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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a

1. Data Representation table like follows:
2 142
1.1. Number Systems 2
2
71
35
Remainder:
Remainder:
0
1
2 17 Remainder: 1
2 8 Remainder: 1
Binary System 2 4 Remainder: 0
2 2 Remainder: 0
2 1 Remainder: 0
Base 2 number system 0 Remainder: 1
It has two possible values only (0 and 1)
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the divided by the previous value of the current number and
MSB (Most Significant Bit) 1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
number
Denary System When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case,
Base 10 number system it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
Has values from 0 to 9
Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
Hexadecimal (aka Hex)
Separate each value from each other and convert them
Base 16 number system to denary
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, All the binary values to be merged together
which is F e.g.
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value
0000 0 0 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
0001 1 1 Denary : 2 1 15 13
0010 2 2
0011 3 3 Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
0100 4 4
0101 5 5
0110 6 6 Final Answer: 0010000111111101
0111 7 7
1000
1001
8
9
8
9
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
1010 A 10
1011
1100
B
C
11
12
Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
1101 D 13 right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
1110
1111
E
F
14
15
until it reaches 4
For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
1.2. Number Conversions hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
Converting Binary to Denary After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
order to get the final answer
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the
power of the number of values from the right starting
from 0. e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table
like this:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from

left to right
Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 +
4 + 2 = 238

Converting Denary to Binary

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Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values,
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 we use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101 (overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
overflow.
After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 11
iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1
After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13
Logical Shifts
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left
Converting Hexadecimal to Denary or the right
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit
Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then being emptied is going to become 0
convert the final answer to denary
Explanation with Example
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal
Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
hexadecimal as explained above shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
1.3. Binary Calculations have been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
Binary values are not added the way denary values are direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
because it doesn’t exist in binary. marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)

Points to Note: Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)

0+0=0 Two’s complement is a method used to represent

1+0/0+1=1 negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry) Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry) range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127

Overflow Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement

When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the from the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is the third position from the right.
called overflow. Now, switch every value to the left of the first one
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough located above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in
space to store the answer to the addition done in the our example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
previous part. complement of itself.

Steps to add Two Values (With Example) Converting negative values to two complement

The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
0 Convert the binary value to two’s complement
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the Make the MSB 1, if not already
left-hand side to match them).
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
2. Add the values as follows with the points given
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted
above
from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8
Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 e.g., for 1011101,0 we do the:
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
OVERFLOW 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

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-128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70
ASCII uses one byte to store the value
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to
1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to
0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a
Examples:
character, and the rest remains the same. e.g.
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that
uniquely identifies a device on a network)
Assembly languages and machine code
Memory Dumps Unicode
Debugging (method to find errors in a program)
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory ASCII does not contain all of the international languages
location of the error) thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
Memory Dumps Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
multiple languages and more data.
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or To represent text in binary, a computer uses a
when trying to trace errors. character set, a collection of characters and the
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output corresponding binary codes that represent them.
to a printer or monitor.
Sound
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages)
Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code form, it is sampled
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
less error-prone than binary. where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
values and is prone to errors.
How is Sound Recorded
1.5. Text, Sound and Images
The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at
ASCII set time intervals
The value is converted to digital form
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters series of binary digits
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control A series of readings gives an approximate representation
codes of the sound wave
Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII
values Sampling Resolution:
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1.
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1) The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as resolution (aka bit depth)
follows: Increasing the sampling resolution increases the
accuracy of the sampled sound as more detail is stored
0 is at 48 about the amplitude of the sound.
Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
A is at 65 memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
a is at 97 store the data.

Sampling Rate

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Name of memory size No. of Bytes Equivalent Denary Value
The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken 1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes
1 mebibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes
per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz) 1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound 1 tebibyte (1TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes
as fewer estimations will be done between samples. 1 pebibyte (1PiB) 250 1 125 899 906 842 624 bytes

Images Conventional System

Bitmap Images Name of memory size

1 kilobyte (1KB)
No. of Bytes
103
Equivalent Denary Value
1 000 bytes
1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes
Bitmap images are made up of pixels 1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of 1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
1 petabyte (1PB) 1015 1 000 000 000 000 000 bytes
binary numbers
Calculation of File Size
Colour Depth
The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
The number of bits representing each colour is called the
(in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
colour depth.
The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one
(in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
of 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256)
seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one
then multiply the result by two.)
colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done
as the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1
Sample Question:
being black)
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file find the size of bitmap image with the width 500 and height
when storing an image. 500. The color depth of this image is 24.
Image Resolution working:
Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that (500 x 500 x 24)
make up an image; for example, an image could contain = 6,000,000 bits (bit to bytes) /8 = 750,000 bytes
4096 × 3072 pixels. (bytes to KiB) /1024 = 732 KiB
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail
than those with a higher resolution. or:
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having
a low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known 24 bits = 3 bytes
as being pixelated. (500 x 500 x 3)
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as = 750,000 bytes
compared to low-resolution ones. (bytes to KiB) /1024 = 732 KiB

1.6. Measurement of the Size of 1.7. File Types

Computer Memories
Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT
8 bits is a byte
4 bits is a nibble
Byte is used to measure memory size

IECB System (Most Common)

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Storage of music files

A communications protocol that allows electronic 1.8. Lossless and Lossy File
musical instruments to interact with each other Compression
Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous) Lossless File Compression
Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
The first byte is the status byte – which informs the All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed
MIDI device what function to perform again when the file is uncompressed.
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel Important for files where the loss of data would be
(operates on 16 different channels) disastrous (spreadsheet)
Examples of MIDI commands: An algorithm is used to compress data
Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed No data is lost
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes
(loudness of music)
It needs a lot of memory storage Run-Length Encoding
MP3 It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
(e.g. repeated colours in an image)
It uses technology known as Audio Compression to
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first
convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format
value represents the number of identical data items (e.g.
This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%
characters), and the second value represents the code of
Done using file compression algorithms, which use
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
Perceptual Music Shaping
character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear
98 02 99 05 100.”
properly
RLE is only effective where there is a long run of
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the
repeated units/bits
quality, too much
One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for
CD files are converted using File Compression Software
strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the
255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before
compression algorithm
every repeating value, e.g. our previous example
MP4 becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05
100 where 255 now indicates that the next character/set
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather of characters is approaching
than just sound
Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored Lossy File Compression
Videos could be streamed without losing any real
discernible quality The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary
data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats.
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) It is impossible to get the original file back once it is
compressed
JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file
Reduces file quality
sizes
In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are
Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
reduced.
pixels per centimetre
When a photographic file undergoes compression, file
size is reduced
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
2. Data Transmission
between 5 and 15
2.1. Types and Methods of Data
Transmission
Data Packets

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Packet Structure - USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method

Header USB consists of:
Contains the IP address of the sender and the Four-wire shielded cable
receiver Two wires are used for power and earth
The sequence number of the packet Two wires are used in data transmission
Size of the packet
Advantages Disadvantages
Payload Automatically detected Transmission rate is less than 120 MB/sec
Contains the actual data Only fit one way, prevents incorrect connections Maximum cable length is about 5 metres
Different data transmission rates
Trailer Backwards compatible
Includes a method of identifying the end of the Industry-standard

packet
Error-Checking methods 2.3. Methods of Error Detection
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where
the data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are Parity Checks
then sent independently from start to end and
reassembled at the receiver’s computer. It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte
Advantages Disadvantages
Two Types -
There is no need to create a single line of Packets may be lost
Even - Even number of 1-bits
communication
Possible to overcome failed or busy nodes More prone to errors in real-time streaming Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
High data transmission speed Delay at the receiver while the packets are
being re-ordered
Example (Even Parity) -
Easy to expand package usage
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

Data Transmission The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number
Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g. of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even.
computer to printer) Limitations with Parity Checks
Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but Two bits may change during transmission; therefore
not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie) error is not found
Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors,
simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified
line)
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
Parity Blocks
time over a single wire To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1 would be used.
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.

Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data

Transmission
Serial Parallel
Better for longer distances (Telephone Lines) Better for short distances (Internal circuits)
Cheaper Option Expensive (More hardware required)
Used when the size of data transmitted is small Used when speed is necessary
Slower Option Faster than Serial
Easier to synchronise as there's only one data Difficult to synchronise due to skew between
stream. bits.

2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB) Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows
and columns

Checksum

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Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender Plaintext is the original data that is being sent
would calculate the checksum value using a specific Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption
algorithm.
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
and the same algorithm used before. Symmetric Encryption:
The receiver would then compare the value received and It uses an encryption key for the encryption process;
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting
request is made to re-send the data. the data.
Asymmetric Encryption:
Echo Check Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the available to the user.
data back to the sender for verification. The receiver would have the private key, and they
The sender would compare the received and original would send the public key to the sender. The sender
data for errors. can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error data can be decrypted using the private key.
occurred when sending the data or sending the data
back for verification.
3. Hardware
Check Digits
Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of Neumann Architecture
the code.
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as - The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
6372 typed as 6379 microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
8432 typed as 842 computer systems

Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs) The CPU consists of the following architecture:

Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and
user received the data Logic Unit (ALU)
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
the memory, processor and input/output devices
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent calculations
again. System Clock: The system clock is used to produce
timing signals on the control bus
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement. Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout, types.
the data will be sent again to the receiver.
Address bus – unidirectional
2.4. Encryption Data Bus – bi-directional
Control Bus – bi-directional
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and be processed, which are fetched by the CPU
other attackers.
The following registers also exist in the architecture:
Plaintext and Ciphertext

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REGISTER ABBREVIATION FUNCTION
Stores the instruction the CPU is currently decoding
CIR Current instruction register or executing System’s Clock
MAR Memory address register Stores the Address of the instruction, copy it, and
sends it to MDR
MDR Memory data register Stores the Data from the address received from the The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
MAR and sends data to CIR
PC Program counter Stores the address of the next instruction to be computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the
fetched from memory
ACC Accumulator During calculations, data is temporarily held in it
computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t
mean that the computer's performance is increased,
however.

Overclocking
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed
for.
It leads to multiple issues.
Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer
would frequently crash and become unstable)
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU
The Fetch-Execute Cycle Length of Data Buses
1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be The wider the data buses, the better the performance of
fetched the computer
2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
3. The instruction is fetched from the main memory Cache
(RAM) via the data bus.
4. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR Cache memory is located within the CPU itself
temporarily -- allows faster access to the CPU
5. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR -- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to
6. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to be accessed faster, which improves CPU performance
the next instruction to be fetched The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU
7. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed performance

Stored Program Concept Cores

Instructions are stored in the main memory The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by performance
the processor
Programs can be moved to and from the main memory But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down
the system performance as the communication between
Memory Concept each core increases, and so do the data cables between
each. Which in turn reduces the potential system
A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each performance.
partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g. You might have heard about quad and dual cores as well
as septa and octa cores as they are becoming
MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
10101010 01010110 increasingly common.

Instruction Set: 3.3. Input Devices

An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU
can process, and the commands are machine code Two-dimensional Scanners:

3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock

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Used to input hard-copy documents A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of
The image is converted into an electronic form, which varying thicknesses
can be stored in the computer The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
The document is placed on a glass panel series of lines
A bright light illuminates the document The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate
A scan head moves across the document until the using guard bars
whole page is scanned. An image of the document is Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
The lens focuses on the document image Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled little light, which allows the bars to be read
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
circuits The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
The software produces a digital image in the
electronic form Quick Response (QR) Codes
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which Another type of barcode is the QR codes
converts scanned documents into a text file format Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
If the original document was a photo/image, then the
background
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
Three-dimensional Scanners Advantages of QR codes:
No need for the user to write down the website
3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three- address
dimensional image QR codes can store website addresses
Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers, QR Codes are easier to use as they can be read by
magnetic, white light) phone cameras
The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided
Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working Digital Cameras
model It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the
Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport: shutter speed, focuses the image, etc.
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens
Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which onto a light sensitive cell
represent the passport pages The cell is made up of pixels
Text can be stored in ASCII format The number of pixels determines the size of the file
The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
stored as jpeg image Keyboards
The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by
camera and compared to using face recognition software wireless connection
Key parts of the face are compared (distance between Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
eyes, width of nose)
digital signal
Barcode readers/scanners Slow method
Prone to errors

Pointing devices

Mouse/trackball
Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement

Microphones

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Used to input sound to a computer Devices that read or measure physical properties
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm Data needs to be converted to digital
vibrates, producing an electric signal Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into values into digital
digital values and stored in a computer Sensors and their purposes:
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that
digital converts sound to electric pulses.
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's
Touchscreens acceleration or deceleration and motion.
Capacitive (medium cost tech) Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas.
Made up of many layers of glass Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any
gas in the environment.
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
When the top layer of glass is touched, electric Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in
current changes the air or any sample.
Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible
determined by an on-board microprocessor infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed,
it changes the amount of infrared light reaching the
Infra-red heat (expensive)
Use glass as the screen material detector.
Needs a warm object to carry an input operation Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat
Infra-red optical (expensive) emitted by any object.
Uses glass as screen material Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas
level.
Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that
touched generate electric current based on light brightness.
Resistive (inexpensive) Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in
The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of magnetic field.
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water
glass
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and content wherever this sensor has been installed.
bottom layer complete a circuit pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity.
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied
microprocessor to determine where the screen was Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects
around the sensor
touched
Temperature - These sensors measure the
Sensors temperature of the environment.
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of
the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.)

Control of Street Lighting­­

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The light sensor sends data to the ADC 1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor 2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the
Microprocessor samples data every minute drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it;
If data from sensor < value stored in memory: removing the positive charge leaves negatively
Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp charged areas which match the text/image
Lamp switched on 3. The drum is then coated with positively charged
toner; it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the
3.4. Output Devices drum
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
Inkjet Printers 5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to
produce a copy of the page
Used to print one-off pictures and documents 6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated
Data from the document sent to the printer driver rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent
The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format 7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from
Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is the drum, ready to print on the next page
available
Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary 3D Printers
memory (printer buffer) Used for models of cars
A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is Produce solid objects that work
available in the paper tray Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic
The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
powder
four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
Repeated until the buffer is empty 2D and 3D Cutters
Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
processor (request for more data to be sent) 3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction
3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood
Laser Printers
Actuators
Used to print flyers, high quality
Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical
produce text and images processes.
Prints the whole page in one go Used in many control applications involving sensors and
devices (ADC and DAC)

Loudspeakers/Headphones

Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a

DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from
the loudspeaker
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at different frequencies
LCD and LED Monitors

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The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid Older technology than DLP
Crystal Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light) This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED) coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different
because: wavelengths
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light
LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue
has a yellow tint These three different lights pass through three LCD
LEDs improve the colour image screens; these screens show the image to be projected
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL as millions of pixels in grayscale
LEDs consume very little power When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens,
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen, Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
which supplies the light source the screen

Light Projectors:

Two common types of light projectors:

Digital Light Projector (DLP)
LCD Projector
Projectors are used to project computer output onto
larger screens/interactive whiteboards

Digital Light Projectors (DLP)

Uses millions of micromirrors
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
the number of micromirrors and the way they are
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of
the image
When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they 3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
are on
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source, Primary vs. Secondary Storage
they are off
The CPU directly accesses primary storage
This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples of
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter primary storage
on its way to the DLP chip
The CPU does not directly access secondary storage
White light splits into primary colours
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some
LCD Projectors examples of secondary storage

Primary Memory:
Random Access Memory (RAM)

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RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and

access data that is actively being used or processed by
the user immediately.
Features of RAM
Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
turned off)
Used to store; data, files
It can be written to or read from, and the contents of
the memory can be changed
The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer
will operate
RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above.
slow The main advantages of virtual memory are
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the They can be larger than the physical memory
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with provided in the RAM.
new data Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could
RAM is of two types: be expensive
The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM) data.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Features of ROM
Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
even when ROM is turned off)
Used to store start-up instructions (basic
input/output systems)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) cannot be changed
Virtual memory
Secondary Storage:
When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
memory management; thus, the system has a high
chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
into the picture. of the disks (platter)
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these A number of read/write heads can access all of the
storages are discussed below) surfaces of the disk
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
store the data
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM

Solid-State Drive (SSD)

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There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the
same time (not like HDD) customer/client and cloud storage provider are different
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons companies
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated
Non-volatile rewritable memory environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD: and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate
More reliable (no moving parts) as a single entity
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops) Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above
Lower power consumption environments; some data resides in the private cloud,
Run much cooler than HDDs and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed
Very thin from a public cloud storage provider
Data access is faster than HDD
Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)

Off-Line Storage:
CD/DVD Disks

Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the

surface of the disk.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the 3.6. Embedded System
centre of the disk to the edge
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage A combination of hardware and software is designed to
capacity (two individual recording layers) carry out a specific set of tasks.
Embedded systems may contain -
Blu-ray Disks
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations peripherals on one single chip
The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only
(stores up to five times more data than DVD) System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O
Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent ports, storage and memory
piracy and copyright infringement) Process of Embedded Devices -
Used as backup systems Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor
(ADC needed if the data is analogue)
USB Flash Memories Data from the user interface is also sent to the
microprocessor
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators
Small back-up devices for photo, music which are the output
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
Cloud Storage: need a software update.
Programmable devices have two methods of updating
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is Connecting the device to a computer and
stored on remote servers downloading the update
The same data is stored on more than one server in case Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data link
at any time. This is known as data redundancy.

The following are its types:

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Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
systems IP address allocation:
Advantages Disadvantages The network allocates IP addresses.
Small in size, therefore can easily fit into
devices Can be difficult to upgrade Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic.
Low cost to make The interface can be confusing sometimes Static IP addresses:
Requires very little power Troubleshooting is a specialist’s job
Often thrown away as difficult to upgrade and
Assigned manually to a device.
Very fast reaction to changing input
Dedicated to one task only
faults are harder to find
Increased garbage as they are thrown away
Does not change over time.
Can be controlled remotely Any computerised system is prone to attacks Dynamic IP addresses:
Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host
Applications of Embedded devices Configuration Protocol) server.
GPS systems Changes periodically or when the device connects to
Security Systems a different network.
Vending Machines IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
Washing Machines Widely used protocol.
Oven Consists of four groups of decimal numbers
Microwave separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.
3.7. Network Hardware IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4.
Network Interface Card (NIC) Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers
separated by colons (e.g.,
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
connect to a network (such as the Internet). Provides an extremely large number of unique
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion).
Media Access Control (MAC) Differences between IPv4 and IPv6:
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6
A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six uses a 128-bit address.
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3
manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device billion addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340
serial number. undecillion addresses.
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated
These do not change and are primarily constant for every manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
device primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration.
there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally Routers
Administered MAC Address (LAA)

The only difference between the two types is that UAA is

made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the
opposite for LAA.

IP Addresses

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Router functionality: Operating Systems are designed to establish

A router is a networking device that directs data communication between the user and the computer
packets between different networks. Functions of a typical operating system -
It determines the most efficient path for data -managing files
transmission. – handling interrupts
Sending data to a specific destination on a network: – providing an interface
A router examines the destination IP address of – managing peripherals and drivers
incoming data packets. – managing memory
It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or – managing multitasking
the next router on the path to the destination. – providing a platform for running applications
The router forwards the data packet to the – providing system security
appropriate next hop. – managing user accounts
Router's role in IP address assignment: WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI
devices on a local network.
It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a
predefined range to connected devices.
DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration
and simplifies network management.
Connecting a local network to the Internet:
A router serves as the gateway between a local
network and the internet.
It connects the local network to an internet service
provider (ISP) network.
The router receives data packets from devices on the
local network and forwards them to the internet.
It also receives incoming data packets from the
internet and routes them to the appropriate devices Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
on the local network. Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the
3.8. Operating Systems HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
Security Management - Providing security features such
as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting,
Renaming, and many more functions
Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
with each of the processes
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
users to customise their accounts individually.

Running of Applications

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The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)

through the bootstrap loader.
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
the location of the OS in the storage.
BIOS is often referred to as the firmware

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Assembly Language

Few programmers use assembly language to -

Make use of special hardware
Interrupts Write code that doesn’t take up much space
Write code that runs very quickly
Signal that causes the microprocessor to stop what it's Assembly language must be translated into machine
doing and service the task code using an assembler to run.
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it 3.10. Translators
Different interrupts have different levels of priority
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process Compiler
continues Translates a program written in a high-level language
into machine code
3.9. Programming Languages, Used without compiler
Executable file of machine code produced
Translators and IDEs One high-level language translated into several machine
Computers can only understand machine code; code instructions
Used for general use
therefore, translators are needed
Interpreter
High-Level Languages
Executes a high-language program a statement at a time
It is easier to read and understand as the language is
closer to human language. No executable file of machine code produced
Easier to write in a shorter time One high-level language program statement may require
several machine code instructions to be executed.
Easier to debug at the development stage
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an
Easier to maintain once in use
interpreter
Low-Level Languages Used when the program is being developed

Refer to machine code Assembler

Binary instructions that the computer understands

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Translates a low-level language program into machine these are a set of programs which control and manage
code the operations of hardware
Executable file of machine code produced gives a platform for other software to run
One low-level language translated into one machine it is required to allow hardware and software to run
code instructions without problems
It can be used without an assembler provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user
Used for general use controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources
Compiler
Translates a high-level
Interpreter
Executes a high-level language
Assembler
Translates a low-level Application Software:
language program into program one statement at a assembly language program
machine code. time. into machine code.
An executable file of machine No executable file of machine An executable file of machine allows a user to perform specific tasks using the
code is produced. code is produced. code is produced.
One high-level language One high-level language One low-level language computer’s resources
statement can be translated
into several machine code
program statement may
require several machine code
statement is usually translated
into one machine code maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a
instructions. instructions to be executed.
Compiled programs are run Interpreted programs cannot
instruction.
Assembled programs are used
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office)
without the compiler. be run without the interpreter. without the assembler. user can execute the software when they require, and it
A compiled program is usually Anwhen
interpreter is often used
a program is being
An assembled program is
usually distributed for general is mostly not automatic
distributed for general use.
developed. use.

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Examples

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
System Software:
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform
An IDE would usually have these features - tasks without re-compilation.
Code Editor Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler
Translator into a single program, allowing the use of separately
Debugger written code modules in the final program.
Error Reports Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction communicate with a computer's operating system,
Auto-Documenter without which a device like a printer would be unable to
Pretty Printing work.
Operating system: Software that manages basic
4. Software computer functions such as input/output operations,
program loading and running, and security management,
making computers more user-friendly.
4.1. Types of Software and Interrupts Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and
controls computer resources by carrying out specific
Types of Software tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
management, and security.
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility
programs and device drivers Application Software:
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word
processor, etc.

System Software:

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Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the
documents, including creating, editing, and formatting microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific
text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and intervals.
importing images. Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in
using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, the microprocessor's activities.
with each cell identified using a unique combination of Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer,
columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas, signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and
produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if" address the hardware problem.
calculations. User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific
Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the
manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that system's operation.
hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files
and report on data and add, delete, and modify records needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes
in a table. accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to
Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
interface with sensors and allow a computer or the microprocessor to handle the issues.
microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
control applications by comparing sensor data with
stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.
Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
from games to sophisticated software such as phone
banking. Common examples include video and music
streaming, GPS, and camera facilities. Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
4.2. Utility Software
transitions between clips. Computer users have access to utility programs as part
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows of system software
the manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
bitmap graphics editors changing pixels to produce a background without user input
different image, while vector graphics editors manipulate Common utility programs include virus checkers,
lines, curves, and text to alter the stored image as defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools,
required. file compression and management software, backup
software, security tools, and screensavers.
Interrupts
Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt
temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:

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Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for Backup software is a utility software that helps create
protecting computers from malware. and manage backup copies of data files and programs.
They should be kept up to date and run in the Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
background to maintain their effectiveness. drives are good practices, but operating system backup
Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or utilities are also recommended.
loaded and compares possible viruses against a Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only
database of known viruses. backup files if changes have been made to them.
Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses There could be three file versions for total security: the
that are not yet on the database. current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally
Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup
deletion or for the user to decide. on cloud storage.
Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are
constantly discovered. Security Software
Full system scans should be carried out regularly to
detect dormant viruses. Security software is a utility software that manages
access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
Disk Defragmentation Software such as virus and spyware checkers.
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on prevent unauthorized access.
a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous Security software uses encryption and decryption to
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a
access time. decryption key.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to and prevent malicious software from being installed.
retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords
movements to find the data. to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to Screensavers
become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store Screensavers display moving and still images on the
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing monitor screen after computer inactivity.
for faster data access and retrieval. They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
The defragmentation process can free up previously from 'phosphor burn'.
occupied sectors and empty some tracks. Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
device and as a part of computer security systems.
Backup Software They automatically log out of the user after a certain
period of inactivity.
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
virus scans and distributed computing applications.

Device Drivers

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Device drivers translate data into a format that can be It is software used to connect to the internet
understood by the hardware device they are associated It translates the HTML code
with. ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device Offers additional features like search history & ad
cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised blockers
by the operating system.
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a Retrieval and Location of web pages
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial The browser sends the URL to the domain name server
number that allow the operating system to identify the (DNS)
device. DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two IP is sent to the browser if it exists
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
computer simultaneously. Browser interprets the HTML

5. The Internet and Its Uses Cookies

Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer
5.1. The Internet and the World Wide They are used to track data about the users and autofill
forms or give suggestions accordingly
Web Types of Cookies -
Internet World Wide Web (WWW) Session Cookie Persistent Cookie
Uses transmission protocols such as TCP and Collection of webpages and other information Remembers the user’s login details so the user
IP (Internet Protocols) on websites Temporary cookies are stored in the RAM till doesn’t have to log in every time they visit a
Allows the user to communicate with other Uses HTTP(S) protocols that are written using the browser is closed. website
users via chat, email, calling and more Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) Stored on the hard disk on the computer until
Doesn’t collect any information on the user
Worldwide Collection of Interconnected URLs (Uniform Resource Locator) are used for their expiry date or the user deletes them
Networks and Devices the location of the web pages A good example is the virtual shopping basket
Web browsers can access web pages. on e-commerce websites.

Uniform Resource Locator (URLs) 5.2. Digital Currency

URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The Form of payment to pay for goods and services
typical format of URLs is - A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal,
protocol://website address/path/file name Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more)
Cryptocurrency was later introduced due to the problem
The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS in centralised banking systems.
The website address would contain - Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
domain host (www) transactions.
domain name (website name) Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes Blockchain Network
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
The path would usually become the file directory roots. Blockchain Network
for example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science
The /computer-science is the file name Blockchain Network involves several interconnected
computers where the transaction data is stored
HTTP and HTTPS Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would
be sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS changed without the consent of all the network
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure members
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
data. How do blockchains work
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The
Web Browsers block would contain -

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Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a
money and more wireless transmission line
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block internet connections illegally
in the chain Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine
packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent
back to the attacker
Effect:
It can cause a computer to crash
Can delete or corrupt files/data
To remove risk:
Install anti-virus software
Don’t use software from unknown sources
Be careful when opening emails from unknown

Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS)

The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a
to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000) network
Usually temporary but may be damaging
5.3. Cyber Security An attacker may be able to prevent the user from:
Accessing their emails
Brute Force Attack: Accessing websites
Accessing online services
Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the
different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols. Hacking
Effect:
The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit
Effect:
cards, passwords and more)
To remove risk: This leads to identity theft, gaining personal
information
Use stronger passwords with more characters and
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted
symbols
To remove risk:
Data Interception: Firewalls
Strong passwords/ user IDs
Use of anti-hacking software
Difference between hacking and cracking
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
Cracking is when someone edits a program code,
malicious

Malware

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Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are - Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for
Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the different people (for example - Only doctors can have
intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a access to patient’s data)
computer malfunction Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware
Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until attacks
a certain amount of money is paid Authentication - User proving who they are. The most
Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs),
Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as biometrics and more)
legitimate software
Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method
Biometric
user to the attacker Methods Benefits Drawbacks

Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with Most development methods are very
Intrusive as used to identify criminals,
Fingerprint Scans easy to use and require very low Can’t be used if the finger gets dirty
the intention of corrupting the entire network instead storage space to store the biometric
data. or damaged (e.g. cuts)
of the computer alone Retina Scan With very high accuracy, it Impossible
to replicate a person’s retina
It is very intrusive, Takes longer to
verify, Expensive to install and set up
Non-intrusive method, Relatively Can’t identify if there are any changes
Phishing Face Recognition cheaper in the lighting or a person’s age or if
the person is wearing glasses
Voices can be recorded and used for
Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user Voice Recognition Non-Intrusive method, verification is verification, but low accuracy and
done quickly and relatively cheaper illnesses such as colds or coughs can
into giving out their information. affect a person’s voice, making
identification impossible.
To remove risk:
Don’t open links from unknown receivers Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of
Use anti-phishing tools authentication to prove who the user is
Block pop-up ads Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain
Have an up-to-date browser patches which improve device security
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong
Pharming spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and
The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer, the tone would also seem urgent
which redirects the user to fake websites Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the
Effect: traffic between a network and the user’s computer
The user gives out login details and other personal Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the
details user’s computer and the web server. They are used for -
To remove risk: Filtering Internet traffic
Using anti-virus software Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential
Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully Blocking access to certain websites
Make sure that the green padlock is present in the Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy
URL bar server, keeping the web server safe.
Acts as a firewall as well.
Social Engineering Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
user’s profile
Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while
giving out their details (For example - Spam calls communicating with other users on the internet.
informing them that their account has been hacked)

Keeping data safe from threats 6. Automated and Emerging

Technologies

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Robotics is the branch of computer science that

6.1. Automated Systems combines robot design, construction and operation.
Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
Automated Systems are a combination of software and A robot may not injure a human through action or
hardware designed to function without human
inaction
intervention.
A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it
Process of Automated Systems comes into conflict with Law 1
Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it either law 1 or 2.
has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter
Characteristics of a robot -
(ADC)
Ability to sense their surroundings
The microprocessor processes the data and makes Have a degree of movement
the necessary decisions based on its program Programmable
The actions are then executed by the actuators
(Motors, wheels and so on) NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO
REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems
Advantages Disadvantages
CHARACTERISTICS
Faster and Safer Expensive to set up and maintain
Any changes can be identified quickly Any computerised systems are prone to attacks Types of Robots -
Less Expensive in the long run Over-reliance on automated systems may cause
humans to lose skills Independent - Have no human intervention; they can
Higher Productivity and Efficiency completely replace humans
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an
You should be able to describe the advantages and interface, can supplement but can’t completely
disadvantages of an automated system used for a given replace humans
scenario.
Including scenarios from: Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots
Advantages Disadvantages
industry Robots can work 24/7 Robots can find it difficult to do non-standard
tasks
transport Robots can work in hazardous conditions Robots can lead to higher unemployment
Risk of deskilling as robots replace humans in
agriculture They are less expensive in the long run some task
weather They have high productivity and are more
consistent
Expensive to install and maintain in the short
run
gaming Robots have the risk of getting hacked.
lighting
science 6.3. Artificial Intelligence
6.2. Robotics AI is the branch of computer science that simulates
intelligent human behaviour.
Types of AI -
Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
human when doing one specific task
General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
doing one specific task
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
human in many tasks
Characteristics of AI -
Collection of Data and Rules
Ability to Reason
Ability to learn and adapt

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Types of AI
Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
They have many applications, including chatbots,
diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
and so on

Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems

Advantages Disadvantages
High level of Expertise Setup and Maintenance costs are very high
High Accuracy and Consistent Can only rely on the information in the system
High response times Tend to give cold responses sometimes

Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines

are trained to learn from past experiences.

Difference Between AI and Machine Learning

AI Machine Learning
Representation of human intelligence in Machines are trained to make decisions
machines without being programmed to
The aim is to build machines that think like The aim is to make machines learn through
humans data acquisitions

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Computer Science

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