 bits is a byte It needs a lot of memory storage
4 bits is a nibble
Byte is used to measure memory size MP3

IECB System (Most Common) It uses technology known as Audio Compression to

convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format
Name of memory No. of This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%
Equivalent Denary Value Done using file compression algorithms, which use
size Bytes
Perceptual Music Shaping
1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear
1 mibibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes properly
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the
1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes
quality, too much
1 tibibyte (1TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes CD files are converted using File Compression Software
1 125 899 906 842 624 Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the
1 pibibyte (1PiB) 250 compression algorithm
bytes

MP4
Conventional System
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather
Name of memory No. of than just sound
Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored
1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes Videos could be streamed without losing any real
discernible quality
1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file sizes
1 000 000 000 000 000 Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
1 petabyte (1PB) 1015 bytes pixels per centimetre
When a photographic file undergoes compression, file
size is reduced
Calculation of File Size
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
between 5 and 15
The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
(in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)

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Size of the packet

1.8. Lossless and Lossy File
Payload
Compression Contains the actual data
Trailer
Lossless File Compression Includes a method of identifying the end of the
packet
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed Error-Checking methods
again when the file is uncompressed. Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where the
Important for files where the loss of data would be data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are then sent
disastrous (spreadsheet) independently from start to end and reassembled at the
An algorithm is used to compress data receiver’s computer.
No data is lost
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes Advantages Disadvantages
There is no need to create a
Run-Length Encoding Packets may be lost
single line of communication
Possible to overcome failed or More prone to errors in real-
It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
busy nodes time streaming
(e.g. repeated colours in an image)
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first Delay at the receiver while
value represents the number of identical data items (e.g. High data transmission speed the packets are being re-
characters), and the second value represents the code of ordered
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard Easy to expand package
character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04 usage
98 02 99 05 100.”
RLE is only effective where there is a long run of repeated Data Transmission
units/bits
One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g., computer to printer)
255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but not
every repeating value, e.g. our previous example at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie)
becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100 Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions
where 255 now indicates that the next character/set of simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone
characters is approaching line)
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
Lossy File Compression time over a single wire
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.
data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats.
It is impossible to get the original file back once it is Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data Transmission
compressed
Reduces file quality Serial Parallel
In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are Better for longer distances Better for short distances
reduced. (Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)
Expensive (More hardware
Cheaper Option
2. Data Transmission required)
Used when the size of data Used when speed is
transmitted is small necessary
2.1. Types and Methods of Data
Slower Option Faster than Serial
Transmission
Data Packets
2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
Packet Structure -
USB consists of:
Header
Four-wire shielded cable
Contains the IP address of the sender and the
Two wires are used for power and earth
receiver
Two wires are used in data transmission
The sequence number of the packet

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Advantages Disadvantages request is made to re-send the data.

Transmission rate is less than
Automatically detected Echo Check
120 MB/sec
Only fit one way, prevents Maximum cable length is Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
incorrect connections about 5 metres data back to the sender for verification.
Different data transmission The sender would compare the received and original data
rates for errors.
Backwards compatible The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
Industry-standard occurred when sending the data or sending the data back
for verification.

2.3. Methods of Error Detection Check Digits

Parity Checks Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte the code.
Type Types - These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
Even - Even number of 1-bits 6372 typed as 6379
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits 8432 typed as 842
Example (Even Parity) -
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number of user received the data
1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even. The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
Limitations with Parity Checks are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
Two bits may change during transmission; therefore error sender. However, if errors are found, a negative
is not found acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, the again.
bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement.
Parity Blocks If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout,
the data will be sent again to the receiver.
To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks
would be used.
2.4. Encryption
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
other attackers.

Plaintext and Ciphertext

Plaintext is the original data that is being sent

Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption

Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
and columns
Symmetric Encryption:
Checksum It uses an encryption key for the encryption process;
the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting
Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender the data.
would calculate the checksum value using a specific Asymmetric Encryption:
algorithm. Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data available to the user.
and the same algorithm used before. The receiver would have the private key, and they
The receiver would then compare the value received and would send the public key to the sender. The sender
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A

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can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
data can be decrypted using the private key.

3. Hardware
3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
Neumann Architecture
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
computer systems

The CPU consists of the following architecture: The Fetch-Execute Cycle

Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and 1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be
Logic Unit (ALU) fetched
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of the 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
memory, processor and input/output devices 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like temporarily
calculations 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce timing 5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
signals on the control bus the next instruction to be fetched
6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
Busses: Carry data through components. The following are its
types.
Stored Program Concept
Address bus – unidirectional
Data Bus – bi-directional Instructions are stored in the main memory
Control Bus – bi-directional Instructions are fetched, decoded and executed by
the processor
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
be processed, which are fetched by the CPU
Memory Concept
The following registers also exist in the architecture:
A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
REGISTER ABBREVIATION FUNCTION partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.
Stores the instruction the
Current instruction
CIR CPU is currently decoding MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
register
or executing 10101010 01010110
Stores the Address of the
Memory address
MAR instruction, copy it, and Instruction Set:
register
sends it to MDR An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU can
Stores the Data from the process, and the commands are machine code
address received from the
MDR Memory data register
MAR and sends data to 3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock
CIR
Stores the address of the System’s Clock
PC Program counter next instruction to be
fetched from memory The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the
During calculations, data
ACC Accumulator computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t
is temporarily held in it
mean that the computer's performance is increased,
however.

Overclocking

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Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
for. dimensional image
It leads to multiple issues. Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
magnetic, white light)
Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided
would frequently crash and become unstable) Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU model

Length of Data Buses Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of the Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
computer represent the passport pages
Text can be stored in ASCII format
Cache The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
stored as jpeg image
Cache memory is located within the CPU itself The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
-- allows faster access to the CPU camera and compared to using face recognition software
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to be Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
accessed faster, which improves CPU performance eyes, width of nose)
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU
performance Barcode readers/scanners

A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of

Cores
varying thicknesses
The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
performance series of lines
The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate
But if any number of cores are used, it could possibly slow using guard bars
down the system performance as the communication Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
between each core increases, and so do the data cables The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
between each. Which in turn reduces the potential system Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect
performance. little light, which allows the bars to be read
You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
septa or octa cores. The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital

Quick Response (QR) Codes

3.3. Input Devices
Another type of barcode is the QR codes
Two-dimensional Scanners: Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
background
Used to input hard-copy documents Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
The image is converted into an electronic form, which can Advantages of QR codes:
be stored in the computer
No need for the user to write down the website
The document is placed on a glass panel address
A bright light illuminates the document QR codes can store website addresses
A scan head moves across the document until the
whole page is scanned. An image of the document is Digital Cameras
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors
The lens focuses on the document image It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled shutter speed, focuses the image, etc.
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated Photo is captured when light passes through the lens onto
circuits a light sensitive cell
The software produces a digital image in the The cell is made up of pixels
electronic form The number of pixels determines the size of the file
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
Keyboards
converts scanned documents into a text file format
If the original document was a photo/image, then the Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG wireless connection
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
Three-dimensional Scanners
digital signal

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Slow method Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible

Prone to errors infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, it
changes the amount of infrared light reaching the
Pointing devices detector.
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat
Mouse/trackball
emitted by any object.
Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement
level.
Microphones Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that
generate electric current based on light brightness.
Used to input sound to a computer Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm magnetic field.
vibrates, producing an electric signal Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into content wherever this sensor has been installed.
digital values and stored in a computer pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity.
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied
digital Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects
around the sensor
Touchscreens
Temperature - These sensors measure the
Capacitive (medium cost tech) temperature of the environment.
Made up of many layers of glass (Note: You do not need to know the working principle of
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.)
When the top layer of glass is touched, electric current
Control of Street Lighting­­
changes
Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are The light sensor sends data to the ADC
determined by an on-board microprocessor The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor
Infra-red heat (expensive) Microprocessor samples data every minute
Use glass as the screen material If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Needs a warm object to carry an input operation Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Infra-red optical (expensive) Lamp switched on
Uses glass as screen material
Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
3.4. Output Devices
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
touched
Inkjet Printers
Resistive (inexpensive)
The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of glass Used to print one-off pictures and documents
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and Data from the document sent to the printer driver
bottom layer complete a circuit The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
microprocessor to determine where the screen was available
touched Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
memory (printer buffer)
Sensors
A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
Devices that read or measure physical properties available in the paper tray
Data needs to be converted to digital The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
values into digital Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
Sensors and their purposes: Repeated until the buffer is empty
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
converts sound to electric pulses. processor (request for more data to be sent)
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's
Laser Printers
acceleration or deceleration and motion.
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. Used to print flyers, high quality
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
gas in the environment. produce text and images
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Prints the whole page in one go
the air or any sample.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet) Two common types of light projectors:

2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the Digital Light Projector (DLP)
drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it; LCD Projector
removing the positive charge leaves negatively Projectors are used to project computer output onto
charged areas which match the text/image larger screens/interactive whiteboards
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged toner;
it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the drum Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
Uses millions of micromirrors
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to
the number of micromirrors and the way they are
produce a copy of the page
arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of the
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated
image
rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent
When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from
are on
the drum, ready to print on the next page
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
3D Printers they are off
This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
Used for models of cars A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
Produce solid objects that work on its way to the DLP chip
Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic White light splits into primary colours
powder
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD) LCD Projectors

2D and 3D Cutters Older technology than DLP

A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different
wavelengths
Actuators When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue
The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical
These three different lights pass through three LCD
processes.
screens; these screens show the image to be projected as
Used in many control applications involving sensors and
millions of pixels in grayscale
devices (ADC and DAC)
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens,
Loudspeakers/Headphones a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a the screen
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from
the loudspeaker
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at different frequencies

LCD and LED Monitors

The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid Crystal

Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in threes as
pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
because:
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL has
a yellow tint 3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
LEDs improve the colour image
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL Primary vs. Secondary Storage
LEDs consume very little power
The CPU directly accesses primary storage
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
The CPU does not directly access secondary storage
CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples
which supplies the light source
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some
Light Projectors: examples

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Primary Memory: Features of ROM

Random Access Memory (RAM) Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
even when ROM is turned off)
RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and Used to store start-up instructions (basic input/output
access data that is actively being used or processed by systems)
the user immediately. Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
Features of RAM cannot be changed
Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
turned off) Secondary Storage:
Used to store; data, files Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
It can be written to or read from, and the contents of
the memory can be changed Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer of the disks (platter)
will operate A number of read/write heads can access all of the
RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run slow surfaces of the disk
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with store the data
new data Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
RAM is of two types: HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM

DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM) Solid-State Drive (SSD)

There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the

same time (not like HDD)
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
Non-volatile rewritable memory
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer More reliable (no moving parts)
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
Virtual memory Lower power consumption
Run much cooler than HDDs
When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with Very thin
memory management; thus, the system has a high Data access is faster than HDD
chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes into Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
the picture.
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these Off-Line Storage:
storages are discussed below) CD/DVD Disks

Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the

surface of the disk.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
capacity (two individual recording layers)

Blu-ray Disks

Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations

The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD
You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above. (stores up to five times more data than DVD)
The main advantages of virtual memory are Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent
They can be larger than the physical memory provided piracy and copyright infringement)
in the RAM. Used as backup systems
Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could be
expensive USB Flash Memories
The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused
data. Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files
Small back-up devices for photo, music
Read Only Memory (ROM) Solid state, so needs to be treated with care

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Cloud Storage: Advantages Disadvantages

The interface can be
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is Low cost to make
confusing sometimes
stored on remote servers
The same data is stored on more than one server in case Troubleshooting is a
Requires very little power
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data specialist’s job
at any time. This is known as data redundancy. Often thrown away as difficult
Very fast reaction to changing
to upgrade and faults are
The following are its types: input
harder to find
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the Increased garbage as they
Dedicated to one task only
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different are thrown away
companies Any computerised system is
Can be controlled remotely
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated prone to attacks
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as Applications of Embedded devices
a single entity GPS systems
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above Security Systems
environments; some data resides in the private cloud, and Vending Machines
less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from Washing Machines
a public cloud storage provider Oven
Microwave

3.7. Network Hardware

Network Interface Card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to

connect to a network (such as the Internet).
3.6. Embedded System
Media Access Control (MAC)
A combination of hardware and software is designed to
A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six
carry out a specific set of tasks.
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the
Embedded systems may contain -
manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
serial number.
peripherals on one single chip
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only These do not change and are primarily constant for every
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O ports, device
storage and memory there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
Process of Embedded Devices - Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor Administered MAC Address (LAA)
(ADC needed if the data is analogue)
Data from the user interface is also sent to the The only difference between the two types is that UAA is
microprocessor made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the
The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators opposite for LAA.
which are the output
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they IP Addresses
need a software update.
Programmable devices have two methods of updating IP address allocation:
Connecting the device to a computer and downloading The network allocates IP addresses.
the update Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic.
Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi Static IP addresses:
link Assigned manually to a device.
Does not change over time.
Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded systems Dynamic IP addresses:
Advantages Disadvantages Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host
Small in size, therefore can Configuration Protocol) server.
Can be difficult to upgrade
easily fit into devices

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Changes periodically or when the device connects to a

different network. 4. # Operating Systems
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
Widely used protocol. Operating Systems are designed to establish
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers separated communication between the user and the computer
by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1). Functions of a typical operating system -
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. -managing files
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): – handling interrupts
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4. – providing an interface
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers separated – managing peripherals and drivers
by colons (e.g., – managing memory
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). – managing multitasking
Provides an extremely large number of unique – providing a platform for running applications
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion). – providing system security
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6: – managing user accounts
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
uses a 128-bit address.
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 billion Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI
addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340
undecillion addresses.
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration.

Routers

Router functionality:
A router is a networking device that directs data
packets between different networks.
It determines the most efficient path for data
transmission.
Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
A router examines the destination IP address of Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
incoming data packets. Second Edition (Hodder Education)
It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or the
next router on the path to the destination. Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the
The router forwards the data packet to the HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
appropriate next hop. Security Management - Providing security features such
Router's role in IP address assignment: as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
devices on a local network. File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting,
It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a Renaming, and many more functions
predefined range to connected devices. Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration with each of the processes
and simplifies network management. Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
Connecting a local network to the Internet: users to customise their accounts individually.
A router serves as the gateway between a local
network and the internet. 4.1. Running of Applications
It connects the local network to an internet service
The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)
provider (ISP) network.
through the bootstrap loader.
The router receives data packets from devices on the
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
local network and forwards them to the internet.
the location of the OS in the storage.
It also receives incoming data packets from the
internet and routes them to the appropriate devices BIOS is often referred to as the firmware
on the local network.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Translators
Compiler

Translates a program written in a high-level language into

machine code
Used without compiler
Executable file of machine code produced
One high-level language translated into several machine
code instructions
Interrupts
Used for general use
Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s
Interpreter
doing and service a task
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis Executes a high-language program a statement at a time
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt No executable file of machine code produced
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it One high-level language program statement may require
Different interrupts have different levels of priority several machine code instructions to be executed.
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process Interpreted programs cannot be used without an
continues interpreter
Used when the program is being developed
4.2. Programming Languages, Assembler
Translators and IDEs
Translates a low-level language program into machine
Computers can only understand machine code; therefore, code
translators are needed Executable file of machine code produced
One low-level language translated into one machine code
High-Level Languages instructions
It can be used without an assembler
It is easier to read and understand as the language is Used for general use
closer to human language.
Easier to write in a shorter time Compiler Interpreter Assembler
Easier to debug at the development stage Executes a high-
Easier to maintain once in use Translates a high- Translates a low-
level language
level language level assembly
Low-Level Languages program one
program into language program
statement at a
machine code. into machine code.
Refer to machine code time.
Binary instructions that the computer understands An executable file No executable file An executable file
of machine code is of machine code is of machine code is
produced. produced. produced.
One high-level
One high-level One low-level
language program
language language
statement may
statement can be statement is usually
require several
translated into translated into one
machine code
several machine machine code
instructions to be
code instructions. instruction.
executed.

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Interpreted Assembled

Compiled programs
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
programs cannot programs are used
are run without the
Assembly Language be run without the without the
compiler.
interpreter. assembler.
Few programmers use assembly language to - A compiled An interpreter is An assembled
Make use of special hardware program is usually often used when a program is usually
Write code that doesn’t take up much space distributed for program is being distributed for
Write code that runs very quickly general use. developed. general use.
Assembly language must be translated into machine
code using an assembler to run.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer program loading and running, and security management,
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) making computers more user-friendly.
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) controls computer resources by carrying out specific
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
An IDE would usually have these features - management, and security.
Code Editor
Translator Application Software:
Debugger
Error Reports Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction documents, including creating, editing, and formatting
Auto-Documenter text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
Pretty Printing importing images.
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
4.3. Types of Software and Interrupts using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, with
each cell identified using a unique combination of
columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
Types of Software
produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility calculations.
programs and device drivers Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
processor, etc. hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query and
report on data and add, delete, and modify records in a
System Software: table.
Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
these are a set of programs which control and manage interface with sensors and allow a computer or
the operations of hardware microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
gives a platform for other software to run control applications by comparing sensor data with stored
it is required to allow hardware and software to run data and altering process parameters accordingly.
without problems Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources from games to sophisticated software such as phone
banking. Common examples include video and music
Application Software: streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
allows a user to perform specific tasks using the users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
computer’s resources including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a suite applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
of programs (for example, Microsoft Office) transitions between clips.
user can execute the software when they require, and it is Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows the
mostly not automatic manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with bitmap
graphics editors changing pixels to produce a different
Examples image, while vector graphics editors manipulate lines,
curves, and text to alter the stored image as required.
System Software:
Interrupts
Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
tasks without re-compilation. from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler into pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt temporarily.
a single program, allowing the use of separately written Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:
code modules in the final program.
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the
communicate with a computer's operating system, microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific
without which a device like a printer would be unable to intervals.
work. Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or
Operating system: Software that manages basic printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in
computer functions such as input/output operations, the microprocessor's activities.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and movements to find the data.
address the hardware problem. When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
system's operation. A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing for
needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes faster data access and retrieval.
accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to The defragmentation process can free up previously
divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
the microprocessor to handle the issues.
Backup Software

Backup software is a utility software that helps create and

manage backup copies of data files and programs.
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
drives are good practices, but operating system backup
utilities are also recommended.
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only backup
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) files if changes have been made to them.
There could be three file versions for total security: the
4.4. Utility Software current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup
Computer users have access to utility programs as part of on cloud storage.
system software
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the Security Software
background without user input
Common utility programs include virus checkers, Security software is a utility software that manages
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
file compression and management software, backup such as virus and spyware checkers.
software, security tools, and screensavers. It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
prevent unauthorized access.
Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software Security software uses encryption and decryption to
ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a
Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for decryption key.
protecting computers from malware. It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
They should be kept up to date and run in the background and prevent malicious software from being installed.
to maintain their effectiveness. Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords
Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.
loaded and compares possible viruses against a database
of known viruses. Screensavers
Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses that
are not yet on the database. Screensavers display moving and still images on the
Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic monitor screen after computer inactivity.
deletion or for the user to decide. They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are from 'phosphor burn'.
constantly discovered. Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
Full system scans should be carried out regularly to detect device and as a part of computer security systems.
dormant viruses. They automatically log out of the user after a certain
period of inactivity.
Disk Defragmentation Software Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
virus scans and distributed computing applications.
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on
a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous Device Drivers
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
access time. Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become understood by the hardware device they are associated
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to with.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device It is software used to connect to the internet
cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised It translates the HTML code
by the operating system. ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a Offers additional features like search history & ad
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial blockers
number that allow the operating system to identify the
device. Retrieval and Location of web pages
Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
The browser sends the URL to the domain name server
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
(DNS)
computer simultaneously.
DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
IP is sent to the browser if it exists
5. The Internet and Its Uses The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

5.1. The Internet and the World Wide Cookies

Web Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer
They are used to track data about the users and autofill
Internet World Wide Web (WWW) forms or give suggestions accordingly
Uses transmission protocols Types of Cookies -
Collection of webpages and
such as TCP and IP (Internet
other information on websites
Protocols) Session Cookie Persistent Cookie
Allows the user to Remembers the user’s login
Uses HTTP(S) protocols that Temporary cookies are stored
communicate with other details so the user doesn’t
are written using Hypertext in the RAM till the browser is
users via chat, email, calling have to log in every time they
Mark-up Language (HTML) closed.
and more visit a website
Worldwide Collection of URLs (Uniform Resource Stored on the hard disk on the
Doesn’t collect any
Interconnected Networks and Locator) are used for the computer until their expiry
information on the user
Devices location of the web pages date or the user deletes them
Web browsers can access A good example is the virtual
web pages. shopping basket on e-
commerce websites.
Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)
5.2. Digital Currency
URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
typical format of URLs is - Form of payment to pay for goods and services
protocol://website address/path/file name A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal,
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more)
The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS Cryptography was later introduced due to the problem in
The website address would contain - centralised banking systems.
domain host (www) Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
domain name (website name) transactions.
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy) Blockchain Network
The path would usually become the file directory roots. for
example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science Blockchain Network
The /computer-science is the file name
Blockchain Network involves several interconnected
HTTP and HTTPS computers where the transaction data is stored
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would be
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be changed
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure without the consent of all the network members
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
How do blockchains work
data.
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The
Web Browsers block would contain -

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Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of Hacking

money and more
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block in Effect:
the chain This leads to identity theft, gaining personal
information
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted
To remove risk:
Firewalls
Strong passwords/ user IDs
Use of anti-hacking software
Difference between hacking and cracking
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
Cracking is when someone edits a program code,
malicious

Malware
The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point to
any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000) Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are -
Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the
5.3. Cyber Security intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a
computer malfunction
Brute Force Attack: Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until a
certain amount of money is paid
Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the
Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen
different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols. Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as
Effect: legitimate software
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the
cards, passwords and more) user to the attacker
To remove risk:
Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with
Use stronger passwords with more characters and the intention of corrupting the entire network instead
symbols of the computer alone
Data Interception: Phishing
This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user
wireless transmission line into giving out their information.
Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless
To remove risk:
internet connections illegally Don’t open links from unknown receivers
Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine Use anti-phishing tools
packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent Block pop-up ads
back to the attacker
Have an up-to-date browser
Effect:
It can cause a computer to crash Pharming
Can delete or corrupt files/data
To remove risk: The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
Install anti-virus software which redirects the user to fake websites
Don’t use software from unknown sources Effect:
Be careful when opening emails from unknown The user gives out login details and other personal
details
Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS) To remove risk:
Using anti-virus software
An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
network Make sure that the green padlock is present in the
Usually temporary but may be damaging URL bar
An attacker may be able to prevent the user from:
Accessing their emails Social Engineering
Accessing websites
Accessing online services Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
giving out their details (For example - Spam calls

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

informing them that their account has been hacked) Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
user’s profile
Keeping data safe from threats SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while
communicating with other users on the internet.
Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for
different people (for example - Only doctors can have
access to patient’s data) 6. Automated and Emerging
Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware attacks
Authentication - User proving who they are. The most Technologies
common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs),
biometrics and more)
6.1. Automated Systems
Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method
Automated Systems are a combination of software and
Biometric
Benefits Drawbacks hardware designed to function without human
Methods
intervention.
Most development
Intrusive as used to Process of Automated Systems
methods are very easy
identify criminals, Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the
Fingerprint to use and require
Can’t be used if the microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it
Scans very low storage has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter
finger gets dirty or
space to store the (ADC)
damaged (e.g. cuts)
biometric data.
The microprocessor processes the data and makes
With very high It is very intrusive, the necessary decisions based on its program
accuracy, it Impossible Takes longer to verify, The actions are then executed by the actuators
Retina Scan
to replicate a person’s Expensive to install (Motors, wheels and so on)
retina and set up
Can’t identify if there Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems
Face Non-intrusive method, are any changes in the Advantages Disadvantages
Recognition Relatively cheaper lighting, change in age Expensive to set up and
Faster and Safer
or person’s age. maintain
Voices can be Any changes can be identified Any computerised systems
recorded and used for quickly are prone to attacks
verification, but low Over-reliance on automated
Non-Intrusive method,
accuracy and illnesses Less Expensive in the long run systems may cause humans
Voice verification is done
such as colds or to lose skills
Recognition quickly and relatively
coughs can affect a Higher Productivity and
cheaper
person’s voice, making Efficiency
identification
impossible.
You should be able to describe the advantages and
disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of scenario.
authentication to prove who the user is Including scenarios from:
Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain
patches which improve device security industry
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong transport
spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and agriculture
the tone would also seem urgent weather
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the gaming
traffic between a network and the user’s computer lighting
Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the science
user’s computer and the web server. They are used for -
Filtering Internet traffic
6.2. Robotics
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential
Blocking access to certain websites
Robotics is the branch of computer science that combines
Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy robot design, construction and operation.
server, keeping the web server safe. Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
Acts as a firewall as well. A robot may not injure a human through action or
inaction

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A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
comes into conflict with Law 1 doing one specific task
a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with law Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
1. human in many tasks
Characteristics of a robot - Characteristics of AI -
Ability to sense their surroundings Collection of Data and Rules
Have a degree of movement Ability to Reason
Programmable Ability to learn and adapt

NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO Types of AI

REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
CHARACTERISTICS Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
Types of Robots -
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
Independent - Have no human intervention; they can
They have many applications, including chatbots,
completely replace humans
diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an
and so on
interface, can supplement but can’t completely
replace humans Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots
Advantages Disadvantages Setup and Maintenance costs
High level of Expertise
are very high
Robots can find it difficult to
Robots can work 24/7 Can only rely on the
do non-standard tasks High Accuracy and Consistent
information in the system
Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher
conditions unemployment Tend to give cold responses
High response times
sometimes
They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots
long run replace humans in some task
Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines are
They have high productivity Expensive to install and trained to learn from past experiences.
and are more consistent maintain in the short run
Robots have the risk of getting Difference Between AI and Machine Learning
hacked. AI Machine Learning
Machines are trained to make
Representation of human
6.3. Artificial Intelligence decisions without being
intelligence in machines
programmed to
AI is the branch of computer science that simulates The aim is to make machines
The aim is to build machines
intelligent human behaviour. learn through data
that think like humans
Types of AI - acquisitions
Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
human when doing one specific task

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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